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| It is bad for you. don't use it. | |||
| {{About||the plant genus|Nicotiana|the American electronic musician|Tobacco (musician)}} | |||
| {{distinguish|Tabacco}} | |||
| {{Tobacco}} | |||
| {{Lead too long|date=April 2014}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ], Australia.]] | |||
| ] tobacco leaves drying in the sun at ] village in ].]] | |||
| '''Tobacco''' is a plant within the genus ] of the ] (nightshade) family. There are ] of tobacco. Products manufactured from dried tobacco ] include ]s, ]s, ], ], chewing tobacco and flavored ]. Other uses of tobacco include plant bioengineering and ornamentals, while chemical components of tobacco are used in some pesticides and medications.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-208929/tobacco |title = tobacco |work = Student Encyclopedia | publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica |date = |accessdate = 2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| The chief commercial species, N. tabacum, is believed to have been native to tropical America, like most nicotiana plants, but has been so long cultivated that it is no longer known in the wild. ''N. rustica'', a species producing fast-burning leaves, was the tobacco originally raised in Virginia, but it is now grown chiefly in Turkey, India, and Russia. The addictive alkaloid ] is popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco, but harmful effects of tobacco consumption can derive from the thousands of different chemicals in the smoke, including ] (such as ]), ], ], ], ], ] (TSNAs), ], and many others.<ref name="tobaccocontrol.bmj.com">Robert N. Proctor , ''Tobacco Control'', Tobacco Control 2012;21:87e91. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338</ref> Tobacco also contains ] alkaloids which ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15582589 |title=Human monoamine oxidase is inhibi... [Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| Tobacco cultivation is similar to other agricultural products. ]s are sown in ]s or hotbeds to prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the fields. Tobacco is an annual crop, which can be harvested mechanically or by hand. After harvest, tobacco is stored for curing, either by hanging, bundling or placing in large piles with tubular vents to allow the heat to escape from the center. Curing allows for the slow ] and degradation of ]s, causing the product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Following this, tobacco is processed into its various forms for consumption. Most cigarettes incorporate flue-cured tobacco, which produces a milder, more inhalable smoke. Use of low-pH, inhalable, flue-cured tobacco is one of the principal reasons smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases associated with smoke inhalation.<ref name="tobaccocontrol.bmj.com"/> | |||
| For consumption, tobacco most commonly appears in the forms of ], ], ]ing, or ] tobacco. It had long been in use as an ] in the Americas, but upon the arrival of ]ans in North America, it quickly became popularized as a trade item and a widely abused drug. This popularization fueled the development of the economy of the southern ]. Following the ], a change in demand and production techniques allowed for the development of the ]. This new product quickly led to the growth of tobacco companies. | |||
| An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population, use tobacco in some form.<ref name="Gilman26">Saner L. Gilman and Zhou Xun, "Introduction" in ''Smoke''; p. 26</ref> Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in ], but continue to rise in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs339/en/ |title=Who Fact Sheet: Tobacco |publisher=Who.int |date=2013-07-26 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| According to the ] (WHO), tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally. In a 2008 report, WHO estimated that it causes 5.4 million deaths per year.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_forward_summary_2008.pdf|title=WHO Report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008 (foreword and summary)|publisher=]|year=2008|format=PDF|page=8|quote=Tobacco is the single most preventable cause of death in the world today.}}</ref> Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the ], ] and ], with smoking being a major risk factor for ], ]s, ] (COPD) (including ] and ]), and ] (particularly ], ], and ]). Also, because of the powerfully addictive properties of tobacco, ] and ] develop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tobaccofacts.org/tob_truth/soaddictive.html|title=Tobacco Facts - Why is Tobacco So Addictive?|publisher=Tobaccofacts.org|date=|accessdate=2008-09-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/PhilipMorris/pmorris.html|title=Philip Morris Information Sheet|publisher=Stanford.edu|date=|accessdate=2008-09-18 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080405204802/http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/PhilipMorris/pmorris.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2008-04-05}}</ref> | |||
| ==Etymology== | |||
| The Spanish and Portuguese word {{not a typo|''tabaco''}} is thought to have originated in ], the ] language of the ]. In Taino, it was said to refer either to a roll of tobacco leaves (according to ], 1552), or to the ''tabago'', a kind of Y-shaped pipe for sniffing tobacco smoke also known as ] (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as ''cohiba'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wais.stanford.edu/Cuba/cuba_ColumbusDiscoversCuba(110503).html|title=World Association of International Studies, Stanford University}}</ref> | |||
| However, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define medicinal ]s which is believed to be originating from the ] طبق ''tabbaq'', a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as the name of various herbs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tobacco|title=Online Etymological Dictionary}}</ref> Others argued the word may have actually originated from India as tambākū; तंबाकू.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}} | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{Main|History of tobacco}} | |||
