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| {{For|Asians in the Americas|Asians in the Americas (disambiguation){{!}}Asians in the Americas}} | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=June 2012}} | |||
| {{Infobox ethnic group | |||
| | group = Asian Americans | |||
| | image = | |||
| {{image array|perrow=4|width=80|height=95 | |||
| | image1 = Steven Chu alternate portrait.jpg| caption1 = ] | |||
| | image2 = Eleanor Mariano.jpg| caption2 = ] | |||
| | image3 = Daniel Inouye official portrait.jpg| caption3 = ] | |||
| | image4 = DR- EUGENE TRINH.jpg| caption4 = ] | |||
| | image5 = Jim Kim.JPG| caption5 = ] | |||
| | image6 = Bobby Jindal.jpg| caption6 = ] | |||
| | image7 = Nadia Ali 2010.jpg| caption7 = ] | |||
| | image8 = Salman Khan TED 2011.jpg| caption8 = ] | |||
| | image9 = Gary Locke official portrait.jpg | caption9 = ] | |||
| | image10 = BrendaSongMay09.jpg | caption10 = ] | |||
| | image11 = Ryan Higa by Gage Skidmore.jpg | caption11 = ] | |||
| | image12 = IndraNooyiDavos2010ver2.jpg | caption12 = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| | caption = | |||
| | poptime = | |||
| '''Asian Americans'''<br /> | |||
| '''14,674,252'''<ref name="census.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb12-90.html |title=Most Children Younger Than Age 1 are Minorities, Census Bureau Reports - Population - Newsroom - U.S. Census Bureau |publisher=United States Census Bureau |date=17 May 2012 |accessdate=13 November 2012}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/popest/data/national/asrh/2011/tables/NC-EST2011-03.xls |title=Cumulative Estimates of the Components of Resident Population Change by Race and Hispanic Origin for the United States: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011 (NC-EST2011-04)|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=May 2012 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |accessdate=22 May 2013 |quote=14,674,252}}<br/>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/pdf/cb13ff-09_asian.pdf |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2013 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=27 March 2013 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |accessdate=22 May 2013 |quote=14.7 million <br/>The estimated number of U.S. residents in 2010 who were Asian alone.}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/templates/browse.aspx?lvl=3&lvlid=29 |title=Asian American/Pacific Islander Profile |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=17 September 2012 |work=Office of Minority Health |publisher=United States Department of Health & Human Services |accessdate=22 May 2013 |quote=According to the 2011 Census Bureau population estimate, there are 14.7 million Asian Americans, alone living in the United States. Asian Americans account for 4.7 percent of the nation's population. }}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/populations/REMP/asian.html |title=Asian American Populations |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=7 May 2013 |work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |publisher=United States Department of Health & Human Services |accessdate=20 May 2013 |quote=In 2011, the population of Asians, including those of more than one race, was estimated at 18.2 million in the U.S. population. }}</ref><ref name="RoAAPEW2012"/> | |||
| <br /> | |||
| (4.7% of the U.S. population) | |||
| <br /> | |||
| {{small|2011 U.S. Census Bureau Estimate}} | |||
| | popplace = ''']; '''especially the '''] and ] <ref>{{cite web |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:031;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:031;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:031;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:031;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US06&-geo_id=04000US15&-geo_id=04000US17&-geo_id=04000US34&-geo_id=04000US36&-geo_id=04000US48&-geo_id=31000US35620&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en |title=S0201. Selected Population Profile in the United States: Population Group: Asian alone or in combination with one or more other races |year=2007 |work=U.S. Census Bureau |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |accessdate=June 25, 2011}}<br/>{{cite news |title=ADVERTISING & MARKETING; Tapping Into Asian Buying Power; Realizing the potential of this ethnic market, ad agencies are teaming with minority-owned firms to reach it. |author=Richard Chang |url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/47042160.html?dids=47042160:47042160&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Dec+09%2C+1999&author=RICHARD+CHANG&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=ADVERTISING+%26+MARKETING%3B+Tapping+Into+Asian+Buying+Power%3B+Realizing+the+potential+of+this+ethnic+market%2C+ad+agencies+are+teaming+with+minority-owned+firms+to+reach+it.&pqatl=google |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=9 December 1999 |accessdate=9 March 2013}}</ref> | |||
| | langs = {{hlist | ] | ] }} | |||
| | rels = ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Asian-Americans-A-Mosaic-of-Faiths-overview.aspx |title=Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths |date=19 July 2012 |work=The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |publisher=Pew Research Center |accessdate=15 February 2013 |quote=Christian 42%, Buddhist 14%, Hindu 10%, Muslim 4%, Sikh 1%, Jain *% Unaffiliated 26%, Don't know/Refused 1%}}</ref> | |||
| | related = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Asian Americans''' are ] of ]. The ] definition of ''Asians'' refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of the ], Southeast Asia, or the ]. It includes people who indicated their race(s) as "Asian" or reported entries such as "]", "]", "]", "]", "]", "]", and "Other Asian" or provided other detailed Asian responses. They comprise 4.8% of the U.S. population alone, while people who are Asian combined with at least one other race make up 5.6%.<ref name=c2010>{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf |title=Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: 2010 |author=Karen R. Humes |coauthors=Nicholas A. Jones, and Roberto R. Ramirez |date=March 2011 |work=United States Census Bureau |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce |accessdate=January 5, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| The term ''Asian American'' was coined by historian ], who is credited with popularizing the term, to frame a new "inter-ethnic-pan-Asian American self-defining political group" in the late 1960s; before that terms generally used were '']'' or '']tic''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Yuji Ichioka, 66; Led Way in Studying Lives of Asian Americans |author=K. Connie Kang |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2002/sep/07/local/me-yuji7 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=7 September 2002 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Today, ''Asian American'' is the accepted term for most formal purposes, such as government and academic research, although it is often shortened to ''Asian'' in common usage. | |||
| As with other ] and ] based ], formal and common usage have changed markedly through the short history of this term. The most significant change occurred when the ] of 1965 eliminated highly restrictive "national origins" quotas, designed, among other things, to restrict immigration of those of Asian racial background.<ref></ref> The new system, based on skills and family connections to U.S. residents, enabled significant immigration from every nation in Asia, which led to dramatic and ongoing changes in the Asian American population. As a result of these population changes, the formal and common understandings of what defines Asian American have expanded to include more of the peoples with ancestry from various parts of Asia. Because of their more recent immigration, new Asian immigrants also have had different educational, economic and other characteristics than early 20th-century immigrants. They also tend to have different employment and settlement patterns in the United States. | |||
| {{As of|2012}}, Asian Americans had the highest educational attainment level and median household income of any racial demographic in the country,<ref name="RoAAPEW2012">{{cite web |url=http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/files/2013/01/SDT_Rise_of_Asian_Americans.pdf |title=The Rise of Asian Americans |author=Paul Taylor |author2=D'Vera Cohn |author3=Wendy Wang |author4=Jeffrey S. Passel |author5=Rakesh Kochhar |author6=Richard Fry |author7=Kim Parker |author8=Cary Funk |author9=Gretchen M. Livingston |author10=Eileen Patten |author11=Seth Motel |author12=Ana Gonzalez-Barrera |date=12 July 2012 |work=Pew Research Social & Demographic Trends |publisher=] |accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Asian-American population on the rise, Pew Research Center survey says |author=Mercedes White |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865571191/Asian-American-population-on-the-rise-Pew-Research-Center-survey-says.html |newspaper=Deseret News |date=23 January 2013 |accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> and in 2008 they had the highest median personal income overall of any racial demographic.<ref name="Education2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p20-560.pdf|title=Educational Attainment in the United States: 2007|year=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}</ref><ref name="Income2008">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-236.pdf|title=Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2008|year=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|page=9}}</ref> | |||
| ==Terminology== | |||
| {{See also|Asian_people#United_States|l1=Asian people}} | |||
| The most commonly used definition of ''Asian American'' is the US Census Bureau definition of ''Asian'',<ref name="centech">U.S. Census Bureau, '''', 2001, at Appendix B-14. "A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes ''Asian Indian'', ''Chinese'', ''Filipino'', ''Korean'', ''Japanese'', ''Vietnamese'', and ''Other Asian''."</ref> chiefly because the Census definitions determine many government classifications, notably for equal opportunity programs and measurements. People with origins in the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Indian Subcontinent are included in the Census definition of Asia.<ref name="autogenerated1">U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population, Public Law 94-171 Redistricting Data File.{{Wayback |date=20011103175823 |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68178.htm |title=Race }}. (archived from on 2001-11-03).</ref> The use of a separate "Asian" category in the Census is a recent addition, beginning in 1990. Since then, the Census definitions have varied. The 2000 census divided the '']'' group and created '']'' ethnicities as a separate category. | |||
| According to the ], "Asian person" in the United States is sometimes thought of as a person of East Asian descent.<ref name=Oxford1>{{cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1223255?rskey=D9mRoS&result=2#m_en_us1223255 |title=Asian American |publisher=Oxford University Press |accessdate=March 29, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/asian?view=get|title=Asian|publisher=AskOxford.com|accessdate=September 29, 2007 |archiveurl = //web.archive.org/web/20080415110425/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/asian?view=get |archivedate = April 15, 2008}}{{citation broken|date=July 2010}}<!--http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0043470#m_en_gb0043470 works as of July 25, 2010, but there is no guarantee that it will remain stable as the dictionary content changes--></ref> In vernacular usage, "Asian" is often used to refer to those of East Asian descent or anyone else of Asian descent with ].<ref>: MedicinePlus Medical Encyclopedia states that ''"The presence of an epicanthal fold is normal in people of Asiatic descent"'' assuming it the norm for all Asians</ref><ref>{{Cite book | |||
| | title = Body Image: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice | |||
| | editor = Thomas F. Cash | |||
| | editor2 = Thomas Pruzinsky | |||
| | url = http://books.google.com/?id=qZN7w2kXxtoC | |||
| | chapter = Chapter 28. Asian American Body Images | |||
| | author = Kathleen Kawamura | |||
| | chapter-url = http://books.google.com/books?id=qZN7w2kXxtoC&pg=PA243 | |||
| | pages = 243–249 | |||
| | publisher = Guilford Press | |||
| | year = 2004 | |||
| | isbn = 978-1-59385-015-9 | |||
| | separator = . | |||
