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| ]s is labelled in green. ] is in orange]] | |||
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| {{Hinduism small}} | |||
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| The '''religion of the ]''' (1500 BC to 500 BC<ref></ref>) (also known as '''Vedism''', '''Vedic Brahmanism''', '''ancient Hinduism'''{{refn|group=note|In the 19th century the term "Hinduism" was restricted to "living Hinduism", with its emphasis on ''Bhakti''.{{sfn|Stietencron|2005|p=231}} Under the influence of the ] ], which emphasised the Vedic heritage, and the growing awareness of the continuity of certain elements, the term "ancient Hinduism" has been applied by some to the Vedic period.{{sfn|Stietencron|2005|p=231}} Nevertheless, the period between 800 BCE and 200 BCE sees fundamental changes, which result in "Hinduism".{{sfn|Smart|2003}}{{sfn|Michaels|2004}}{{sfn|Muesse|2003}}}} or, in a context of Indian antiquity, simply '''Brahmanism'''{{refn|group=note|The ] of 2005 uses all of "Vedism", "Vedic Brahmanism" and "Brahmanism", but reserves "Vedism" for the earliest stage, predating the Brahmana period, and defines "Brahmanism" as ''"religion of ancient India that evolved out of Vedism. It takes its name both from the predominant position of its priestly class, the Brahmans, and from the increasing speculation about, and importance given to, Brahman, the supreme power."''}}) is a historical predecessor of modern ], though significantly different from it.{{refn|group=note|Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel, Vedic Hinduism, 1992, "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."}} | |||
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| The Vedic ] is conserved in the ] portion of the four ],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Four Vedas|url=http://hinduism.about.com/cs/vedasvedanta/a/aa120103a_2.htm|work= About dot Com|accessdate=7 November 2012}}</ref> which are compiled in ]. The religious practices centered on a ] administering ]. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a small fraction of conservative ] continue the tradition of oral recitation of hymns learned solely through the oral tradition. | |||
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| ==Textual history== | |||
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| Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in ], are mainly the four Vedic ]s, but the ]s, ]s and some of the older ] (], ], ]) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the ] connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the ]s. According to traditional views, the hymns of the ] and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the ]s, who were considered to be seers or "hearers" ('']'' means "what is heard") of the Veda, rather than "authors". In addition the Vedas are said to be "apaurashaya", a Sanskrit word meaning "uncreated by man" and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status. | |||
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| ==Characteristics== | |||
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| {{See also|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion}} | |||
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| ===Rituals=== | |||
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| {{Main|Yajurveda|yajna}} | |||
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| ] yajna being performed in South India.]] | |||
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| The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like ], ] and performance of sacrifices. The priests performed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (]s) and wealthy commoners ]s. People prayed for abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors. This mode of worship has been preserved even today in ], which involves recitations from the Vedas by a purohita (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general well-being. However, the primacy of Vedic deities has been seconded to the deities of ] literature. | |||
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| Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:<ref>Prasoon, (Prof.) Shrikant. Indian Scriptures. Pustak Mahal (11 August 2010). Ch.2, Vedang, Kalp. ISBN 978-81-223-1007-8.</ref> | |||
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| *The ] rituals, which involved the extraction, utility and consumption of Soma: | |||
| **The ] or Soma sacrifice | |||
| *]s involving oblations (havir): | |||
| **The ] or oblation to ], a sun charm, | |||
| **The ], the sophisticated ritual of piling the ]. | |||
| **The New and Full Moon as well as the Seasonal (]) sacrifices | |||
| *The royal consecration (]) sacrifice | |||
| *The ] or A Yajna dedicated to the glory, wellbeing and prosperity of the Rashtra the nation or empire<ref> | |||
| ], '''' (1899), 1987 reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, ISBN 81-215-0047-8.</ref> | |||
