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| Congressman ], who tried to mediate between the federal government and Faubus, was later defeated by a last minute write-in candidate, ], a member of the Little Rock School Board who had the backing of Faubus's allies. A few years later, despite the incident with the "Little Rock Nine", Faubus ran as a moderate segregationist against Dale Alford, who was challenging Faubus for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1962. | Congressman ], who tried to mediate between the federal government and Faubus, was later defeated by a last minute write-in candidate, ], a member of the Little Rock School Board who had the backing of Faubus's allies. A few years later, despite the incident with the "Little Rock Nine", Faubus ran as a moderate segregationist against Dale Alford, who was challenging Faubus for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1962. | ||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| Little Rock Central High School still functions as part of the Little Rock School District, and is now a National Historic Site that houses a ] Museum, administered in partnership with the ], to commemorate the events of 1957.<ref>United States National Park Service, </ref> | |||
| In 1958, Cuban poet ] published "Little Rock", a bilingual composition in English and Spanish denouncing the ]. In some verses, the writer used names referring the Little Rock events as qualifying adjectives.<ref name="GuillénMárquez2003">{{cite book|last1=Guillén|first1=Nicolás|authorlink1=Nicolás Guillén|last2=Márquez|first2=Robert|last3=McMurray|first3=David Arthur|title=Man-making words: selected poems of Nicolás Guillén|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xV2zdIzadWAC&pg=PA58|accessdate=7 September 2011|date=August 2003|publisher=Univ of Massachusetts Press|isbn=978-1-55849-410-7|pages=58–61}}</ref> | |||
| Melba Pattillo Beals wrote a memoir titled ''Warriors Don't Cry'', published in the mid-1990s. | |||
| Two ] movies have depicted the events of the crisis: the 1981 ] movie '']'', and the 1993 ] movie '']''. | |||
| In 1996, seven of the Little Rock Nine appeared on '']''. They came face to face with a few of the white students who had tormented them as well as one student who had befriended them. | |||
| President ] honored the Little Rock Nine in November 1999 when he presented them each with a ]. The medal is the highest civilian award bestowed by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1066420|title=Little Rock Nine|date=November 9, 1999|accessdate=August 28, 2012}}</ref> It is given to those who have provided outstanding service to the country. To receive the Congressional Gold Medal, recipients must be co-sponsored by two-thirds of both the ] and ]. | |||
| In 2007, the ] made available a commemorative ] to "recognize and pay tribute to the strength, the determination and the courage displayed by African-American high school students in the fall of 1957." The obverse depicts students accompanied by a soldier, with nine stars symbolizing the Little Rock Nine. The reverse depicts an image of Little Rock Central High School, c. 1957. Proceeds from the coin sales are to be used to improve the National Historic Site. | |||
| On December 9, 2008, the Little Rock Nine were invited to attend the inauguration of President-elect ], the first African-American to be elected President of the United States.<ref>"". ''Washington Post'', December 13, 2009, p. B01.</ref> | |||
| On February 9, 2010, ] honored the group by presenting them with the Père Marquette Discovery Award, the university's highest honor, one that had previously been given to ], ], ], and the ] astronauts, among other notables. | |||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
Revision as of 14:21, 4 March 2014
Little Rock Nine were a group of African American students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. Their enrollment was followed by the Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented from entering the racially segregated school by Orval Faubus, the Governor of Arkansas. They then attended after the intervention of President Eisenhower.
The U.S. Supreme Court issued its historic Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 347 U.S. 483, on May 17, 1954. The decision declared all laws establishing segregated schools to be unconstitutional, and it called for the desegregation of all schools throughout the nation. After the decision, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) attempted to register black students in previously all-white schools in cities throughout the South. In Little Rock, the capital city of Arkansas, the Little Rock School Board agreed to comply with the high court's ruling. Virgil Blossom, the Superintendent of Schools, submitted a plan of gradual integration to the school board on May 24, 1955, which the board unanimously approved. The plan would be implemented during the fall of the 1957 school year, which would begin in September 1957. By 1957, the NAACP had registered nine black students to attend the previously all-white Little Rock Central High, selected on the criteria of excellent grades and attendance. The nicknamed "Little Rock Nine" consisted of Ernest Green (b. 1941), Elizabeth Eckford (b. 1941), Jefferson Thomas (1942–2010), Terrence Roberts (b. 1941), Carlotta Walls LaNier (b. 1942), Minnijean Brown (b. 1941), Gloria Ray Karlmark (b. 1942), Thelma Mothershed (b. 1940), and Melba Pattillo Beals (b. 1941). Ernest Green was the first African American to graduate from Central High School.