| | postscript = .}}</ref> This differs from the U.S. Census definition<ref name=centech /><ref>U.S. Census data on ancestry is based on self-identification; the data on ancestry represent self-classification by people according to the ancestry group(s) with which they most closely identify. {{Cite journal | |||
| | url = http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/2007/usedata/Subject_Definitions.pdf | |||
| | title = American Community Survey; Puerto Rico Community Survey; 2007 Subject Definitions | |||
| | publisher = U.S. Census Bureau | |||
| | page = 31 | |||
| }}{{dead link|date=October 2010|url=http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/2007/usedata/Subject_Definitions.pdf}}{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/acs/www/Downloads/data_documentation/SubjectDefinitions/2007_ACSSubjectDefinitions.pdf |title=American Community Survey; Puerto Rico Community Survey; 2007 Subject Definitions |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> and the Asian American Studies departments of many universities consider those of East, ] or Southeast Asian descent with or without ] to be "Asian".<ref>; contains mentions to South Asians<br/>; South and Southeast Asian courses are present<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.uic.edu/ucat/catalog/LAASAM.htm |title=Asian American Studies |year=2009 |work=2009–2011 Undergraduate Catalog |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://hss.fullerton.edu/asian-american/program.asp |title=Welcome to Asian American Studies |year=2003 |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://aas.stanford.edu/program.htm |title=Program |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://asianamericanstudies.osu.edu/aboutus |title=About Us |year=2007 |work=Asian American Studies |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}} {{dead link|date=October 2012|url=http://asianamericanstudies.osu.edu/aboutus}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.umass.edu/asianasianamstudies/index.html |title=Welcome |year=2011 |work=Asian and Asian American Studies Certificate Program |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.aasp.cornell.edu/overview.php |title=Overview |year=2007 |work=Cornell University Asian American Studies Program |publisher=] |accessdate=April 11, 2011}}</ref> In the ], people who originate from the indigenous peoples of the ],<ref name=c2010 /><ref name="usacensus1" /> ],<ref name=c2010 /><ref name="usacensus1" /> and ]<ref name=c2010 /><ref name="usacensus1" /> are classified as part of the ];<ref name="usacensus1">{{cite web|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_RHI425206.htm | |||
| | title = State & County QuickFacts: Race | |||
| | publisher = U.S. Census Bureau | |||
| | accessdate = August 31, 2009}}</ref> while those who originate from the indigenous peoples of ] (], ]), ] (], ], ] etc.), the ] (], ], ] etc.), and the ] (], ], ], ]) are classified as "White".{{Failed verification|date=August 2013}} | |||
| Before 1980, Census forms listed particular Asian ancestries as separate groups, along with ''White'' and ''Black or Negro''.<ref>, republished by ], ], ] at www.ipums.org Accessed November 19, 2006.</ref> Asian Americans had also been classified as "other".<ref name="GordonLee">Lee, Gordon. Hyphen Magazine. {{Wayback |date=20080317133309 |url=http://www.hyphenmagazine.com/features/issues/summer03/theforgottenrevolution.php ''The Forgotten Revolution''}}. 2003. January 28, 2007 (archived from on March 17, 2008).</ref> In 1977, the federal ] issued a directive requiring government agencies to maintain statistics on racial groups, including on "Asian or Pacific Islander".<ref>{{cite book |title=Yellow: race in America beyond black and white |last=Wu |first=Frank H. Wu |year=2003 |publisher=]|location=New York, NY |isbn=9780465006403 |page=310 |page=416 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkPvf5Cs-DgC&pg=PA310&lpg=PA310&dq=california+state+definition+asian+americans&source=bl&ots=Eh8K57xEJs&sig=U75Wx6UheZwGhreSBt32CC2Lg5Y&hl=en&ei=ObWoTcCaHJK2sAOiuZCRDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFsQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=April 15, 2011}}</ref> The 1980 census marked the first classification of Asians as a large group, combining several individual ancestry groups into "Asian or Pacific Islander." By the 1990 census, ''Asian or Pacific Islander (API)'' was included as an explicit category, although respondents had to select one particular ancestry.<ref>, republished by ], Minnesota Population Center, University of Minnesota at www.ipums.org Accessed November 19, 2006.</ref><ref>Reeves, Terrance Claudett, Bennett. United States Census Bureau. ''. 2003. September 30, 2006.</ref> In the 2000 census, people reporting ], ], ], or ] ancestry but not reporting race are presumed to be in the ] race category rather than Asian.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> | |||
| The definition of ''Asian American'' has variations that derive from the ] in different contexts. Immigration status, citizenship (by birthright and by naturalization), acculturation, and language ability are some variables that are used to define ''American'' for various purposes and may vary in formal and everyday usage.<ref>Wood, Daniel B. ''Christian Science Monitor''. January 19, 2006. Retrieved February 16, 2007.</ref> For example, restricting ''American'' to include only U.S. citizens conflicts with discussions of Asian American businesses, which generally refer both to citizen and non-citizen owners.<ref name="Asian Summary of Findings">{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/csd/sbo/asiansummaryoffindings.htm|title=US Census Bureau, Asian Summary of Findings|accessdate=December 17, 2006}}</ref> | |||
| In a PBS interview from 2004, a panel of Asian American writers discussed how some groups include people of Middle Eastern descent in the Asian American category.<ref></ref> | |||
| Asian American author Stewart Ikeda has noted, "The definition of "Asian American" also frequently depends on who's asking, who's defining, in what context, and why... | |||
| the possible definitions of "Asian-Pacific American" are many, complex, and shifting... | |||
| some scholars in Asian American Studies conferences suggest that Russians, Iranians, and Israelis all might fit the field’s subject of study."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imdiversity.com/Villages/Asian/dialogue_opinion_letters/archives/ikeda_apa_definition.asp|archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110610050512/http://www.imdiversity.com/Villages/Asian/dialogue_opinion_letters/archives/ikeda_apa_definition.asp|archivedate=2011-06-10|title=What's an "Asian American" Now, Anyway?|author=S. D. Ikeda}}</ref> ], of the '']'', writes that the pan-ethnic definition of Asian American is a unique American construct, and as an identity is in "]".<ref>{{cite news |title=Easy Tiger (Nation) |author=Jeff Yang |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2012/10/27/easy-tiger-nation/ |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=27 October 2012 |accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Demographics of Asian Americans}} | |||
| The demographics of Asian Americans describe a heterogeneous group of people in the United States who can trace their ancestry to one or more countries in Asia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian Population in U.S. Grew by 70% in the 80's |author=Felicity Barringer |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/02/us/asian-population-in-us-grew-by-70-in-the-80-s.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=2 March 1990 |accessdate=10 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lowe |first=Lisa |chapter=Heterogeneity, Hybridity, Multiplicity: Marking Asian American Differences |chapterurl=http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:e7XvI7TduOsJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5 |title=A Companion to Asian American Studies |series=Blackwell Companions in Cultural Studies |url=http://books.google.com/books/about/A_Companion_to_Asian_American_Studies.html?id=hb-jKArjedIC |archiveurl=http://www4.ncsu.edu/~mseth2/com417s12/readings/LoweHybrid.PDF |archiveyear=1991 |editor1-first=Kent A. |editor1-last=Ono |accessdate=10 January 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-1595-7 |page=272 }}</ref> Because Asian Americans total less than 6% of the entire U.S. population, the diversity of the group is often disregarded in media and news discussions of "Asians" or of "Asian Americans." While there are some commonalities across ethnic sub-groups, there are significant differences among different Asian ethnicities that are related to each group's history.<ref>{{cite book |title=Teach boldly!: letters to teachers about contemporary issues in education |last1=Fehr |first1=Dennis Earl |first2=Mary Cain |last2=Fehr |year=2009 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-4331-0491-6 |page=164 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WFQpcDhkCm4C&lpg=PA164&dq=diversity%20asian%20americans%20disregarded%20media&pg=PA164#v=onepage&q=diversity%20asian%20americans%20disregarded%20media&f=false |accessdate=6 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124511/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_anon_9.pdf |title= Issue Brief #160: Asian American Protest Politics: "The Politics of Identity" |author=Raymond Arthur Smith |year=2009 |work=Majority Rule and Minority Rights Issue Briefs |publisher=] |accessdate=6 March 2012}}</ref> | |||
| The demographics of Asian Americans can further be subdivided into: | |||
| *'''South Asian Americans''', including ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s, and ]s | |||
| *'''East Asian Americans''', including Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Korean Americans, ], ] and ]. | |||
| *'''Southeast Asian Americans''', including ], ], Filipino Americans, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and Vietnamese Americans | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{Main|History of Asian Americans}} | |||
| ] settlement at ]]] | |||
| As Asian Americans originate from many different countries, each population has its own unique history.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" /> | |||
| By 1587, "Luzonians" set foot in North America arrive in ], (San Luis Obispo) California on board the ]-built galleon ship ''Nuestra Senora de Esperanza'' under the command of Spanish Captain Pedro de Unamuno.<ref>{{cite web | title=Historic Site, During the Manila | url=http://morro-bay.com/historical/Philippine-plaque/text-of-plaque.htm | work= | publisher=Michael L. Baird | date= | accessdate=2009-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://personal.anderson.ucla.edu/eloisa.borah/chronology.pdf |title=Chronology of Filipinos in America Pre-1989 |author=Eloisa Gomez Borah |year=1997 |work=Anderson School of Management |publisher=] |accessdate=February 25, 2012}}<br/>{{cite book |first=Joaquin |last=Gonzalez |title=Filipino American Faith in Action: Immigration, Religion, and Civic Engagement |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vxdJXdqPuuEC&lpg=PA20&dq=filipino%20landing%20morro%20bay&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=11 May 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=9780814732977 |pages=21–22}}<br/>{{cite book |editor1-first=Yo |editor1-last=Jackson |title=Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_hcurFqnQioC&lpg=PA216&ots=YSheZo_RAq&dq=filipino%20morro%20bay&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=11 May 2013 |year=2006 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781412909488 |page=216 }}<br/>{{cite book |first=E. San |last=Juan Jr. |chapter=Emergency Signals from the Shipwreck |series=SUNY series in global modernity |title=Toward Filipino Self-Determination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9Cprm26URewC&lpg=PA101&ots=hLynwYTFHJ&dq=filipino%20morro%20bay&pg=PA101#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=11 May 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=9781438427379 |pages=101–102 }}</ref> | |||
| In 1635, an "East Indian" is listed in ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/upload/African%20Americans%20on%20Jamestown%20Island.pdf |title=A Study of the Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619-1803 |author=Martha W. McCartney |author2=Lorena S. Walsh |author3=Ywone Edwards-Ingram |author4=Andrew J. Butts |author5=Beresford Callum |year=2003 |work=Historic Jamestowne |publisher=] |accessdate=11 May 2013}}<br/>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiacurrents.com/articles/2007/05/16/indian-slaves-in-colonial-america |title=Indian Slaves in Colonial America |author=Francis C.Assisi |date=16 May 2007 |publisher=India Currents |accessdate=11 May 2013}}</ref> This preceded ] immigrants settling on the ] beginning in the 1790s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Okihiro |first=Gary Y. |authorlink= |title=The Columbia Guide To Asian American History |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2ZDkwy7CURgC&lpg=PA178&ots=3becbcr6QY&dq=south%20asian%20slaves%20jamestown&pg=PA178#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=10 May 2013 |year=2005 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231115117 |page=178 }}</ref> | |||