| {{See also|History of commercial tobacco in the United States}} | |||
| ===Early developments=== | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas when European settlers arrived and introduced the practice to Europe, where it became popular. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 B.C.<ref>Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture: An Encyclopedia. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005. Print</ref> Eastern North American tribes carried large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, and often smoked it in ], either in defined sacred ceremonies, or to seal a bargain,<ref>e.g. Heckewelder, ''History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania'', p. 149 ff.</ref> and they smoked it at such occasions in all stages of life, even in childhood.<ref>"They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way." - Dièreville describing the ], c. 1699 in ''Port Royal''.</ref> It was believed that tobacco is a gift from the Creator, and that the exhaled tobacco smoke carries one's thoughts and prayers to ].<ref> | |||
| ''Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States'', Jack Jacob Gottsegen, 1940, p. 107.</ref> | |||
| Before the development of lighter Virginia and White Burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled traditionally by Native Americans in ceremonial use or by Europeans who used it in the form of pipes and cigars.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.awarenessmag.com/julaug9/JA9_CALU.HTML|title=INDIAN CALUMET: The Pipe of Peace}}</ref> Inhaling "rough" tobacco without seriously damaging the lungs in the short term required smoking only small quantities at a time using a pipe like the ] or ] or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the ] or the ] (See ] for a modern continuance of this practice). Inhaling smoke was already common in ] and ] through the consumption of ] and ] millennia before. | |||
| ===Popularization=== | |||
| ]'s ''Tobacco, its History and Association'', 1859.]] | |||
| Following the arrival of the Europeans, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. It fostered the ] for the ] until it was replaced by cotton. Following the American civil war, a change in demand and a change in labor force allowed inventor ] to create a machine that automated cigarette production. | |||
| This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the ] until the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century. | |||
| ====Tobacco consumption per capita==== | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
| |+Tobacco Consumption Per Capita (15+ Years) (grammes, 2011) | |||
| |- | |||
| !Country||Consumption per Capita | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Czech Republic}} | |||
| |2 328 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|South Korea}} | |||
| |2 151 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Germany}} | |||
| |1 748 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Switzerland}} | |||
| |1 690 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Turkey}} | |||
| |1 633 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|USA}} | |||
| |1 374 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Finland}} | |||
| |1 221 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|Norway}} | |||
| |1 073 | |||
| |- | |||
| |{{flag|United Kingdom}} | |||
| |969 | |||
| |} | |||
| Source:Helgi Library <ref name="Tobacco Consumption Per Capita (15+ Years) "> | http://helgilibrary.com/indicators/index/tobacco-consumption-per-capita-15-years | datum přístupu=2014-02-10</ref> | |||
| ===Contemporary=== | |||
| Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco became condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became encompassed as a cause for cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the ] (MSA), which settled the lawsuit in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products. | |||
| In the 1970s, ] cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce ]. This strain of tobacco contained an unusually high amount of nicotine, nearly doubling its content from 3.2-3.5% to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the ] (FDA) to use this strain as evidence that ] were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of ]s. | |||
| In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization (WHO)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/fctc/en/index.html|title=WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)|publisher=Who.int|date=|accessdate=2008-09-18}}</ref> successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The Convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. This led to the development of tobacco cessation products. | |||
| ==Biology== | |||
| ===Nicotiana=== | |||
| {{Main|Nicotiana}} | |||
| {{See also|List of tobacco diseases}} | |||
| ] is the compound responsible for the addictive nature of Tobacco use.]] | |||
| ] | |||
| There are many species of tobacco in the genus of herbs ''Nicotiana''. It is part of the nightshade ] (]) indigenous to ] and ], ], South West ] and the ]. | |||
| Many plants contain ], a powerful ] to ]s. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other plants. Unlike many other Solanaceae, they do not contain ]s, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals. | |||
| Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as ] and ] and other ] alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most ]s,<ref>Panter ''et al.'' (1990)</ref> a number of such animals have ]d the ability to feed on ''Nicotiana'' species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species, and accordingly some tobacco plants (chiefly ], ''N. glauca'') have become established as ]s in some places. | |||
| ===Types=== | |||
| {{Main|Types of tobacco}} | |||
| There are a number of types of tobacco including, but are not limited to: | |||
| * '']'' is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in ]. Fire-cured tobacco grown in ] and ] are used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is ], which is produced from oriental varieties of ''N. tabacum''. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in ] and ]. | |||