| *The ]. | |||
| *The rituals and ] referred to in the ] are concerned with medicine and healing practices.<ref>Bloomfield Maurice. Hymns of the Atharva Veda. Kessinger Publishing (1 June 2004). P. 1-8. ISBN 1419125087.</ref> | |||
| The Hindu rites of ] are seen since the Rigvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the ], there is a late Rigvedic reference invoking forefathers "both cremated (''agnidagdhá-'') and uncremated (''ánagnidagdha-'')".(RV 10.15.14)<ref>Dudi, Amar Singh. Ancient India History. Neha Publishers and Distributors (10 January 2012). Ch. 9. Vedic Religion, Rituals. ISBN 978-93-80318-16-5.</ref><ref>Sabir, N. Heaven Hell OR??. Publisher: Xlibris (7 October 2010). P. 155. ISBN 1453550119.</ref> | |||
| ===Pantheon=== | |||
| {{Main|Rigvedic deities}} | |||
| Though a large number of ] are named in the Rig Veda, only 33 devas are counted, eleven each of earth, space and heaven.<ref>Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 8126902868. P. 150.</ref> The Vedic pantheon knows two classes, ]s and ]s. The Devas (], ], ], ], Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The ] is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic ], ] the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and ], the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians.<ref>, from '']''. Accessed 15 June 2012</ref> Also prominent is ] (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the ].<ref>Renou, Louis. ''L'Inde Classique'', vol. 1, p. 328, Librairie d'Ameriqe et d'Orient. Paris 1947, reprinted 1985. ISBN 2-7200-1035-9.</ref> | |||
| ===Philosophy=== | |||
| :''See also ]'' | |||
| Vedic philosophy primarily begins with the later part of the Rigveda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE.<ref>Oberlies (1998:155) gives an estimate of 1100 BC for the youngest hymns in book 10. Estimates for a ''terminus post quem'' of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Oberlies (p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100</ref> Most of the philosophy of the Rigveda is contained in the sections ] and ].<ref name="KP18">Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 18-19.</ref> | |||
| Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, ], ], and ].<ref>P. 285 ''Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary'' By S. Devadas Pillai</ref> | |||
| ===Ethics — satya and rta=== | |||
| {{See also|Asha}} | |||
| Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of ] and ]. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute,<ref>Krishnananda. Swami. A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India, Divine Life Society. p. 21</ref> whereas Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.<ref>Holdrege (2004:215)</ref> Panikkar remarks: | |||
| {{quote|''Ṛta'' is the ultimate foundation of everything; it is "the supreme", although this is not to be understood in a static sense It is the expression of the primordial dynamism that is inherent in everything...."<ref>Panikkar 2001:350–351</ref>}} | |||
| The term is inherited from the ], the religion of the ] prior to the earliest ] (Indo-Aryan) and ] (Iranian) scriptures. '']''{{Pronunciation-needed}}<!-- as IPA --> (''aša'') is the ] term (corresponding to ] ]) for a concept of cardinal importance<ref name="DG_1963_46">{{harvnb|Duchesne-Guillemin|1963|p=46}}.</ref> to ] theology and doctrine. | |||
| Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment. The term Dharma was already used in Brahmanical thought, were it was conceived as an aspect of ].<ref>Day, Terence P. (1982). ''The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature''. Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. P. 42-45. ISBN 0-919812-15-5.</ref> | |||
| The concept of ] or sacrifice is also enunciated in the Purusha sukta where reaching the Absolute itself is considered a transcendent sacrifice when viewed from the point of view of the individual.<ref name="purusha">The Purusha Sukta in by Swami Krishnananda</ref> | |||
| ==Post-Vedic religions== | |||
| {{Main|Indian religions|History of Hinduism}} | |||
| The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC. The period after the Vedic religion, between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, is the formative period for Hinduism, ] and ].{{sfn|Smart|2003}}{{sfn|Michaels|2004}}{{sfn|Muesse|2003}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=82, 224–49}} According to Michaels, the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of "ascetic reformism".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=36}}{{refn|group=note|According to Michaels, the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=38}}}} Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period": | |||
| {{quote|...this was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic pariod".{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=115}}}} | |||