| In 1763, ] established the small settlement of ], after fleeing mistreatment aboard ] ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/ancestorsintheamericas/time_06.html |title=Filipinos in Louisiana |accessdate=January 5, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| Since there were no Filipino women with them, the Manilamen, as they were known, married ] and ] women.<ref>{{cite book |title=Southeast Asian Americans |last=Wachtel |first=Alan |year=2009 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-4312-4 |page=80 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=i_SzmVM1lCAC&pg=PR4&dq=louisiana+manilamen+marriage#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=December 5, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Chinese sailors first came to Hawaii in 1778,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/132/1/JL08005.pdf |title=Chinese Merchant-Adventurers and Sugar Masters in Hawaii: 1802–1852 |author=by Wai-Jane Cha |publisher=University of Hawaii at Manoa |accessdate=January 14, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?id=57438&authorid=77566 |title=The Chinese Experience in Hawaii |author=Kalikiano Kalei |date=August 12, 2010 |publisher=University of Hawai`i Press |accessdate=January 14, 2011}}</ref> the same year that Captain James Cook came upon the island. Many settled and married ] women. Some Island-born Chinese can claim to be 7th generation. Most Chinese, ] and Japanese immigrants in Hawaii arrived in the 19th century as laborers to work on sugar plantations. Later, Filipinos also came to work as laborers, attracted by the job opportunities, although they were limited.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/cali.html |title=Filipino Migrant Workers in California |author=The Office of Multicultural Student Services |year=1999 |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=January 12, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castillo |first1=Adelaida |last2= |first2= |year=1976 |title=FILIPINO MIGRANTS IN SAN DIEGO 1900–1946 |journal=The Journal of San Diego History |volume=22 |issue=3 |publisher=San Diego Historical Society |url=http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/76summer/migrants.htm |accessdate=January 12, 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| Numerous Chinese and Japanese began immigrating to the U.S. in the mid-19th century for work, because of poor economic conditions in their home nations. Many of the immigrants worked as laborers on the ]. Although the absolute numbers of Asian immigrants in the late 19th century were small compared to that of immigrants from other regions, much of it was concentrated in the West, and the increase caused some Americans to fear the change represented by the growing number of Asians. This fear was referred to as the "]". The United States passed laws such as ] and ] to sharply restrict Asian immigration.<ref></ref> | |||
| ===Immigration trends=== | |||
| {{Main|History of Asian American immigration}} | |||
| Filipinos have been in the territories that would become the United States since the 16th century, beginning in the year 1587.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://morro-bay.com/historical/Philippine-plaque/text-of-plaque.htm |title=Historical Landmark, declared by the Filipino American National Historical Society, California Central Coast Chapter, Dedicated October 21, 1995 |accessdate=February 14, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| There were thousands of Asians in Hawaii when it was annexed to the United States in 1898, and they all gained full US citizenship at that time.<ref>Ronald Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (2nd ed. 1998) pp 133–78</ref> The United States Supreme Court in ] (1898) interpreted the 14th amendment to mean that every person born in the United States, regardless of race or ancestry is a citizen of the United States.<ref>Not including children of diplomats.</ref> | |||
| Congress passed restrictive legislation to nearly all Chinese immigration in the 1880s, which was in effect until the 1940s.<ref>Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (1998) pp 370–78</ref> Japanese immigration was sharply curtailed by a gentleman's agreement brokered by President Theodore Roosevelt. The immigration restriction laws of the 1920s produced quotas for all countries, with Asian countries getting a zero quota.<ref>Takaki, ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' (1998) pp 197–211</ref> | |||
| After World War II legislation was passed, and judicial rulings gradually increased the ability of Asian Americans to immigrate and become ] citizens. Immigration rapidly increased following the enactment of the ] as well as naturalization of ] from conflicts that occurred in the late 20th century in Southeast Asia. Asian American immigrants have a significant percentage of individuals who have already achieved professional status, a first among immigration groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baylor.edu/content/services/document.php?id=19089 | |||
| | title = Asian American Community Participation and Religion: Civic "Model Minorities?" |author=Elaine Howard Ecklund |coauthors=Jerry Z. Park |work=Project MUSE |publisher=] |accessdate=March 7, 2012}}</ref> In 2009, Asian Americans surpassed ] as the largest plurality of immigrants to the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Asian-American dream and the Republican Party |author=Michelle Mai Selesky |url=http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2012/08/31/asian-american-dream-and-republican-party/ |newspaper=Fox News |date=31 August 2012 |accessdate=2 October 2012}}</ref> Additionally, from 2000 to 2010, the Asian American population was the fastest growing group according to the ].<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" /><ref name="SAddams3MAY12">{{cite news |title=Growing Asian-American Communities Underrepresented |author=Shar Adams |url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/united-states/growing-asian-american-communities-underrepresented-231300.html |newspaper=] |date=3 May 2012 |accessdate=3 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Asian-Americans Gain Influence in Philanthropy |author=Kirk Semple |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/09/nyregion/as-asian-americans-numbers-grow-so-does-their-philanthropy.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=8 January 2013 |accessdate=3 March 2013 |quote=From 2000 to 2010, according to the Census Bureau, the number of people who identified themselves as partly or wholly Asian grew by nearly 46 percent, more than four times the growth rate of the overall population, making Asian-Americans the fastest growing racial group in the nation. }}</ref> | |||
| Most Asian American races are greatly increasing in population, with the notable exception of the Japanese which are in a slow decline. | |||
| ==Notable contributions== | |||
| {{See also|List of Asian Americans}} | |||
| ===Arts and entertainment=== | |||
| {{Main|Asian Americans in arts and entertainment}} | |||
| Asian Americans have been involved in the ] since the first half of the 19th century, when ] (the original "Siamese Twins") became naturalized citizens.<ref></ref> Acting roles in television, film, and theater were relatively few, and many available roles were for narrow, stereotypical characters. More recently, young Asian American comedians and film-makers have found an outlet on ] allowing them to gain a strong and loyal fanbase among their fellow Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite news |title=YouTube Spawns Asian-American Celebrities |author=Elizabeth Lee |url=http://m.voanews.com/rss.jsp;jsessionid=185B5BBA953982AB4D008141A1942BF7.aldo2?id=3132&rssid=25273271&item=http%3a%2f%2fwww.voanews.com%2frss%2fmobiletech.aspx%3farticleid%3d1612459&cid=25228001&show=full |newspaper=VAO News |date=28 February 2013 |accessdate=4 March 2013}}</ref> | |||
| ===Business=== | |||
| {{multiple issues|section=yes|refimprove=August 2009|histinfo=August 2009}} | |||
| ] ]]] | |||
| When Asian Americans were largely excluded from labor markets in the 19th century, they started their own businesses. They have started convenience and grocery stores, professional offices such as medical and law practices, laundries, restaurants, beauty-related ventures, hi-tech companies, and many other kinds of enterprises, becoming very successful and influential in American society. They have dramatically expanded their involvement across the American economy. Asian Americans have been disproportionately successful in the hi-tech sectors of California's Silicon Valley, as evidenced by the ] 100 Compilation of America's Most Successful Asian Entrepreneurs.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://goldsea.com/Profiles/100/100.html | title=100 Most Successful Asian American Entrepreneurs }}</ref> | |||
| Compared to their population base, Asian Americans today are well represented in the professional sector and tend to earn higher wages.<ref name="Broad racial disparities persist">{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15704759/|title=Broad racial disparities persist|accessdate=December 18, 2006| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20061130102318/http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15704759/| archivedate= November 30, 2006 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The ] compilation of Notable Asian American Professionals show that many have come to occupy high positions at leading U.S. corporations, including a surprising number as Chief Marketing Officers.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://goldsea.com/Text/index.php?id=2457 | title=Notable Asian American Professionals }}</ref> | |||
| Asian Americans have made major contributions to the American economy. In 2012, Asian Americans own 1.5 million businesses, employ around 3 million people who earn an annual total payroll of around $80 billion.<ref name="SAddams3MAY12"/> Fashion designer and mogul ], who is famous for designing dresses for high-profile celebrities, started a clothing company, named after herself, which now offers a broad range of luxury fashion products. ] founded ] in June 1951. ] founded the ] in 1964. ] founded ], later became its CEO and chairman. David Khym founded hip-hop fashion giant ] in 1991. ] co-founded the ] corporation in 1993. ] co-founded ]! Inc. in 1994 and became its CEO later. ] serves as Chairman and CEO of ]. ] was a founding CEO of ] and is a general partner of the prominent venture capital firm ]. ] and ] were co-creators of YouTube, and were beneficiaries of ]'s $1.65 billion acquisition of that company in 2006. In addition to contributing greatly to other fields, Asian Americans have made considerable contributions in science and technology in the United States, in such prominent innovative ] regions as ] and ]. | |||
| ===Government and politics=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Asian Americans in government and politics}} | |||
| Asian Americans have a high level of political incorporation in terms of their actual voting population. Since 1907, Asian Americans have been active at the national level and have had multiple officeholders at local, state and national levels. The highest ranked Asian American was Senator and ] ], who died in office in 2012; by ] the highest ranked Asian American in office is currently ] ]. | |||
| ===Journalism=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| ] was one of the first Asian American national correspondents for a major TV news network, reporting for CBS in 1971. She later co-anchored the ''CBS Evening News'' from 1993 to 1995, becoming the first Asian American national news anchor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wc.pdx.edu/conniechung/ConnieChung.html |title=CONNIE CHUNG |work=World Changers |publisher=] |accessdate=February 21, 2012}}</ref> At ABC, Ken Kashiwahara began reporting nationally in 1974. In 1989, ], a Filipino American born reporter from San Francisco, became the first Asian American male to co-host a national news show when he was senior host at National Public Radio's "All Things Considered." In 1990, ], a foreign correspondent in the Beijing Bureau of ], became the first Asian American to win a Pulitzer Prize. ] joined NBC News as a reporter in 1990, later becoming prominently associated with ''The Today Show'' in 1997. ] is perhaps best known for being the first to break the news of ] on CNN. ] is currently CNN's chief health correspondent. ], a former co-host on ''The View'', now provides special reports for CNN and ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'', as well as hosting National Geographic Channel's ''Explorer.'' ], a naturalised Indian-born immigrant, is a prominent journalist, and author specialising in international affairs. He is the editor-at-large of ], and the host of ] on ]. Juju Chang, James Hatori, ], ], ], ], and ] have become familiar faces on television news. John Yang won a Peabody Award. ], a ] staff writer, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1997. | |||
