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| ==Modern politics== | ==Modern politics== | ||
| Historians have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state, one of the ]. The Chinese have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state that engaged in the territorial competition with the Han China in Manchuria. Recently, however, in accordance with new revisonist and inclusive view of the modern ] as a ], the concept of Chinese history was expanded to encompass all states that developed principally in the current territory of China. The motive for such actions is widely speculated and criticized in other East Asian countries (namely North Korea, South Korea, and Mongolia), but often includes theories that the PRC government may be willing to solidify its current borders and prevent unrest among ethnic minorities within China through historical validity, which |
Historians have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state, one of the ]. The Chinese have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state that engaged in the territorial competition with the Han China in Manchuria. Recently, however, in accordance with new revisonist and inclusive view of the modern ] as a ], the concept of Chinese history was expanded to encompass all states that developed principally in the current territory of China. The motive for such actions is widely speculated and criticized in other East Asian countries (namely North Korea, South Korea, and Mongolia), but often includes theories that the PRC government may be willing to solidify its current borders and prevent unrest among ethnic minorities within China through perceived historical validity, which could be fostered by a claim that current Chinese territory has indeed always been Chinese. | ||
| The accepted position among Chinese government historians therefore became that the history of Goguryeo before the capital was transferred to Pyongyang in the Korean Peninsula, or even until its collapse, was to be considered part of Chinese history, a regional power of China. The Chinese government launched a 20-billion-yuan (2.4 billion US dollars) project dealing with China's Northeast in ], rewriting history textbooks and restoring important Goguryeo sites in China. This was followed by protests from scholars in South Korea. In ] this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between China and ], although all of the governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. The existence of a sizeable ethnic Korean minority in the former Goguryeo territories in China, the issue of political influence over ] in the case of a collapse of the regime, and some nervousness over the rapidly increasing power of China contributed to the tensions. | The accepted position among Chinese government historians therefore became that the history of Goguryeo before the capital was transferred to Pyongyang in the Korean Peninsula, or even until its collapse, was to be considered part of Chinese history, a regional power of China. The Chinese government launched a 20-billion-yuan (2.4 billion US dollars) project dealing with China's Northeast in ], rewriting history textbooks and restoring important Goguryeo sites in China. This was followed by protests from scholars in South Korea. In ] this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between China and ], although all of the governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. The existence of a sizeable ethnic Korean minority in the former Goguryeo territories in China, the issue of political influence over ] in the case of a collapse of the regime, and some nervousness over the rapidly increasing power of China contributed to the tensions. | ||
Revision as of 19:39, 18 June 2006
Goguryeo, or Koguryo, (traditional dates 37 B.C. – A.D. 668) was a kingdom in northern Korea and a large part of Manchuria. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla.
The modern English name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo Dynasty (935-1392), which in turn took its name from "Goguryeo." See "Names of Korea."
Goryeo-era records say it was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, although it appears to date back to the 2nd century BC, around the time of Gojoseon's fall. Other small states in former Gojoseon territory included Buyeo, Okjeo and Dongye, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. It grew into a major regional power until defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance in 668, resulting in Unified Silla and Balhae states of Korea.
History
Founding
According to the Samguk Sagi, a 12th century Korean history, Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong) founded the state in 37 BCE in Jolbon Buyeo, a region now along the China-North Korean border. However, Kim Busik, the chief compiler of Samguk Sagi and a direct descendant of Silla nobility, is widely thought to have been justifying Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms by retroactively claiming the longest history for Silla.
A more likely date for Goguryeo's founding is the 2nd century BCE. In the History of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old, putting its founding in the 2nd century BCE. Also, according to the Gwanggaeto Stele, King Gwanggaeto the Great was the 19th descendant of that state's founder, King Dongmyeongseong. The Samguk Sagi's records Gwanggaeto as the 14th generation descendant. The additional five generations in the contemporaneous stele would add approximately 100-150 years to Kim's account. In 75 BCE, a local confederacy which may have included Goguryeo drove China's Xuantu commandery west from the Yalu River valley.