| According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed between 800 BCE and 200 BCE:{{sfn|Muesse|2003}}{{refn|group=note|Although the concept of reincarnation originated during the time of the Shramanic reforms and the composition of the Upanishads,{{sfn|Muesse|2003}} according to ] the Rig-Vedic ]s believed in ] and ].<ref>(Page 169) The Yoga Tradition By Georg Feuerstein</ref>}} | |||
| {{quote|Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma, to a cycle of endless existences.{{sfn|Muesse|2003|p=14}}}} | |||
| The Vedic religion gradually metamorphosed into the various schools of ], which further evolved into ] ].<ref>Swami Krishnananda, ''A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India'', Divine Life Society. p. 42</ref> However aspects of the historical Vedic religion survived in corners of the Indian subcontinent, such as ] where the ] Brahmins continue the ancient Śrauta rituals, which are considered extinct in all other parts. | |||
| ===Post-Vedic Hinduism=== | |||
| {{Main|Hinduism|History of Hinduism}} | |||
| The Hindu samskaras | |||
| {{quote|...go back to a hoary antiquity. The Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Grhyasutras, the Dharmasutras, the Smritis and other treatises describe the rites, ceremonies and customs.<ref>Pandey, Rajbali, "Hindu Samskaras" (Motilal Banarasidass Publ., 1969)</ref>}} | |||
| The worshipping rituals developed in such a way that | |||
| {{quote|A formal distinction was maintained between Srauta rites (rites using the Vedic hymns), which were necessarily performed by priests, and Griha ("domestic") rites, performed by the Aryan householder himself; but both the latter and the former were subject to priestly influence. Some domestic rites became almost indistinguishable from the priestly Srauta sacrifices; and, even where older ceremonies were retained, they were usually interwoven with elements of the priestly ritual.<ref>Hopkins, Thomas J., The Hindu Religious Tradition (Belmont: Dickenson Publications, 1971), 15</ref>}} | |||
| ====Vedanta==== | |||
| Vedic religion was followed by ] which gradually evolved into ], which is regarded by some as the primary institution of ]. ] considers itself "the purpose or goal of the Vedas."<ref>Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the ], wrote in ]'s ''The American College Dictionary'' (1966): "It is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."</ref> The philosophy of Vedanta (lit. “The end of the Vedas"), transformed the Vedic worldview to monistic one. This led to the development of ] metaphysics and gave rise to new forms of yoga, such as ] and ].<ref> InfoRefuge.</ref> There are some conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged. (see ], ]).<ref>Kelkar, Siddharth. . Express India. Retrieved 16 June 2012.</ref> | |||
| Of the continuation of the Vedic tradition in a newer sense, Jeaneane D. Fowler writes the following: | |||
| {{Cquote|Despite the radically different nature of the Upanishads in relation to the ''Vedas'' it has to be remembered that the material of both form the ''Veda'' or "knowledge" which is ''sruti'' literature. So the ''Upanishads'' develop the ideas of the ''Vedas'' beyond their ritual formalism and should not be seen as isolated from them. The fact that the Vedas that are more particularly emphasized in the Vedanta: the efficacy of the Vedic ritual is not rejected, it is just that there is a search for the Reality that informs it.<ref>P. 46 ''Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism'' By Jeaneane D. Fowler</ref>}} | |||
| ====Bhakti==== | |||
| The Vedic gods declined{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} but did not disappear, and local cults were assimilated into the Vedic-brahmanic pantheon, which changed into the Hindu pantheon.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=39}} Deities arose that were not mentioned or barely mentioned in the Veda, especially Shiva and Vishnu,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} and gave rise to ] and ].{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=40}} | |||
| ====Interpretations of Vedic Mantras in Hinduism==== | |||
| The various Hindu schools and traditions give various interpretations of the Vedic hymns. | |||
| ] philosophers argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the ]s or a god to validate the rituals.<ref>{{cite book|title=Religious ruth|first=Robert|last=Neville|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ThLR13JpCWsC|page=51}}</ref> Mimamsa argues that the gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the '']s'' that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of gods.<ref>{{cite book|title=The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought|first=Harold|last=Coward|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C|page=114}}</ref> | |||