| ===Military=== | |||
| ]; previously, as the 4-star ], Shinseki became the highest ranked Asian American ever in the military.]] | |||
| {{Main|Military History of Asian Americans}} | |||
| {{See also|List of Asian Americans#Military|l1=Notable Asian Americans in the Military}} | |||
| Since the ] Asian Americans have ] and ] on behalf of the United States. Serving in both segregated and non-segregated units until the ], ] have been awarded the nation's highest award for combat valor, the ]. Twenty-one of these were conferred upon members of the mostly Japanese American 100th Infantry Battalion of the ] of World War II, the most highly decorated unit of its size in the history of the United States Armed Forces.<ref>, .</ref> | |||
| ===Science and technology=== | |||
| Asian Americans have made many prominent and notable contributions to Science and Technology. ] was known to many scientists as the "First Lady of Physics" and played a pivotal role in experimentally demonstrating the violation of the law of conservation of parity in the field of particle physics. ] and ] received the 1957 ] for theoretical work demonstrating that the conservation of parity did not always hold and later became American citizens. ] shared the 1968 ] for his work in genetics and protein synthesis. ] received the 1976 Nobel Prize in physics for discovery of the subatomic particle J/ψ. The mathematician ] won the ] in 1982 and ] won the ] in 2006. The geometer ] received the ] in 1983. ] was awarded the ] in 2000. ] shared the 1983 ] and had the ] named after him. In 1984, Dr. ] first reported the "healthy carrier state" of HIV infection, which identified HIV-positive individuals who showed no physical signs of AIDS. ] shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his methods of synthesizing crown ethers. ] shared the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research in cooling and trapping atoms using laser light. ] shared the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1998 for helping discover the fractional ]. In 2008, biochemist ] won the Nobel in Chemistry for his work on engineering and improving the green fluorescent protein (]) that has become a standard tool of modern molecular biology and biochemistry. ] received the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the consequences of spontaneously broken symmetries in field theories. In 2009, ] was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibres for optical communication" and ] won the prize in Chemistry "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome". ] was the inventor of the ] and ] and was awarded the 2011 ] in Chemistry for this achievement. ] was the co-inventor of the ] and contributed significantly to the development of ] at the ]. ] was one of the scientists credited with the discovery of ground-breaking drug ] as well as the discovery of ], ] and ] with colleagues.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/drugdisc/nj/articles/nrd1811.html |title=David T. Wong |author=Nature Reviews Drug Discovery |year=2011 |publisher=Nature Publishing Group |accessdate=14 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://communications.medicine.iu.edu/newsroom/stories/2011/scientist-who-developed-prozac-receives-international-honor/ |title=Scientist Who Developed Prozac Receives International Honor |date=21 December 2011 |work=School of Medicine |publisher=Indiana University |accessdate=17 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spu.edu/depts/uc/response/winter98/features/prozac.html |title=The Faith of a Scientist: Alumnus of the Year David T.Wong Devotes a Lifetime to Neuroscience Research |author=Connie McDougal |year=1997 |work=Office of University Communications |publisher=Seattle Pacific University |accessdate=17 September 2012}}</ref> ] has popularized science and has appeared on multiple programs on television and radio. | |||
| ====Space==== | |||
| ], the first Asian American, and third person of Asian descent, in space.|alt=An image of LTC Onizuka with a model of the Challenger shuttle and astronaut helmet on a desk in front of him. The United States Flag, and a smoky blue backdrop in the background.]] | |||
| {{Expand section|examples and additional citations|date=October 2009}} | |||
| {{See also|List of Asian American astronauts}} | |||
| ] ] became the first Asian American (and third person of Asian descent) when he made his first space flight aboard ] in 1985. Onizuka later died aboard the ] in ]. ] became the first person of ] and first Chinese American, in space in ]; he has since been followed by ] in ], and ] in ]. In ], ] became the first ] in space. ] became the first Vietnamese American in space in ]. In ], ], a ] Korean American, made his first of three flights into space. In ], ] became the first ] in space, but died aboard the ] ]. She has since been followed by ] ] in ]. | |||
| ===Sports=== | |||
| ====Basketball==== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| ] broke the ] color barrier when he played for the ] in the 1947–48 season.<ref name="HBNYT122011"/> The next Asian American NBA player was ], who played for the ] and ] from 1978 to 1982.<ref name="HBNYT122011"/> ], played from 1993 to 2000 with the ], ] and ];<ref name="HBNYT122011"/> he is presently the head coach for the ] basketball team.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://usfdons.com/sports/m-baskbl/mtt/walters_rex00.html |title=Rex Walters |work=Men's Basketball |publisher=University of San Francisco Athletics |accessdate=February 7, 2012}}</ref> After playing basketball at ], point guard ] signed with the NBA's ] in 2010<ref name="HBNYT122011">{{cite news |title=Newest Knick Out to Prove He’s Not Just a Novelty |author=Howard Beck |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/29/sports/basketball/jeremy-lin-knicks-newest-addition-is-out-to-prove-hes-not-just-a-novelty.html |newspaper=] |date=December 28, 2011 |accessdate=February 7, 2012 |quote=Lin, whose parents are from Taiwan, is the N.B.A.’s first American-born player of Chinese or Taiwanese descent. He is the league’s fourth Asian American, following Raymond Townsend (Filipino-American), who played for the Warriors (1978–80) and Indiana Pacers (1981–82); Wat Misaka (Japanese-American), who was with the Knicks in 1947–48; and Rex Walters (half Japanese), who played from 1993 to 2000 for the Nets, Philadelphia 76ers and Miami Heat.}}</ref> and now plays for the Houston Rockets. | |||
| Current ] assistant coach ] is Raymond Townsend's brother.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jayhawks not thinking NBA |author=evin Haskin |url=http://cjonline.com/stories/032407/haw_158356922.shtml |newspaper=The Topeka Capital-Journal |date=March 24, 2007 |accessdate=February 7, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Current coach of Back to back champion NBA Miami Heat Filipino American Eric Spoelstra. | |||
| ====Football==== | |||
| {{Refimprove section|date=December 2012}} | |||
| ] in 1951.]] | |||
| In football, ] played professionally for the ] in 1947.<ref name=weber>{{citation |last=Weber |first=Bruce |title=Wally Yonamine, 85, Dies; Changed Japanese Baseball | newspaper=] |date=March 4, 2011 |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/05/sports/baseball/05yonamine.html?_r=1&hpw}}</ref> ] is currently the head coach for the University of Hawaii and former offensive coordinator for UCLA after a short stint with the Tennessee Titans of the ], after 23 years of coaching other college teams, including four years as offensive coordinator at ]. In 1962, half Filipino ] was the first ] to start as an ] ]. ] was an NFL middle linebacker who was an all-pro selection in 2003 for the ]. In 1998, he was named an All-American and won the ] as well as the ], while playing for ]. ] who was born to a Korean mother and an ] father, is a former NFL wide receiver who was the ] of ] and Ward also won ] of the '']'' television series. Former Patriot's linebacker ] is of Filipino and Italian descent. While playing for the Patriots, Bruschi won three Super Bowl rings and was a two-time All-Pro selection. Bruschi is currently a NFL analyst at ESPN. | |||
| ====Mixed Martial Arts==== | |||
| There are several top ranked Asian American ]. ] is a former ] lightweight and welterweight champion. ] is a former ] middleweight champion. ] is the former ] lightweight champion and current ] lightweight champion. ] is ] featherweight fighter. | |||
| ====Olympics==== | |||
| ], first Asian American Olympic Gold Medalist]] | |||
| Asian Americans first made an impact in Olympic sports in the late 1940s and in the 1950s. ] became the first Asian American to earn an Olympic Gold Medal, winning in platform diving in both 1948 and 1952. ] won both gold in platform and springboard diving in the 1948. ] won a weightlifting silver medal in the 1948 Olympics, while ] (weightlifting), ] (100-meter backstroke), and ] (1500-meter freestyle) each won gold and set Olympic records in the 1952 Olympics. Konno won another gold and silver swimming medal at the same Olympics and added a silver medal in 1956, while Kono set another Olympic weightlifting record in 1956. Also at the 1952 Olympics, ] won two bronze medals in swimming. | |||
| ] was a member of the gold medal women's gymnastics team at the ]; she also won an individual silver medal on the uneven bars. Gymnast ] won a team silver medal in the ]. ] who is of ] descent<ref name=NBCOlympics>{{cite news |accessdate=2008-08-23|url=http://www.nbcolympics.com/athletes/athlete=148/bio/|title=Bryan Clay Profile & Bio|date=August 8, 2008|work=2008 Beijing Summer Olympics|publisher= NBC}}</ref> won the decathlon gold medal in the ], the silver medal in the ], and was the sport's 2005 world champion. | |||
| Since ] won the women's US Figure Skating Championship in 1985, Asian Americans have been prominent in that sport. ] won three national championships, two world titles, and the 1992 Olympic Gold medal. ] has won nine national championships and five world titles, as well as two Olympic medals (silver in 1998, bronze in 2002). | |||
| ] who is of ]<ref name="decision">{{Cite news| first=Percy | last=Allen | title=Fed. Way Speedskater Decides To Take His Time | date=1996-03-15 | url =http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19960315&slug=2319087 | work =The Seattle Times | accessdate = 2009-12-22}}</ref> descent is a short track speed skater and an eight-time Olympic Medalist as well as the most decorated American Winter Olympic athlete of all time. He became the youngest U.S. national champion in 1997 and was the reigning champion from 2001 to 2009, winning the title a total of 12 times. In 1999, he became the youngest skater to win a World Cup event title, and became the first American to win a ] title in 2001, which he won again in 2003 and 2005. He won his first overall World Championship title at the ]. | |||
| ] who is also a ] of ] descent<ref name=theAtlanticWire>America's Olympic Crush Retrieved December 15, 2012</ref> is a professional American ] and three-time ] ]ist who currently holds the ] in the 50 and 100-yard freestyle (short course) events. He has won a total of fifteen medals in major international competitions, twelve gold, two silver, and one bronze spanning the Olympics, the ], and the ] Championships. | |||
| ====Other sports==== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| {{Expand section|examples and additional citations|date=February 2012}} | |||
| ] was a top-ranked tennis player for most of his career, and the youngest ever winner of a ] tennis tournament in men's singles. He won the French Open in 1989. ], who is partially of Asian descent, is the most successful golfer of his generation and one of the most famous athletes in the world. ] is one of the top street skateboarders and placed first in the 2003 ] street competition. ] is a Korean-American ice hockey player who currently plays for the Swiss team ]. | |||
| ==Cultural influence== | |||
| {{Refimprove section|date=April 2011}} | |||