National Guard blockade
Main article: Arkansas National Guard and the Integration of Central High SchoolSeveral segregationist councils threatened to hold protests at Central High and physically block the black students from entering the school. Governor Orval Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard to support the segregationists on September 4, 1957. The sight of a line of soldiers blocking out the students made national headlines and polarized the nation. Regarding the accompanying crowd, one of the nine students, Elizabeth Eckford, recalled:
They moved closer and closer. ... Somebody started yelling. ... I tried to see a friendly face somewhere in the crowd—someone who maybe could help. I looked into the face of an old woman and it seemed a kind face, but when I looked at her again, she spat on me.
On September 9, the Little Rock School District issued a statement condemning the governor's deployment of soldiers to the school, and called for a citywide prayer service on September 12. Even President Dwight Eisenhower attempted to de-escalate the situation by summoning Faubus for a meeting, warning him not to defy the Supreme Court's ruling.
Armed escort
Woodrow Wilson Mann, the mayor of Little Rock, asked President Eisenhower to send federal troops to enforce integration and protect the nine students. On September 24, the President ordered the 101st Airborne Division of the United States Army—without its black soldiers, who rejoined the division a month later—to Little Rock and federalized the entire 10,000-member Arkansas National Guard, taking it out of the hands of Faubus.
A tense year
By the end of September 1957, the nine were admitted to Little Rock Central High under the protection of the U.S. Army (and later the Arkansas National Guard), but they were still subjected to a year of physical and verbal abuse (being spat on and called names) by many of the white students. Melba Pattillo had acid thrown into her eyes and also recalled in her book, Warriors Don't Cry, an incident in which a group of white girls trapped her in a stall in the girls' washroom and attempted to burn her alive by dropping pieces of flaming paper on her from above. Another one of the students, Minnijean Brown, was verbally confronted and abused. She said
I was one of the kids 'approved' by the school officials. We were told we would have to take a lot and were warned not to fight back if anything happened. One girl ran up to me and said, 'I'm so glad you're here. Won't you go to lunch with me today?' I never saw her again.
Minnijean Brown was also taunted by members of a group of white male students in December 1957 in the school cafeteria during lunch. She dropped her lunch, a bowl of chili, onto the boys and was suspended for six days. Two months later, after more confrontation, Brown was suspended for the rest of the school year. She transferred to New Lincoln High School in New York City. As depicted in the 1981 made-for-TV docudrama Crisis at Central High, and as mentioned by Melba Pattillo Beals in Warriors Don't Cry, white students were punished only when their offense was "both egregious and witnessed by an adult". The drama was based on a book by Elizabeth Huckaby, a vice-principal during the crisis.
Motivations
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Faubus's opposition to desegregation was likely both politically and racially motivated. Although Faubus had indicated that he would consider bringing Arkansas into compliance with the high court's decision in 1956, desegregation was opposed by his own southern conservative Democratic Party, which dominated all Southern politics at the time. Faubus risked losing political support in the upcoming 1958 Democratic gubernatorial primary if he showed support for integration.
Most histories of the crisis conclude that Faubus, facing pressure as he campaigned for a third term, decided to appease racist elements in the state by calling out the National Guard to prevent the black students from entering Central High.
Harry Ashmore, the editor of the Arkansas Gazette, won a 1958 Pulitzer Prize for his editorials on the crisis. Ashmore portrayed the fight over Central High as a crisis manufactured by Faubus; in his interpretation, Faubus used the Arkansas National Guard to keep black children out of Central High School because he was frustrated by the success his political opponents were having in using segregationist rhetoric to stir white voters.