| * '']'', Brightleaf is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of the state where they are planted. Prior to the ], most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia tobacco.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imperialtobaccocanada.com/groupca/sites/IMP_7VSH6J.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/DO7VVQQ4?opendocument&SKN=1 |title=Our products |publisher=Imperial Tobacco Canada |date=2013-09-27 |accessdate=2014-04-21}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'', is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for ] production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April. | |||
| * '']'' is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type, but is usually one of, or a blend of ], ], and ], and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars. | |||
| * '']'' is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of ]s. It was, by most accounts, one of the original ]n tobaccos that emerged around the time of ]. | |||
| * '']'', is a tobacco originally grown in ], mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a ]. | |||
| * '']'', is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety ('']'') that is grown in ], ], ], and ]. Originally grown in regions historically part of the ], it is also known as "oriental". Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Turkish tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Turkish). | |||
| * '']'', a farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation. Considered the ] of ] tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend. | |||
| * '']'', is cultivated in ] and ]. Early Connecticut ]s acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the ] referred to it as the "evil weed". The ] industry has weathered some major ], including a devastating ]storm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the increase in the value of land. | |||
| * '']'', in 1865, George Webb of ], ] planted red ] seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco. | |||
| * '']'', is native to the southwestern United States, ], and parts of ]. Its botanical name is ''Nicotiana rustica''. | |||
| * '']'' is a strain of tobacco ] by ] in the 1970s to obtain an unusually high ] content. In the 1990s, the United States ] (FDA) used it as evidence that ] were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of ]s.<ref name="pbs">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/settlement/interviews/kessler.html|title=Inside the Tobacco Deal - interview with David Kessler|publisher=]|year=2008|accessdate=2008-06-11}}</ref> | |||
| ==Impact== | |||
| ===Social=== | |||
| Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and when done by women was sometimes associated with ]; in Japan, during the ], prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th-century Europe.<ref name="Screech-Smoke">Timon Screech, "Tobacco in Edo Period Japan" in ''Smoke'', pp. 92-99</ref> | |||
| Following the ] the usage of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with ] and power, and is an iconic image associated with the stereotypical ]. Today, tobacco is often rejected; this has spawned quitting associations and anti-smoking campaigns. ] is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal.<ref>, ]</ref> | |||
| ===Demographic=== | |||
| {{Main|Prevalence of tobacco consumption}} | |||
| Research is limited mainly to tobacco smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. As of 2000, smoking is practiced by some 1.22 billion people, of which men are more likely to smoke than women<ref name="HNPGuindonBoisclair13-16">"]" 2004, pp. 13-16.</ref> (however the gender gap declines with age),<ref>'']'' 2001, pp.5-6.</ref><ref>'']'' 2001, p.47.</ref> poor more likely than rich, and people in developing countries or transitional economies more likely than people in developed countries.<ref name="WHOTobaccoFactSheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/exeres/978BE0FD-AE30-46C6-8F75-1F40AE7B57BC.htm|title=WHO/WPRO-Tobacco|accessdate=2009-01-01|author=|last=|first=|authorlink=| |date=|year=2005 |work=|publisher=World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</ref> As of 2004, the ] (WHO) reports that of the 58.8 million deaths occurring globally,<ref>'']'' 2008, p.8.</ref> 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed.<ref>'']'' 2008, p.23.</ref> | |||
| ===Harmful effects of tobacco and smoking=== | |||
| {{Main|Health effects of tobacco}} | |||
| {{See also|List of additives in cigarettes}} | |||
| ] | |||
| According to the ] (WHO), tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally.<ref name="isbn92-4-159628-7">{{cite book | author = World Health Organization | title = WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008: The MPOWER Package | edition = | language = | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | year = 2008 | pages = | isbn = 92-4-159628-7 | url = http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf }}{{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref> | |||
| The harms caused by using tobacco include diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for ], ]s, ] (COPD), ], and ] (particularly ], ], and ]). | |||
| The WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004<ref name="WHO">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf |title=WHO global burden of disease report 2008 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.<ref name=WHO2>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_prevalence_data_2008.pdf |title=WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> Similarly, the United States ] describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide."<ref name="fn1">"." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</ref> | |||
| Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, approximately 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills approximately 46,000 nonsmokers every year.<ref> by BeTobaccoFree.gov</ref> | |||
| Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm#fig |title=Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006 |publisher=Cdc.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_20020528/en/ |title=WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics |publisher=Wpro.who.int |date=2002-05-27 |accessdate=2014-04-21}}</ref> | |||