| ===Health and medicine=== | |||
| {{col-begin}} | |||
| {{col-break|width=72%}} | |||
| Asian immigrants are also changing the American medical landscape through increasing number of Asian medical practitioners in this country. Beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, the US government invited a number of foreign physicians particularly from India and the Philippines to address the acute shortage of physicians in rural and medically underserved urban areas. The trend in importing foreign medical practitioners, however, became a long-term, chronic solution as US medical schools failed to produce enough physicians to match the increasing American population. Amid decreasing interest in medicine among American college students due to high rates job dissatisfaction, loss of morale, stress, and lawsuits, Asian American immigrants maintained a supply of healthcare practitioners for millions of Americans. It is well documented that Asian American international medical graduates including highly skilled guest workers using the J1 Visa program for medical workers, tend to serve in health professions shortage areas (HPSA) and specialties that are not filled by US medical graduates especially primary care and rural medicine.<ref name="IMGPrimaryCare">Koehn NN, Fryer GE Jr, Phillips RL, Miller JB, Green LA. (2007) The increase in international medical graduates in family practice residency programs. Journal of Family Medicine, 34(6):468–9.</ref><ref name="IMGGeoDistribution">Mick SS, Lee SY. (2007) Are there need-based geographical differences between international medical graduates and U.S. medical graduates in rural U.S. counties? J Rural Health. 1999 Winter;15(1):26–43.</ref> Thus, Asian American immigrants play a key role in averting a medical crisis in the US. | |||
| A lasting legacy of Asian American involvement in medicine is the forcing of US medical establishment to accept minority medical practitioners. One could speculate that the introduction of Asian physicians and dentists to the American society could have triggered an acceptance of other minority groups by breaking down stereotypes and encouraging trust.<ref>Somnath Saha, MD, MPH; Gretchen Guiton, PhD; Paul F. Wimmers, PhD; LuAnn Wilkerson, EdD. (2008) Student Body Racial and Ethnic Composition and Diversity-Related Outcomes in US Medical Schools. JAMA. 2008;300(10):1135–1145</ref> | |||
| Traditional Asian concepts and practices in health and medicine have attracted greater acceptance and are more widely adopted by American doctors. India’s ] and traditional ] (which also includes ]) are two alternative therapy systems that have been studied and adopted to a great extent. For instance, in the early 1970s the US medical establishment did not believe in the usefulness of acupuncture. Since then studies have proven the efficacy of acupuncture for different applications, especially for treatment of chronic pain.<ref name="WHO 2003.3">{{cite web | title = Acupuncture: Review and Analysis of Reports on Controlled Clinical Trials | publisher = ] | year = 2003 | last = Zhang | first = X | url = http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js4926e/#Js4926e.5 }} and<br />{{cite journal |author=Ernst E, Pittler MH, Wider B, Boddy K. |title=Acupuncture: its evidence-base is changing |journal=Am J Chin Med. |volume=35|issue=1 |pages=21–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17265547 |doi=10.1142/S0192415X07004588}}</ref> It is now covered by many health insurance plans. | |||
| ] and mindfulness practices are taught in mainstream medical schools and hospitals. Increasingly they are seen as part of a holistic approach to health. Doctors and hospitals treating diseases such as heart disease and cancer have adopted meditation as a practice recommended for patients. | |||
| ] and ] therapy (from Ayurveda) are sweeping the spas across America. Meditation and ] (from India) have also been widely adopted by health spas, and spiritual retreats of many religious bases. They are also part of the spiritual practice of the many Americans who are not affiliated with a mainline religious group. | |||
| {{col-break|width=23%}} | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px;" | |||
| |+'''Origins of foreign doctors in the US'''<ref name="Foreigndoctors">, American Medical Association. (archived fro on July 5, 2008)</ref> | |||
| |- style="background:#efefef;" | |||
| !Country of Origin | |||
| ! style="width:100px;"|Percentage of Total IMGs in US | |||
| |- | |||
| |] | |||
| |19.9% (47,581) | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |8.8% (20,861) | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |4.8% (11,330) | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |2.1% (4,982) | |||
| |- | |||
| ||China | |||
| |2.0% (4,834) | |||
| |} | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px;" | |||
| |+'''Origins of foreign dentists in the US'''<ref name="Foreigndentists">Sweis, L, and Guay, A. (2007) Foreign-trained dentists licensed in the United States: Exploring their origins. J Am Dent Assoc 2007;138;219–224 | |||
| </ref> | |||
| |- style="background:#efefef;" | |||
| !Country of Origin | |||
| ! style="width:100px;"|Percentage of Total IDGs in US | |||
| |- | |||
| |] | |||
| |25.8 | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |11.0 | |||
| |- | |||
| |China | |||
| |3.2 | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |3.2 | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |2.9 | |||
| |} | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px;" | |||
| |+'''Origins of foreign nurses in the US'''<ref name="ana1">{{cite web|url=http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ThePracticeofProfessionalNursing/workplace/Work-Environment/InfoforNurses/ANAPolicyPapersandBrochures/February2006SurveyInfo/ForeignNurses.aspx|title=Foreign Educated Nurses|publisher=ANA: American Nurses Association|accessdate=August 31, 2009}} {{dead link|date=October 2012|url=http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ThePracticeofProfessionalNursing/workplace/Work-Environment/InfoforNurses/ANAPolicyPapersandBrochures/February2006SurveyInfo/ForeignNurses.aspx}}</ref> | |||
| |- style="background:#efefef;" | |||
| !Country of Origin | |||
| ! style="width:100px;"|Percentage of Total INGs in US | |||
| |- | |||
| |] | |||
| |50.2 | |||
| |- | |||
| |] | |||
| |1.3 | |||
| |- | |||
| |Hong Kong | |||
| |1.2 | |||
| |- | |||
| ||] | |||
| |1.0 | |||
| |- | |||
| |] | |||
| |1.0 | |||
| |} | |||
| {{col-end}} | |||
| ===Education=== | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:88%" | |||
| |+ Bachelor's Degree or Higher<br />Educational Attainment | |||
| |- | |||
| !Ethnicity or nationality | |||
| !Percent of<br />Population | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 74.1% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 67.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 60.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 59.0% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 57.2% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 50.8% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 50.2% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 49.7% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 47.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 43.7% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 41.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Samkian|first=Artineh|title=Constructing Identities, Perceiving Lives: Armenian High School Students' Perceptions of Identity and Education|year=2007|publisher=ProQuest|isbn=978-0-549-48257-4|page=102}}</ref> | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 41% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 38.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 30.7% | |||
| |- | |||
| |- style="background-color: #CCC;" | |||
| | General US Population | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 28.0% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 26.1% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 16.5% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 16.0% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 14.6% | |||
| |- | |||
| | ] | |||
| | style="text-align:right;" | 13.0% | |||
| |-style="border-top: 2px solid #CCC;" | |||
| | colspan=3 | Sources:<ref name="Educational Attainment of the Population 25 Years and Over by Age, Sex, Race, and | |||
| Hispanic or Latino Origin: 2000">"Educational Attainment: 2000" ''Census 2000 Brief'', U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf</ref><ref name="median income">http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-qr_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-geo_id=01000US&-ds_name=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_&-reg=ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201:012;ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201PR:012;ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201T:012;ACS_2009_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:012&-_lang=en&-redoLog=false&-format=</ref><ref name="Educational Attainment: 2000">"We the People: Asians in the United States" ''Census 2000 Special Reports'', U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-17.pdf</ref><ref name="migrationinformation.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/display.cfm?ID=404 |title=Migration Information Source – Spotlight on the Iranian Foreign Born |publisher=Migrationinformation.org |accessdate=2010-02-15}}</ref><ref name="MIT-Student-Group">{{cite web|url=http://www.isgmit.org/projects-storage/census/socioeconomic.pdf |title=An Overview of Socioeconomic Characteristics of the Iranian-American Community based on the 2000 U.S. Census |publisher=isgmit.org}}</ref><ref></ref><ref name="2010 Hmong and Southeast Asian American Data from the American Community Survey 3 Year Estimates">{{cite web |title=Hmong Profiles 2010 American Community Survey |url=http://www.hmongstudies.org/HmongProfiles2010AmericanCommunitySurvey.html |publisher=HmongStudies.org |accessdate=12 January 2013}}</ref><ref>, C.N. Le<br />, C.N. Le, asian-nation.org.</ref><ref name="Stereotypes of Asian American Students">{{Citation |last=Kim |first=Angela |last2=Yeh |first2=Christine J |title=Stereotypes of Asian American Students |publisher=ERIC Educational Reports | url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_pric/is_200202/ai_3554787965 | year=2002}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em; font-size:88%" | |||
| |+ Educational Attainment<br />(25 and older) | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="text-align:CENTER;"| Ethnicity | |||
| ! style="text-align:CENTER;"| High School <br />Graduation Rate<br />(2004) | |||
| ! style="text-align:CENTER;"| Bachelor's Degree<br />or more<br />(2010) | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Filipinos | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.8% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 48.1% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Indians | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.2% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 70.7% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Bangladeshis | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 84.5% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 49.6% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Pakistanis | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 87.4% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 55.1% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Chinese | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 80.8% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 51.8% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Japanese | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 93.4% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 47.3% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Koreans | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 90.2% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 52.9% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Vietnamese | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 70.0% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 26.3% | |||
| |- | |||
| | style="text-align:LEFT;"| Total US Population | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 83.9% | |||
| | style="text-align:RIGHT;"| 27.9% | |||
| |-style="border-top: 2px solid #CCC;" | |||
| | colspan=3 | Sources: 2004<ref name="Pakistan American estimates"> United States Census Bureau. Retrieved October 2, 2010.</ref><ref name="ACS-05">{{Cite journal | |||
| |date=February 2007 | |||
| | title = The American Community-Asians: 2004 | |||
| | publication-place = | |||
| | publisher = U.S. Census Bureau | |||
