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The First Italian–Abyssinian War was one of the very few instances of successful armed African resistance to European colonialism in the 19th century.

On March 25, 1889, the Shewa ruler Menelik II — having conquered Tigray and Amhara, and with the support of Italy — declared himself Emperor of Ethiopia (Abyssinia in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on May 2, he signed a treaty of amity with the Italians, which gave them control over Eritrea, the Red Sea coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule. Or so it seemed.

In fact, the bilingual Treaty of Wuchale did not say the same thing in Italian and Amharic. The former text established an Italian protectorate over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards.

Menelik repudiated the treaty in 1893, at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, culminating with a military campaign across the Mareb River into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in October 1895. The Italians expected disaffected potentates like Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, and the Sultan of Aussa to join them; instead, all of the ethnic Tigrayan or Amharic peoples flocked to the Emperor Menelik's side in a display of nationalism, while other peoples of dubious loyalty (e.g. the Sultan of Aussa), were watched by Imperial garrisons. Further, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of modern weapons and ammunition.

The first clash came at Amba Alagi on 7 December, when Ethiopian soldiers overran the Italian positions dug in on that natural fortress, and forced the Italians to retreat back to Eritrea. A group of survivors, under Arimondi, reached the unfinished Italian fort at Maqele. By this time, Emperor Menelik, accompanied by his Queen Taytu Betul, had led large forces into Tigray, and besieged the Italians within for 15 days (6 - 21 January 1896) until they surrendered. Still hoping for a peaceful resolution to the war, Menelik generously allowed the Italians to leave Maqale with their weapons, and even provided the deafeated Italians mules and pack animals.

Heavily outnumbered, the Italian commander, Oreste Baritieri refused to engage, knowing that the Ethiopians could not keep large numbers of troops in the field much longer. However, the Italian government of Francesco Crispi was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baritieri to bring about a battle.

The result was the Battle of Adowa (or Adua) on March 1, 1896. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous country north of the town of Adowa. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces.

General Baritieri planned to surprise the larger Ethiopian force with an early morning attack, expecting that his enemy would be asleep. However, the Ethiopians had risen early for Church services, and upon learning of the Italian advance, swept forth to meet it, and crushed the Italians. While Menelik's victory was in a large part due to sheer force of numbers, Menelik's careful preparations had made them well-armed numbers.

Italian dead and missing numbered 4,133 with a further 2,000 captured. In addition 4,000 Eritrean askaris were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 7,000 dead and 10,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.

Menelik retired in good order to his capital, Addis Ababa, and waited for the discredited Crispi government to fall. It did within two weeks, and Menelik secured the Treaty of Addis Ababa in October, strictly delimiting the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia.

See also

• Second Italo-Abyssinian War

• Wars of Ethiopia
• Wars of Italy