The Goguryeo people originated from Bukbuyeo, integrating with existing chiefdoms. In the aftermath of the disintegration of Gojoseon and Buyeo, various small tribes coalesced into five chiefdoms along the banks of the Yalu River, and these five were eventually led by the king of Goguryeo.
King Jumong
Jumong is a Korean name transcribed in hanja as 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모), with the family name of Hae, posthumuosly changed to Go. The surname Hae was the royal surname of Buyeo. The change of the surname to Go (meaning "high" in Hanja) may indicate Goguryeo's rulers adapting the name of their kingdom, or may simply have been a different Sinicization of Hae.
He is said to be descended from Hae Mosu, a son of the Sun-god (hae in modern Korean means sun). However, records conflict on whether he was the son or 4th generation descendent Hae Mosu. He is said to have left Buyeo for Jolbon Buyeo, married the daughter of its king, and became king himself, founding Goguryeo. "Jolbon Buyeo" thus seems to have been a branch of Buyeo that predates Jumong's founding of Goguryeo.
Goguryeo maintained close early relationship with Dongbuyeo, another branch of Buyeo, whose king is said to be Jumong's brother (and thus also descended from Haemosu), until it was absorbed into Goguryeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BCE, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BCE, and North Okjeo in 28 BCE.
Centralized kingdom
Goguryeo became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and expanded its power in the region. By the time of Taejo of Goguryeo in 53, the five tribes became five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom, and foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king.
Goguryeo became fully independent of the Han commanderies and began large-scale, organized attacks against the Chinese, as well as conquering neighboring statelets such as Okjeo and Dongye. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.
Further expansion
As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery, at Lelang, was destroyed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, and the Three Kingdoms dominated the peninsula.
The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, the Xianbei (鮮卑) tribe of Former Yan state (前燕) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje attacked Goguryeo’s capital at Pyongyang and killed King Goguwon of Goguryeo in battle.
Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Daehak (대학, 大學). By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of Manchuria east of the Liao River as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.
King Gwanggaeto the Great
The maximum territorial extent of the kingdom was reached during the reigns of King Gwanggaeto the Great (whose name literally means “great expander of territory”) and his son King Jangsu. Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 65 walled cities and 1,400 villages, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, made Baekje retreat to the south, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wae of Japan. His accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele erected in 414 in southern Manchuria.
King Jangsu, ascending to the throne in 413, strengthened relations with North and South Cho kingdoms of China, while moving the capital to Pyongyang in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south.
During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province. Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of Heaven.
In the late 5th century, it absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, and competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.
Internal strife
Goguryeo’s fortunes began to change in the 6th century. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. Two factions advocated different princes for succession, and the eight-year-old Yang-won was crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as feudal lords with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.
As civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, in 551, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and maneuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance.
Goguryeo-Sui Wars
In 598 the Sui Dynasty of China, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui met with defeat. These costly and disastrous engagements contributed significantly to the fall of the Sui Dynasty in 618.
The campaign of 598 also provided Goguryeo, and modern Korea, with one of its great national heros: the general Eulji Mundeok, who led the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang, ensuring their retreat during which they were decimated. Chinese histories record that of the over 300,000 Sui troops that crossed into Goguryeo in 598, less than 3,000 returned to China.
Silla-Tang invasion
Although Koguryo had been strong enough to repulse the forces of the Sui Dynasty, combined attacks by Silla from the south and the Tang Dynasty of China (618-907) from the west proved too formidable.
A combination of bad weather and flawed strategy meant Tang's first attempts under the personal leadership of Emperor Gaozu proved inconclusive.
Under Gaozu's successor Taizong, Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of its king Yeongnyu at the hands of the military strongman Yeon Gaesomun, proved the kingdom's undoing.
When Yeon Gaesomun rejected negotiations with Silla, Silla was forced to look to its ties with Tang. In 645, Tang led an attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansiseong, but the attacks continued, weakening Goguryeo’s defenses.
Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 660; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryo for the next eight years and eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. In 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued between his three sons. This greatly contributed to the kingdom's weakness as it faced its gravest challenge. Goguryeo was finally overthrown by the Silla-Tang alliance in 668.
Silla thus unified Korea in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Eventually Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which Silla's rulers did, but their strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River. Following Goguryeo's fall, some of its populace relocated north to form a part of the future kingdom of Balhae. Tang initially attempted to set up a military occupational government in Goguryeo's stead, but this did not last. The southern portion of the ertwhile Goguryeo territory was claimed by Silla, while the rest was succeeded by the kingdom of Balhae.
In her diplomatic language with Japan, Balhae, established in 698, claimed to be a successor state to Goguryeo. In the early 10th century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that succeeded Silla to rule a unified Korean peninsula.
Culture
Remains of walled towns, fortesses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in Manchuria, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an (集安) in northeastern China along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.
Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. It absorbed influences from the northern dynasties of China.
Cultural vestiges of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, Ondol, Goguryeo's unique floor heating system. A modernized version can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea.
Language
- Main article:Goguryeo language.
The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon.
Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.
Similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese have been noted as well. Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe).
Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.
See also: Korean language
World Heritage Site
UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.
Modern politics
Historians have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Chinese have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state that engaged in the territorial competition with the Han China in Manchuria. Recently, however, in accordance with new revisonist and inclusive view of the modern People's Republic of China as a multi-ethnic nation state, the concept of Chinese history was expanded to encompass all states that developed principally in the current territory of China. The motive for such actions is widely speculated and criticized in other East Asian countries (namely North Korea, South Korea, and Mongolia), but often includes theories that the PRC government may be willing to solidify its current borders and prevent unrest among ethnic minorities within China through perceived historical validity, which could be fostered by a claim that current Chinese territory has indeed always been Chinese.
The accepted position among Chinese government historians therefore became that the history of Goguryeo before the capital was transferred to Pyongyang in the Korean Peninsula, or even until its collapse, was to be considered part of Chinese history, a regional power of China. The Chinese government launched a 20-billion-yuan (2.4 billion US dollars) project dealing with China's Northeast in 2002, rewriting history textbooks and restoring important Goguryeo sites in China. This was followed by protests from scholars in South Korea. In 2004 this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between China and South Korea, although all of the governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. The existence of a sizeable ethnic Korean minority in the former Goguryeo territories in China, the issue of political influence over North Korea in the case of a collapse of the regime, and some nervousness over the rapidly increasing power of China contributed to the tensions.
See also: Gando Convention
Notes
- Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A new history of Korea, tr. by Wagner & Shultz. Seoul: Ilchogak. p. 19. ISBN 89-337-0204-0.
See also
References
- Koguryo (Encyclopedia Britannica; paid registration required to view full article)
- Korea - The Three Kingdoms Period (U.S. Library of Congress)
- Gaogouli role in Chinese history traced (China Daily, June 24th, 2003)
- Korea, 1-500 A.D. Metropolitan Museum
- Yonson Ahn: Competing Nationalisms The mobilisation of history and archaeology in the Korea-China wars over Koguryo/Gaogouli (Japan Focus)
- Yonson Ahn: The Korea-China Textbook War What's It All About? (History News Network)
- Austin Ramzy: Rewriting History China and the Koreas feud over the ancient kingdom of Koguryo (Time Asia, August 16th, 2004)
- Bruce Klingner: China shock for South Korea (Asia Times, September 11th, 2004)
- Lost kingdom, modern spat Antiquities spark Korea-China row of historical proportions (JoongAng Daily, April 7th, 2006)
External links
- English Content and Conclusion of "History of Koguryo"(Korean) By Hyoung-Sik Shin, Ewha Womans University Press, Seoul, Korea 2003
- Information about the ancient kingdom
- "The Forgotten Glory of Koguryo" by Lee Wha Rang
- Excavated paintings about the ancient kingdom