| | url = http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-05.pdf | |||
| | accessdate = September 5, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070926002242/http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-05.pdf| archivedate= September 26, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}} (Figure 11, p.15)</ref><ref name="Pakistani Migration to the United States: An economic perspective">. Retrieved October 1, 2010.</ref> and 2010<ref name="ACSB2010Bachelor"/> | |||
| |} | |||
| Among America's major racial categories, Asian Americans have the highest educational qualifications. This varies, however, for individual ethnic groups. Dr. C.N. Le, Director of the Asian & Asian American Studies Certificate Program at the University of Massachusetts, writes that although 42% of all Asian American adults have at least a college degree, Vietnamese Americans have a degree attainment rate of only 16% while Laotians and Cambodians only have rates around 5%.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/multicultural-education/A%20closer%20look%20at%20asian%20americans%20and%20education/index.html |title=School of Education at Johns Hopkins University-A Closer Look at Asian Americans and Education |author=C.N. Le |year=2010 |work=New Horizons for Learning |publisher=] |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> It has been noted, however, that 2008 US Census statistics put the bachelor degree attainment rate of Vietnamese Americans at 26%, which is not very different from the rate of 27% for all Americans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb08-ff05.html |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2008 |author=U.S. Census Bureau |date=March 3, 2008 |work=Facts for Features |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> According to the US Census Bureau in 2010, while the high school graduation rate for Asian Americans is on par with those of other ethnic groups, 50% of Asian Americans have attained at least a bachelor's degree as compared with the national average of 28%,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/cb12-ff09.html |title=Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2012 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=21 March 2012 |work=Profile America Facts for Features |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> and 34% for non-Hispanic Whites.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. Bachelor Degree Rate Passes Milestone |author=Richard Perez-Pena |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/24/education/census-finds-bachelors-degrees-at-record-level.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=23 February 2012 |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> Indian Americans have some of the highest education rates, with nearly 71% having attained at least a bachelor's degree in 2010.<ref name="ACSB2010Bachelor">{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acsbr10-19.pdf |title=The Population With a Bachelor’s Degree or Higher by Race and Hispanic Origin: 2006–2010 |author=Stella U. Ogunwole |author2=Malcolm P. Drewery, Jr |author3=Merarys Rios-Vargas |date=May 2012 |work=American Community Survey Briefs |publisher=United States Census Bureau |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> According to Carolyn Chen, director of the Asian American Studies Program at ], {{as of|2012|12|lc=on}} Asian Americans made up twelve to eighteen percent of the student population at ] schools, larger than their share of the population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asians: Too Smart for Their Own Good? |author=Carolyn Chen |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/20/opinion/asians-too-smart-for-their-own-good.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=19 December 2012 |accessdate=3 March 2013}}</ref> For example, the ] Class of 2016 is 21% Asian American.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.admissions.college.harvard.edu/apply/statistics.html |title=A Brief Profile of the Admitted Class of 2016 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |year=2012 |work=statistics |publisher=President & Fellows of Harvard College |accessdate=2 April 2013}}</ref> | |||
| In the years immediately preceding 2012, 61% of Asian American adult immigrants have a bachelor or higher level college education.<ref name="RoAAPEW2012" /> | |||
| ==Cultural issues== | |||
| ===Undocumented immigration=== | |||
| {{Expand section|examples and additional citations|date=April 2011}} | |||
| In 2012, there are 1.3 million undocumented Asian Americans; and for those awaiting visas, there are lengthy backlogs with over 450 thousand Filipinos, over 325 thousand Indians, over 250 thousand Vietnamese, and over 225 thousand Chinese are awaiting visas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.travel.state.gov/pdf/WaitingListItem.pdf |title=Annual Report of Immigration Visa Applicants in the Family-sponsored and Employment-based preferences Registered at the National Visa Center as of November 1, 2012 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=1 November 2012 |work=Bureau of Consular Affairs |publisher=United States Secretary of State |accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=For Asian-Americans, Immigration Backlogs Are A Major Hurdle |author=Gene Demby |url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/itsallpolitics/2013/01/31/170744897/for-asian-americans-immigration-backlogs-are-becoming-a-major-hurdle |newspaper=National Public Radio |date=31 January 2013 |accessdate=5 February 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2009}}, ] and ] accounted for the highest number of alien immigrants for "Asian Americans" with an estimated undocumented population of 270,000 and 200,000 respectively. ]s are also the fastest growing alien immigrant group in the United States, an increase in undocumented immigration of 125% since 2000.<ref></ref><ref> {{dead link|date=October 2012|url=http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-industry/services/travel/visa-power/Indians-fastest-growing-illegal-immigrant-group-in-US/articleshow/4880276.cms}}</ref> This is followed by ] (200,000) and Chinese (120,000).<ref name="illegalimmigration">{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2009.pdf|title=Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2009|last=Hoeffer|first=Michael|last2=Rytina|first2=Nancy|last3=Campbell|first3=Christopher|publisher=Department of Homeland Security|accessdate=April 9, 2010| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20100407165222/http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2009.pdf| archivedate= April 7, 2010 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Due to the stereotype of Asian Americans being successful as a group, the immigration debate often leaves out Asians and focuses on those from Latin America.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:124622/CONTENT/pols_w3245_2009_weingarten.pdf |title=Asian American Immigration Status |author=Liza Weingarten |coauthors=Raymond Arthur Smith |year=2009 |work=Majority Rule and Minority Rights Issue Briefs |publisher=Columbia University |accessdate=March 4, 2012 |quote=Deemed successful as a complete group, the national immigration debate often leaves out Asians focusing instead on South America primarily. Furthermore, a failed attempt to naturalize can actually result in deportation. Because fluency in English is one of the criteria for naturalization, certain ethnicities within the panethnic Asian American immigrant identity are more strongly affected than others. But Asians are noticeably absent from the immigration debate, according to public radio reports. }}</ref> Asians are the second largest racial/ethnic alien immigrant group in the U.S. behind Hispanics and Latinos.<ref name="Estimates from PHC">{{cite news| first = Jeffrey| last = Passel|url= http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/44.pdf | format = PDF|title= Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population|publisher=Pew Hispanic Center |date= March 21, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnyc.org/articles/its-free-country/2011/nov/14/asian-immigration-and-myth-model-minority/ | title= Asian Immigration and the Myth of the "Model Minority"|author=Erwin De Leon |year=2011 |publisher=WNYC |accessdate=June 12, 2012}}</ref> While the majority of Asian immigrants to the United States immigrate legally,<ref>{{cite news |title=New Asian Immigrants To US Now Surpass Hispanics |author= |url=http://washington.cbslocal.com/2012/06/19/new-asian-immigrants-to-us-now-surpass-hispanics/ |newspaper=CBSDC |date=19 June 2012 |accessdate=19 June 2012 |quote=While immigrants from Asia often obtain visas and arrive legally, many also sneak across the U.S. border or become undocumented residents after overstaying their visas.}}</ref> up to 15% of those immigrants immigrate without legal documents.<ref>{{cite news |title=How Asians displaced Hispanics as biggest group of new US immigrants |author=Mark Guarino |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/2012/0619/How-Asians-displaced-Hispanics-as-biggest-group-of-new-US-immigrants |newspaper=]|date=19 June 2012 |accessdate=21 June 2012 |quote=For example, 45 percent of Hispanic immigrants are undocumented compared with about 13 percent of Asian immigrants, according to the survey.}}</ref> | |||
| ===Race-based violence=== | |||
| {{See also|Yellow Peril|Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States|Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States}} | |||
| Historically Asian Americans have been the target of violence based on their race and or ethnicity. This includes, but are not limited to, such events as the ],<ref>{{cite book |title=Rock Springs |last=Tanner |first=Russel |coauthors=Margie Fletcher Shanks |year=2008 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=9780738556420 |page=31 |page=128 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KACOt5b4UxwC&lpg=PA31&dq=Rock%20Springs%20Massacre&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q=Rock%20Springs%20Massacre&f=false |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref> ] ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/riots.html |title=Racial Riots |work=Office of Multicultural Student Services |publisher=] |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Racial hate once flared on Central Coast |url=http://www.pinnaclenews.com/life/contentview.asp?c=198024 |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20110719151157/http://www.pinnaclenews.com/life/contentview.asp?c=198024 |archivedate=2011-07-10 |newspaper=The Weekend Pinnacle Online |date=October 27, 2006 |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}, ] in 1916 against South Asians,</ref> ] following the ].,<ref>{{cite book |title=Prejudice, war, and the Constitution |last=Tenbroek |first=Jacobus |coauthors=Edward Norton Barnhart, Floyd W. Matson |year=1975 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520012622 |page=352 |page=408 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q6il2D3OdrMC&lpg=PA352&dq=anti%20japanese%20attacks%20california%201942&pg=PA352#v=onepage&q=anti%20japanese%20attacks%20california%201942&f=false |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref> and ] targeted during the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Koreans in the hood: conflict with African Americans |last=Chung Kim |first=Kwang |year=1999 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=9780801861048 |page=146 |page=250 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jA034iKl_EgC&lpg=PA146&dq=Koreans%20attacked%20los%20angeles%20riots&pg=PA146#v=onepage&q=Koreans%20attacked%20los%20angeles%20riots&f=false |accessdate=March 21, 2011 }}</ref> According to historian ]: "Indian massacres of Chinese was a commonplace experience on the ], the most notable being the "legendary slaughter by ] of forty to sixty Chinese miners in 1866.{{" ' "}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Arif Dirlik, Malcolm Yeung |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=C-p1AAAAMAAJ |title=Chinese on the American Frontier |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield|year=2001 |isbn= 0847685322}}</ref> Violence against Asian Americans continue to occur based on their race,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html |title=Race and Resentment |author=Thomas Sowell |date=May 9, 2010 |publisher=Real Clear Politics |accessdate=March 21, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110214052558/http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2010/05/09/race_and_resentment_105419.html| archivedate= February 14, 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> with one source asserting that Asian Americans are the fastest growing targets of hate crimes and violence.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml |title=Anti-Asian Racism & Violence |author=C.N. Le |date=March 21, 2011 |publisher=asian-nation.org |accessdate=March 22, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110430174336/http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml| archivedate= April 30, 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> | |||