| When the market for tobacco reduced in the West, the industry looked to India and China for 'emerging markets'. In response, various activists in these markets have campaigned against tobacco products. | |||
| China is the world's largest manufacturer of cigarettes, producing about 2.4 trillion per year or 40 percent of the world's total.<ref name="tobaccocontrol.bmj.com"/> Changes have been made to eliminate advertising, post health warnings, and ban smoking from public buildings. | |||
| ==Economic== | |||
| {{Expand section|discussion of the impact on the poor, taxation, and so forth|date=January 2009}} | |||
| "Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor", and of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies.<ref name="WHOTobaccoFactSheet" /> | |||
| In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15% of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10% of households expenditure in low-income homes is on tobacco. The poorest 20% of households in Mexico spend 11% of their income on tobacco.<ref><!--TEMPORARY REF, PRIMARY SOURCE IS UNDERWAY -->M POWER p. 26</ref> | |||
| ==Production== | |||
| {{Refimprove|date=May 2008}} | |||
| ===Cultivation=== | |||
| {{Main|Cultivation of tobacco}} | |||
| ], ].]] | |||
| Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. ]s were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from ]s (''Epitrix cucumeris'' or ''Epitrix pubescens''), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in ]s or hotbeds, as their ] is activated by light.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} | |||
| In the ], tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral ], which partially starves the plant of ], to produce a more desired flavor. | |||
| After the plants are about eight inches tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in — all in one motion.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} | |||
| Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be ]ed in several ways. In the oldest method still used today, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife. It is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner will involve the serial harvest of a number of "primings," beginning with the ] leaves near the ground, working to the ] leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ] leaves at the top. Before this the crop needs to be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed and, eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand. Most tobacco in the U.S. is grown in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia.<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.tobaccofreekids.org/research/factsheets/pdf/0125.pdf | title = Tobacco-growing states in the USA|publisher = Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids}}</ref> | |||
| ===Curing=== | |||
| {{Main|Curing of tobacco}} | |||
| ] used for air curing of shade tobacco.]] | |||
| ], ].]] | |||
| Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow ] and degradation of ]s in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet hay, ], ], or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which ] protein, and is oxidized into ]s (AGEs), a ] process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A, Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A|title=Tobacco smoke is a source of toxic reactive glycation products|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=94|issue=25|year=1997|pages=13915–20|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915|pmid=9391127|pmc=28407}}</ref> Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used. | |||
| Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including: | |||
| * ''']''' tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the tobacco smoke a light, mild flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley tobaccos are 'Dark' air cured.<ref>"tobacco curing." The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather guide. Abington: Helicon, 2010. Credo Reference. Web. 26 September 2012.</ref> | |||
| * ''']''' tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. Fire curing produces a tobacco low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are fire cured. | |||
| * ''']''' tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: ]s, also traditionally called ). These barns have flues run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of the curing. The process generally takes about a week. This method produces cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine. | |||
| * ''']''' tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey, Greece and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes. | |||
| ===Consumption=== | |||
| {{Further|Tobacco products}} | |||
| Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Below are examples including, but not limited to, such forms and usage. | |||
| * ''']''' are thin, often flavoured cigarettes from ] made of tobacco wrapped in a ] leaf, and secured with coloured thread at one end. | |||
| * ''']''' is the oldest way of consuming tobacco leaves. It is consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands, or in a shredded form. When consuming the long sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently compacted, thus it can often be called ''dipping tobacco''. Both methods stimulate the saliva glands, which led to the development of the ]. | |||
| * ''']s''' are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco, which is ignited so its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth. | |||
| * ''']s''' are a product consumed through inhalation of smoke and manufactured from cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, then rolled into a paper cylinder. | |||
| * ''']s''' are tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin, spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed mainly to women in ], and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha Industries), Denobac, Tona, ]. It is locally known as "mishri" in some parts of Maharashtra. | |||
| * ''']s''' are a form of ]. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with ], which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums. | |||
| * ''']''' is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-size packets. | |||