| ] interpreted Vedas as being ] or ].<ref>{{cite book | last=Sharma | first=Chandradhar | title=Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey| publisher=Barnes & Noble| location=New York | year=1962 | page=vi | chapter=Chronological Summary of History of Indian Philosophy}}</ref> However, ] holds the view that the Vedic mantras tend to ].<ref> by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Chapter 7</ref> Even the earlier ] of Rig Veda (books 1 and 9) contains hymns which are thought to have a tendency toward monotheism.<ref>Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. Vedic Mythology. Forgotten Books (23 May 2012). P. 17. ISBN 1440094365.</ref> Often quoted isolated ] 1.164.46 of the Rig Veda states (trans. ]): | |||
| :''{{IAST|Indraṃ mitraṃ varuṇamaghnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo gharutmān,}}'' | |||
| :''{{IAST|ekaṃ sad viprā bahudhā vadantyaghniṃ yamaṃ mātariśvānamāhuḥ}}'' | |||
| :"They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān. | |||
| :To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan". | |||
| Moreover, the verses of ] and 10.130, deal with the one being (Ékam sát). The verse 10.129.7 further confirms this (trans. ]): | |||
| :''{{IAST| iyám vísṛṣṭiḥ yátaḥ ābabhūva / yádi vā dadhé yádi vā ná / yáḥ asya ádhyakṣaḥ paramé vyóman / sáḥ aṅgá veda yádi vā ná véda}}'' | |||
| :"He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not, He who surveys it all from his highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps even he does not" | |||
| ===Sramana tradition=== | |||
| {{Main|Sramana|Jainism|Buddhism}} | |||
| The non-Vedic ] traditions existed alongside Brahmanism.<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972">S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972)</ref><ref>Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref>{{refn|group=note|Cromwell: "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972" />}}{{refn|group=note|>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."}}{{refn|group=note|P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"}} These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions,<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972"/> reflecting "the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India".{{sfn|Zimmer|1989|p=217}} Jainism and Buddhism evolved out of the Shramana tradition.<ref>Jain, Arun. 2008. ''Faith & philosophy of Jainism''. p. 210.</ref><ref>Svarghese, Alexander P. 2008. ''India : History, Religion, Vision And Contribution To The World.'' p. 259-60.</ref> | |||
| There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic ]s. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of ] (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE).<ref>Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."</ref><ref>Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.17. "Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE."</ref> ], traditionally put from c. 500 BC, ] in India over the 5th to 12th centuries in favor of Puranic Hinduism<ref>"Buddhism". (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 November 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition.</ref> and Islam.<ref>P. 78 - 83 ''Freeing the Buddha: Diversity on a Sacred Path--large Scale Concerns'' By Brian Ruhe</ref><ref>P. 183 ''Islamic Jihad: A Legacy of Forced Conversion, Imperialism, and Slavery'' By M. A. Khan</ref><ref>P. 110 ''A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism'' by K. T. S. Sarao, University of Delhi. Dept. of Buddhist Studies</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
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| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|group=note|2}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|2}} | |||
| ==Sources== | |||
| {{refbegin}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =1999 | title =Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East" | publisher =Routledge}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Muesse | first =Mark William | year =2003 | title =Great World Religions: Hinduism | url =http://www.docshut.com/rquv/lectures-on-great-world-religions-hinduism.html}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Smart | first =Ninian | year =2003 | title =Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions) | place =Kampen | publisher =Uitgeverij Kok}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Von Stietencron | first =Heinrich | year =2005 | title =Hindu Myth, Hindu History: Religion, Art, and Politics | publisher =Orient Blackswan}} | |||
| * {{Citation | last =Zimmer | first =Heinrich | year =1989 | title =Pholosophies of India | publisher =Princeton University Press}} | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| {{Hindudharma}} | |||
| {{Hindu Culture and Epics}} | |||
| {{Indian Philosophy}} | |||
| {{Religion topics}} | |||
| {{Portalbar|India|Indian religions|Hinduism}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Historical Vedic Religion}} | |||
| ] | |||
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