| After the ], ]s were targeted, being the recipient of numerous ] including murder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sikhtimes.com/news_093002a.html |title=Turbans and Terror: Racism After Sep. 11 |author=Valarie Kuar Brar |date=September 30, 2002 |publisher=The Sikh Times |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sikh killed, others are targeted; Arizona man held |author=Foster Klug |url=http://www.seattlepi.com/attack/39155_backlash17.shtml |newspaper=Seattle Post-Intelligencer |date=September 17, 2001 |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Multicultural Counseling |last=Ponterotto |first=Joseph G. |coauthors=Lisa A. Suzuki, J. Manuel Casas, Charlene M. Alexander |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=9781412964326 |page=472 |page=826 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=puj6Nx42imcC&lpg=PA472&ots=FUWfcuf1_8&dq=sikhs%20targeted%202001&pg=PA472#v=onepage&q=sikhs%20targeted%202001&f=false |accessdate=March 21, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Asian Americans: contemporary trends and issues |last=Min |first=Pyong Gap |year=2006 |publisher=Pine Forge Press |isbn=9781412905565 |page=216 |page=358 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5PSYZMs8TzEC&lpg=PA100&ots=I_AqSYdJxg&dq=asian%20student%20attacked%20san%20francisco&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q=muder&f=false |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref> Other Asian Americans have also been the victim of race based violence in ],<ref name="2005USATODAY">{{cite news |title=Asian youth persistently harassed by U.S. peers |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-13-asian-teens-bullied_x.htm |newspaper=USA Today |date=November 13, 2005 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite news |title=Racial violence spurred Asian students to take a stand |author=Sarah Hoye |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-22/living/philly.school.asian.american.attacks_1_asian-students-chinese-student-association-south-philadelphia-high-school?_s=PM:LIVING |newspaper=CNN |date=October 22, 2010 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Attacked Asian Students Afraid To Go to School |author=Danielle Johnson |url=http://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/Attacked-Asian-Students-Fear-Returning-to-Class-78652997.html |newspaper=] |date=December 7, 2009 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref> ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian American attacks focus at City Hall |author=C.W. Nevius |url=http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-04-29/bay-area/20878116_1_city-hall-african-americans-asian-americans |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |date=April 29, 2010 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite news |title=Asian Students Attacked At Indiana University |author=Danielle Wiener-Bronner |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/11/01/asian-students-attacked-a_n_776988.html |work=Huffington Post |date=November 1, 2010 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref> Furthermore, it has been reported that young Asian Americans are more likely to be a target of violence than their peers.<ref name="2005USATODAY" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Asian Parents and Students Face Challenge of Diversity |author=Hubert Lu |author2=Peter Schurmann |url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=8a49ccad0897d1e28fe15b417c0b4152 |newspaper=Douwei Times |date=July 1, 2007 |accessdate=March 22, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hyvpc/files/2004BYSfullreport.pdf |title=Report of the 2004 Boston Youth Survey |author=Thomas M. Menino |authorlink=Thomas Menino |date=August 2005 |work=Harvard Youth Violence Prevention Center |publisher=Harvard School of Public Health |accessdate=March 22, 2011| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20110412190551/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hyvpc/files/2004BYSfullreport.pdf| archivedate= April 12, 2011 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> Racism and discrimination still persists against Asian Americans occurring not only to recent immigrants but also towards well-educated and highly trained professionals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Working with Asian Americans: A Guide for Clinicians |last=Lee |first=Evelyn |year=2000 |publisher=] |location=New York, New York |isbn=9781572305700 |page=22 |page=504 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PLXmf749kmAC&lpg=PA22&dq=Religions%20%22Asian%20Americans%22&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q=Religions%20%22Asian%20Americans%22&f=false |accessdate=March 6, 2012}}</ref> Examples include a boycott of Asian-owned businesses in ] in 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/01/31/2012013100895.html |title=Racial Tension Rising in Dallas Against Korean Community |work=] |date=January 31, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dallasnews.com/news/community-news/dallas/headlines/20120205-tensions-flare-in-protest-of-south-dallas-gas-station.ece |title=Racial tensions flare in protest of South Dallas gas station |publisher='']'' |date=February 5, 2012}}</ref> ] received by Filipinos in ] in 2013,<ref>{{cite news |title=Derek Valencia, Filipino-American, Reports Racist Hate Mail About 'Filthy' 'Filipino Scum' |author=Anna Almendrala |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/08/derek-valencia-filipino-hate-mail_n_2433328.html |newspaper=Huffington Post |date=8 January 2013 |accessdate=15 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Filipino-Americans in Napa Co. targeted in hate mail |author=Laura Anthony |url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=news/local/north_bay&id=8948327 |newspaper=KGO-TV |date=9 January 2013 |accessdate=15 January 2013}}</ref> and looting of Asian-owned businesses during the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Koreans in the Hood: Conflict With African Americans |last=Kim |first=Kwang Chung |authorlink= |year=1999 |publisher=JHU Press |location=Baltimore, Maryland |isbn=9780801861048 |page=250 |accessdate=July 29, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Koreans_in_the_Hood.html?id=jA034iKl_EgC }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots |last=Abelmann |first=Nancy |last2=Lie |first2=John |year=1995 |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674077058 |page=288 |accessdate=July 29, 2012 |url=http://books.google.com/books/about/Blue_Dreams.html?id=BawoT007lesC }}</ref> | |||
| ===Stereotypes=== | |||
| {{Main|Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States|Stereotypes of South Asians}} | |||
| {{See also|Bamboo ceiling|Ching Chong}} | |||
| Until the late 20th century, the term "Asian American" was adopted mostly by activists, while the average person of Asian ancestries identified with their specific ethnicity.<ref name="yip">{{cite web|url=http://www.asianweek.com/061397/feature.html |author=Alethea Yip|publisher=Asian Week |title=Remembering Vincent Chin |accessdate=March 14, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070318184237/http://www.asianweek.com/061397/feature.html| archivedate= March 18, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> The murder of ] in 1982 was a pivotal civil rights case, and it marked the emergence of Asian Americans as a distinct group in United States.<ref name=yip/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.michigan.gov/documents/ACAPAA_policy_recommendation_159211_7.pdf |format=PDF|author=ACAPAA |publisher=State of Michigan |title=Pilicy Recommendation Document. |accessdate=March 14, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070308150132/http://www.michigan.gov/documents/ACAPAA_policy_recommendation_159211_7.pdf| archivedate= March 8, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> | |||
| Stereotypes of Asians have been largely collectively internalized by society and these stereotypes have mainly negative repercussions for Asian Americans and Asian immigrants in daily interactions, ], and governmental ]. In many instances, media portrayals of East Asians often reflect a dominant ] perception rather than realistic and authentic depictions of true cultures, customs and behaviors.<ref name="vanishing">{{Citation |last=Kashiwabara |first=Amy |url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Amydoc.html |title=Vanishing Son: The Appearance, Disappearance, and Assimilation of the Asian-American Man in American Mainstream Media |publisher=UC Berkeley Media Resources Center}}</ref> Asians have experienced ] and have been victims of ]s related to their ethnic stereotypes.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pearl Harbor and Asian-Americans |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/26/opinion/pearl-harbor-and-asian-americans.html |newspaper=New York Times |date=26 October 1991 |accessdate=31 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Study has indicated that most non-Asian Americans do not generally differentiate between Asian Americans of different ethnicities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Asian American panethnicity: bridging institutions and identities |last=Espiritu |first=Yen le |year=1993 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=9781566390965 |page=139 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=q2BqIYxOghsC&vq |accessdate=March 18, 2011}}</ref> ]s of both groups are nearly identical.<ref name="c100">{{cite web|url=http://www.committee100.org/media/media_eng/042501.html |author=Committee of 100 |title=Committee of 100 Announces Results of Landmark National Survey on American Attitudes towards Chinese Americans and Asian Americans |date=April 25, 2001 |accessdate=June 14, 2007}}</ref> A 2002 survey of Americans' attitudes toward Asian Americans and Chinese Americans indicated that 24% of the respondents disapprove of ] with an Asian American, second only to African Americans; 23% would be uncomfortable supporting an Asian American presidential candidate, compared to 15% for an African American, 14% for a woman and 11% for a Jew; 17% would be upset if a substantial number of Asian Americans moved into their neighborhood; 25% had somewhat or very negative attitude toward Chinese Americans in general.<ref name="sfgate">{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2001/04/27/MN199998.DTL |author=Matthew Yi, et al. |title=Asian Americans seen negatively |accessdate=June 14, 2007 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref> The study did find several positive perceptions of Chinese Americans: strong family values (91%); honesty as business people (77%); high value on education (67%).<ref name=c100/> | |||
| There is a widespread perception that Asian Americans are not "American" but are instead "]".<ref name=sfgate/><ref name="wu">{{cite web|url=http://www.modelminority.com/article676.html |archiveurl=//web.archive.org/web/20070928140811/http://www.modelminority.com/article676.html |archivedate=September 28, 2007|author=Frank H. Wu|title=Asian Americans and the Perpetual Foreigner Syndrome|accessdate=June 14, 2007}}{{Dead link|date=April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The politics of Asian Americans: diversity and community |last=Lien |first=Pei-te |coauthors=Mary Margaret Conway, Janelle Wong |year=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415934657 |page=7 |page=266 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=o7ucGq1RZ-EC&lpg=PA7&dq=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&f=false |accessdate=February 9, 2012 |quote=In addition, because of their perceived racial difference, rapid and continuous immigration from Asia, and on going detente with communist regimes in Asia, Asian Americans are construed as "perpetual foreigners" who cannot or will not adapt to the language, customs, religions, and politics of the American mainstream. }}</ref> Asian Americans often report being asked the question, "Where are you really from?" by other Americans, regardless of how long they or their ancestors have lived in United States and been a part of its society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Yellow: race in America beyond black and white |last=Wu |first=Frank H. |authorlink=Frank H. Wu |year=2003 |publisher=] |isbn=9780465006403 |page=79 |page=416 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkPvf5Cs-DgC&lpg=PA77&dq=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q=%22asian%20americans%22%20perpetual%20foreigners&f=false |accessdate=February 9, 2012}}</ref> Many Asian Americans are themselves not immigrants but rather born in the United States. Many are asked if they are Chinese or Japanese, an assumption based on major groups of past immigrants.<ref name=wu/><ref name="unlv">{{cite web|url=http://magazine.unlv.edu/Issues/Spring07/16image.html |author=K. Bergquist |title=Image Conscious |accessdate=June 14, 2007| archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20070709081932/http://magazine.unlv.edu/Issues/Spring07/16image.html| archivedate= July 9, 2007 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> | |||