| * ''']''' is a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Hookahs were first used in India and Persia,<ref>American Lung Association. February 2007 </ref> the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits or ], a mixture of tobacco, flavouring and ] or ]. | |||
| * ''']''' are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal ] of cloves to the lungs. | |||
| * ''']''', often called 'rollies' or 'roll-ups', are relatively popular in some European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers and filters all bought separately. They are usually cheaper to make. | |||
| * ''']''' typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited. | |||
| * ''']''' is a ground smokeless tobacco product, inhaled or "snuffed" through the nose. If referring specifically to the orally consumed ''moist snuff'' see '']''. | |||
| * ''']''' is a steam-cured moist powder ] product that is not fermented, and does not induce salivation. It is consumed by placing it in the mouth against the gums for an extended period of time. It is a form of ] used in a manner similar to American ], but does not require regular spitting. | |||
| * ''']''' is sometimes usedas a treatment for ], ], ], ], and ]s.<ref> Extension Entomologist of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service.</ref> An amount equivalent to the contents of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a 0.5 to 1 teaspoon of water to make a paste that is then applied to the affected area. | |||
| * ''']''' is a traditional ] ] used in domestic ]. Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled, the mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants, where it kills insects. Tobacco is however banned from use as pesticide in certified organic production.{{by whom|date=February 2012}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omri.org/simple-gml-search/results?page=12 |title=Generic Materials Search | Organic Materials Review Institute |publisher=Omri.org |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| ===Global production=== | |||
| ====Trends==== | |||
| ] in the 1930s]] | |||
| Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, during which 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, during which 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced.<ref name="United Nations 2010">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Projection of tobacco production, consumption and trade for the year 2010." Rome, 2003.</ref> According to the Food and Agriculture organization of the UN, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record high production of 1992, during which 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced.<ref name="United Nations 2004">The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.''Higher World Tobacco use expected by 2010-growth rates slowing down." (Rome, 2004).</ref> The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%.<ref>Rowena Jacobs, et. al, "The Supply-Side Effects Of Tobacco Control Policies," in Tobacco Control in Developing Countries, Jha and Chaloupka eds., Oxford University Press, 2000.</ref> During that same time period, production in developing countries actually decreased.<ref name="United Nations 2004"/> China’s increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China’s share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997.<ref name="United Nations 2010"/> This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64% in 1999 to 10% in 2004,<ref>Hu T-W, Mao Z, et al. "China at the Crossroads: The Economics of Tobacco and Health". Tobacco Control. 2006;15:i37–i41.</ref> it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost. | |||
| Every year 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6%), India (8.3%), Brazil (7.0%) and the United States (4.6%).<ref>US Census Bureau-Foreign Trade Statistics, (Washington DC; 2005)</ref> | |||
| ====Major producers==== | |||
| =====China===== | |||
| Around the peak of global tobacco production there were 20 million rural Chinese households producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land.<ref name="ReferenceA">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy.”</ref> While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugar cane. This is because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. STMA control tobacco production, marketing, imports and exports and contributes 12% to the nation's national income.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/english/2005-10/03/content_74295.htm |title=People's Republic of China. "''State Tobacco Monopoly Administration'' |publisher=Gov.cn |date=2005-09-15 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.<ref>USC U.S.-China Institute, "Talking Points, February 3–17, 2010: http://china.usc.edu/ShowArticle.aspx?articleID=1992</ref> | |||
| =====Brazil===== | |||
| In Brazil around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of the country’s total cultivated area.<ref name="ReferenceB">International Tobacco Growers’ Association. “Tobacco Farming: Sustainable Alternative.” Volume II East Sussix:</ref> In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia and Amarelinho flue-cured tobacco as well as Burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists and dark-cigarettes.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> | |||
| Brazil’s government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco, but has not had a successful systematic anti-tobacco farming initiative. Brazil’s government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the ''Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar'' (PRONAF).<ref>High Level Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor. “Report from South America.” 2006.</ref> | |||
| =====India===== | |||
| ]'s Tobacco Board is headquartered in ] in the state of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tobaccoboard.com/ |title=Tobacco Board, Guntur |publisher=Tobaccoboard.com |date= |accessdate=2014-04-21}}</ref> ] has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers<ref name="Shoba 2002">Shoba, John and Shailesh Vaite. Tobacco and Poverty: Observations from India and Bangladesh. Canada, 2002.</ref> and many more who are not registered. In 2010, there were 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities in all of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anythingresearch.in/Tobacco-Product-Manufacturing.html|title=AnythingResearch Report on the Tobacco Manufacturing Industry in India}}</ref> Around 0.25% of India’s cultivated land is used for tobacco production.<ref>3.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “Issues in the Global Tobacco Economy.”</ref> | |||