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Congressman Brooks Hays, who tried to mediate between the federal government and Faubus, was later defeated by a last minute write-in candidate, Dale Alford, a member of the Little Rock School Board who had the backing of Faubus's allies. A few years later, despite the incident with the "Little Rock Nine", Faubus ran as a moderate segregationist against Dale Alford, who was challenging Faubus for the Democratic nomination for governor in 1962.
See also
- Black school
- Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
- Little Rock (poem)
- Nine from Little Rock, an Academy Award winning documentary film about the Little Rock Nine
- Fables of Faubus, a song written by jazz bassist Charles Mingus
Footnotes
- Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (U.S. 1954), Text..
- ^ Rains, Craig. "Little Rock Central High 40th Anniversary"..
- Boyd, Herb (September 27, 2007). "Little Rock Nine paved the way". New York Amsterdam News. Vol. 98, no. 40. Retrieved March 4, 2009.
- "Retreat from Newport". Time. September 23, 1957..
- Smith, Jean Edward (2012). Eisenhower in War and Peace. Random House. p. 723. ISBN 978-0-679-64429-3.
- "Melba Pattillo Beals". Teachers' Domain. WGBH Educational Foundation. Retrieved February 2, 2008.
- Brown, Minnijean; Moskin, J. Robert (June 24, 1958). "One Girl's Little Rock Story". Look.
- Collins, Janelle (Fall 2008). "Easing a Country's Conscience: Little Rock's Central High School in Film". The Southern Quarterly. The University of Southern Mississippi. Retrieved August 2, 2009.
- "The Pulitzer Prize Winners 1958". the Pulitzer Board. Retrieved 7 September 2011.
References
- "Through a Lens, Darkly," by David Margolick. Vanity Fair, September 24, 2007.
- The Tiger, Student Paper of Little Rock Central High.
- "Civil Rights", Kids Discover, Volume 16, Issue 1, ISSN 1054-2868, January 2006.
- Baer, Frances Lisa. Resistance to Public School Desegregation: Little Rock, Arkansas, and Beyond (2008) 328 pp. ISBN 978-1-59332-260-1
- Beals, Melba Pattillo. Warriors Don't Cry: A Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock's Central High. (ISBN 0-671-86638-9)
- Branton, Wiley A. "Little Rock Revisited: Desegregation to Resegregation." Journal of Negro Education 1983 52(3): 250–269. Issn: 0022-2984 Fulltext in Jstor
- Faubus, Orval Eugene. Down from the Hills. Little Rock: Democrat Printing & Lithographing, 1980. 510 pp. autobiography.
- Elizabeth Jacoway. Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis That Shocked the Nation (2007).
- Kirk, John A., ed., An Epitaph for Little Rock: A Fiftieth Anniversary Retrospective on the Central High Crisis (University of Arkansas Press, 2008).
- Kirk, John A., Beyond Little Rock: The Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis (University of Arkansas Press, 2007).
- Kirk, John A., Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970 (University of Florida Press, 2002).
- Reed, Roy. Faubus: The Life and Times of an American Prodigal (1997).
- Lanier, Carlotta, A Mighty Long Way: My Journey to Justice at Little Rock Central High School, Random House, 2009
- Roberts, Terrence, Lessons From Little Rock, The Butler Center, 2009
External links
- The Legacy of Little Rock on Time.com (a division of Time Magazine)
- Guardians of Freedom—50th Anniversary of Operation Arkansas, by ARMY.MIL
- Letters from U.S. citizens regarding the Little Rock Crisis, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- Documents regarding the Little Rock Crisis, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
- National Park Service. Little Rock Central High School, National Historic Site.
- Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry: Little Rock Nine
- "From Canterbury to Little Rock: The Struggle for Educational Equality for African Americans", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
- Booknotes interview with Melba Pattillo Beals on Warriors Don't Cry: A Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock's Central High, November 27, 1994.