| ====Model minority==== | |||
| {{Main|Model minority|Bamboo ceiling}} | |||
| {{Race and income in US|float=right}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Asian Americans are sometimes characterized as a ] because many of their cultures encourage a strong work ethic, a respect for elders, a high degree of professional and academic success, a high valuation of family, education and religion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asian-nation.org/model-minority.shtml |title=The Model Minority Image |last1=Le |first1=C.N. |year=2001 |work=Asian-Nation: The Landscape of Asian America |publisher=C.N. Le |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wu |first=Frank H. |title=Yellow: Race in America Beyond Black and White |chapter=The Model Minority: Asian American 'Success' as a Race Relations Failure |url=http://www.faculty.umb.edu/lawrence_blum/courses/318_11/readings/wu_model_minority.pdf |accessdate=18 February 2013 |year=2002 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=9780465006403 |pages=39–77 }}</ref> Statistics such as high household income and low incarceration rate,<ref>{{Wayback |date=20080716060754 |url=http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/crimoff.htm#jail |title=''Bureau of Justice Statistics: Criminal Offenders Statistics'' }}, November 13, 2005. (archived from on July 16, 2008)</ref> low rates of many diseases and higher than average life expectancy<ref></ref> are also discussed as positive aspects of Asian Americans. | |||
| The implicit advice is that the other minorities should stop protesting and emulate the Asian American work ethic and devotion to higher education. Some critics say the depiction replaces biological racism with cultural racism, and should be dropped.<ref>Chih-Chieh Chou, "Critique on the notion of model minority: an alternative racism to Asian American?," ''Asian Ethnicity'', Oct 2008, Vol. 9#3 Issue 3, pp 219–229</ref> | |||
| This concept appears to elevate Asian Americans by portraying them as an elite group of successful, highly educated, intelligent, and wealthy individuals, but it can also be considered an overly narrow and overly one-dimensional portrayal of Asian Americans, leaving out other human qualities such as vocal leadership, negative emotions, risk taking, ability to learn from mistakes, and desire for creative expression.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/psy457_tizzle/the_model_minority |title=Asian Americans and the Media: Perpetuating the Model Minority |author=Joy Cheng |author2=Charles Hsieh |author3=Scott Lu |author4=Sarah Talog |work=Psychology 457.002 |publisher=University of Michigan |accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> Furthermore, Asian Americans who do not fit into the model minority mold can face challenges when people's expectations based on the model minority myth do not match with reality. Traits outside of the model minority mold can be seen as negative character flaws for Asian Americans despite those very same traits being positive for the general American majority (e.g., risk taking, confidence, empowered). For this reason, Asian Americans encounter a "bamboo ceiling," the Asian American equivalent of the ] in the workplace, with only 1.5% of ] ]s being Asians, a percentage smaller than their percentage of the total United States population.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asians in America: What's Holding Back the "Model Minority?" |author=Sylvia Ann Hewlett |url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/sylviaannhewlett/2011/07/28/asians-in-america-whats-holding-back-the-model-minority/ |newspaper=Forbes |date=28 July 2011|accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| The model minority concept can also affect Asians' public education.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kumar |first=Revathy |last2=Maehr |first2=Martin L. |editor1-first=Judith L. |editor1-last=Meece |editor2-first=Jacquelynne S. |editor2-last=Eccles |chapter=Schooling, Cultural Diversity, and Student Motivation |title=Handbook of Research on Schools, Schooling and Human Development |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FnrxPTyhCRMC&lpg=PA308&ots=HQBIAocnPv&dq=%22Asian%20American%22%20%22risk%20taking%22%20confidence%20empowered%20%22model%20minority%22&lr&pg=PA314#v=onepage&q=Model%20Minority&f=false |accessdate=19 February 2013 |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780203874844 |page=314 |page=536 }}</ref> By comparison with other minorities, Asians often achieve higher test scores and grades compared to other Americans.<ref>"Asian Americans outperform whites in terms of their overall or average grades (GPA), grades in math, and test scores in math", , Tseng, V., Chao, R. K., & Padmawidjaja, I. (2007). Asian Americans educational experiences. In F. Leong, A. Inman, A. Ebreo, L. Yang, L. Kinoshita, & M. Fu (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American Psychology, (2nd Edition) Racial and Ethnic Minority Psychology (REMP) Series (pp. 102–123). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications (MS Word format, via , ).</ref> Stereotyping Asian American as over-achievers can lead to harm if school officials or peers expect all to perform higher than average.<ref name="Yellow_Wu">{{cite book|title=Yellow|publisher=Basic Books|year=2002|author=Frank H. Wu|isbn=978-0-465-00639-7}}</ref> The very high educational attainments of Asian Americans has often been noted; in 1980, for example, 74% of Chinese Americans, 62% of Japanese Americans, and 55% of Korean Americans aged 20–21 were in college, compared to a third of the whites. The disparity at postgraduate levels is even greater, and the differential is especially notable in fields making heavy use of mathematics. By 2000, a majority of undergraduates at such elite public California schools as ] and ], which are obligated by law to not consider race as a factor in admission, were Asian American. The pattern is rooted in the pre-World War II era. Native-born Chinese and Japanese Americans reached educational parity with majority whites in the early decades of the 20th century.<ref>Charles Hirschman and Morrison G. Wong, "The Extraordinary Educational Attainment of Asian-Americans: A Search for Historical Evidence and Explanations," ''Social Forces'', Sept 1986, Vol. 65#1 pp 1–27</ref> | |||
| The "model minority" stereotype fails to distinguish between different ethnic groups with different histories. When divided up by ethnicity, it can be seen that the economic and academic successes supposedly enjoyed by Asian Americans are concentrated into a few ethnic groups. Cambodians, Hmong, and Laotians (and to a lesser extent, Vietnamese), all of whose relatively low achievement rates are possibly due to their ] status, and that they are non-voluntary immigrants as other ethnicities are more likely to be;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asian-nation.org/demographics.shtml |title=Socioeconomic Statistics & Demographics : Asian-Nation :: Asian American History, Demographics, & Issues |publisher=Asian-Nation |date= |accessdate=2012-11-11}}<br/>{{cite news |title=Asian Americans to Pew Study: We’re Not Your ‘Model Minority’ |author=Julianne Hing |url=http://www.thehartfordguardian.com/2012/06/22/asian-americans-to-pew-study-were-not-your-model-minority/ |newspaper=The Hartford Guardian |date=22 June 2012 |accessdate=22 June 2012}}</ref> additionally, one in five Hmong and Bangladeshi people live in ].<ref name="SAddams3MAY12"/> | |||
| Furthermore, the model minority concept can be emotionally damaging to Asian Americans, particularly since they are expected to live up to those peers who fit the stereotype.<ref>{{cite news |title=Asians Often Burdened as Model Minority |author=Doris Nhan |url=http://www.nationaljournal.com/thenextamerica/education/asians-often-burdened-as-model-minority-20120511 |newspaper=National Journal |date=15 May 2012 |accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> Studies have shown that Asian Americans suffer from higher rates of stress, depression, mental illnesses, and suicides in comparison to other races,<ref></ref> indicating that the pressures to achieve and live up to the model minority image may take a mental and psychological toll on Asian Americans.<ref>{{cite news |title=Push to achieve tied to suicide in Asian-American women |author=Elizabeth Cohen |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/05/16/asian.suicides/ |newspaper=CNN |date=16 May 2007 |accessdate=19 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|United States|Asian Americans|Asia|Society|Social sciences}} | |||
| {{Commons category|Asian Americans}} | |||
| <div class= style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> | |||
| * ] | |||
| *] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * Southeast Asian British: ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Chan, Sucheng. "The changing contours of Asian-American historiography," ''Rethinking History,'' March 2007, Vol. 11 Issue 1, pp 125–147; surveys 100+ studies of defining events; Asian diasporas; social dynamics; cultural histories. | |||
| * Chan, Sucheng. ''Asian Americans: an interpretive history'' (Twayne, 1991). ISBN 978-0-8057-8437-4 | |||
| * Chau Trinh-Shevrin, Nadia Shilpi Islam, Mariano Jose Rey. ''Asian American Communities and Health: Context, Research, Policy, and Action'' (Public Health/Vulnerable Populations), 2009. ISBN 978-0-7879-9829-5 | |||
| * Chin, Gabriel J., Ed., (2005) ISBN 978-0-8377-3105-6 | |||
| * Choi, Yoonsun. "." (, ) '']''. Received 26 August 2006. Accepted 13 October 2006. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. DOI 10.1007/s10964-006-9152-4. May 2007, Volume 36, Issue 4, pp 403–415. | |||
| * Chiu, Monica, ed. ''Asian Americans in New England: Culture and Community'' (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 2009. xviii, 252 pp.) isbn 978-1-58465-794-1 | |||
| * Kwong, Peter and Dusanka Miscevic. ''Chinese America: The Untold Story of America's Oldest New Community'' (2005) | |||
| * ] ''Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics'' Durham: Duke University Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8223-1864-4 | |||
| * Matsumoto, Jon. "." '']''. September 4, 1998. | |||
| * Okihiro, Gary Y. ''The Columbia Guide to Asian American History'' (Columbia UP, 2005) | |||
| * Pyong Gap Min ''Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues'' Thousand Oaks, Ca.: Pine Science Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-4129-0556-5 | |||
| * ] ''Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans'' New York: Little, Brown, 1998. ISBN 978-0-316-83130-7. | |||
| ** adapted by Rebecca Stefoff: ''Raising Cane. The World of Plantation Hawaii'', Chelsea House Publishers, New York/Philadelphia 1994, ISBN 0-7910-2178-5. | |||
| * Tamura, Eileen H. "Using the Past to Inform the Future: An Historiography of Hawaii's Asian and Pacific Islander Americans," ''Amerasia Journal,'' 2000, Vol. 26 Issue 1, pp 55–85 | |||
| * ] ''Yellow: Race in American Beyond Black and White'' New York: Basic Books, 2002. ISBN 978-0-465-00639-7 | |||
| * ] ''Asian American Dreams: The Emergence of an American People'' New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000. ISBN 978-0-374-52736-5. | |||
| * ] and ] III '']: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States'' New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998. ISBN 978-0-871-54995-2. | |||
| '''Journals''' | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| * , , U.S. Census Bureau | |||
| * | |||
| * Asian American History, Culture, Statistics, & Issues | |||
| * | |||
| * , .. | |||
| * Asia Society, New York, May 19, 2010 | |||
| {{Overseas Asians}} | |||
| {{Asian Americans}} | |||
| {{Demographics of the United States}} | |||
| {{Race in the 2000 U.S. Census}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 17:28, 14 March 2014
WING WONG DONG