| Since 1947, the ] has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in ] (now known as ], ]), ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Shoba 2002"/> Rajahmundry houses the core research institute. The government has set up a Central Tobacco Promotion Council, which works to increase exports of Indian tobacco. | |||
| The Indian Government and several states have taken multiple measures to reduce Cigarette smoking. Smoking in public places is banned in many states, it is not allowed to be portrayed in movies, and warnings are posted on cigarette packs. | |||
| ====Minor producer==== | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| =====Philippines===== | |||
| Tobacco in the Philippines remained highly concentrated in 2009 and dominated by cigarette manufacturers ] Corporation and ]. The strength of these companies is due to their extensive distribution networks which encompass both traditional and non-traditional retail channels as well as their ability to offer their products at affordable prices. Top player Fortune Tobacco Corp maintained its leadership position throughout the review period as mass market cigarette smokers continued to purchase its economy cigarette brands, particularly leading brand Fortune International.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euromonitor.com/Tobacco_in_the_Philippines |title=Tobacco in the Philippines |publisher=Euromonitor.com |date=2011-05-30 |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| Cigarette prices in the Philippines are low, with the price of ] being the second lowest for all ASEAN nations. The cigarette market has been dominated by menthol brands for several decades, although non-menthol volume has been steadily improving in recent years. La Suerte Cigar and Cigarette Company and the ] Corporation (FTC) have been the two leading producers, and have had licensing agreements with PMI and RJ Reynolds (RJR) respectively. FTC commands a 67% market share, while La Suerte holds a 25% share. | |||
| ===Problems in tobacco production=== | |||
| ====Child labor==== | |||
| The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work.<ref name="ReferenceC">ILO. International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations: Field Crop Worker</ref> The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. There is widespread use of children on farms in Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi and Zimbabwe.<ref>UNICEF, The State of the World’s Children 1997 (Oxford, 1997); US Department of Agriculture By the Sweat and Toil of Children Volume II: The Use of Child Labor in US Agricultural Imports & Forced and Bonded Child Labor (Washington, 1995); ILO Bitter Harvest: Child Labour in Agriculture (Geneva, 1997); ILO Child Labour on Commercial Agriculture in Africa (Geneva 1997)</ref> While some of these children work with their families on small family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. | |||
| In late 2009 reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world’s tobacco<ref name="United Nations 2010"/>) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during the 2007-2008 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay, long hours as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors.<ref>Plan International. ''"Malawi Child Tobacco Pickers' '50-a-day habit"'' http://plan-international.org/about-plan/resources/media-centre/press-releases/malawi-child-tobacco-pickers-50-a-day-habit/?searchterm=tobacco</ref> They also reported suffering from ], a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50 cigarettes worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> | |||
| ====Economy==== | |||
| ], Cuba]] | |||
| Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. ], ] and ] each own or lease tobacco manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries.<ref>"International Cigarette Manufacturers," Tobacco Reporter, March 2001</ref> This encouragement, along with government subsidies has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000 the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%.<ref>{{cite web |title=Golden Leaf, Barren Harvest: The Costs of Tobacco Farming |url=http://www.ash.org.uk/files/documents/ASH_330.pdf |author=The Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids|date=November 2001}}</ref> Tobacco is the most widely ] legal product.<ref name=ICLJTU>{{cite news|title=Tobacco Underground|url=http://www.icij.org/project/tobacco-underground|accessdate=November 26, 2012|newspaper=The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists}}</ref> | |||
| ====Environment==== | |||
| Tobacco production requires the use of a large amount of ]s. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field.<ref name="Taylor, Peter 1994">{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Peter|title=Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco|publisher=Panos Briefing Paper|location=London|date=September 1994}}</ref> Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain.<ref>{{cite book|title=FAO Yearbook, Production, Volume 48|year=1995}}</ref> Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems.<ref>{{cite book|title=Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children|year=1995|publisher=National Academy Press|author=National Research Council}}</ref> | |||
| Tobacco is a crop that extracts nutrients, such as ], ] and ], from the soil more quickly than any other major crop.<ref name=wwf.panda>{{cite web|title=Agriculture and Environment: Tobacco|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/agriculture_impacts/tobacco/environmental_impacts/deforestation/|author=World Wildlife Fund}}</ref> This leads to dependence on fertilizers. | |||
| Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process.<ref name="wwf.panda"/> Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging and rolling cigarettes.<ref name="Taylor, Peter 1994"/> | |||
| ===Research=== | |||
| Several tobacco plants have been used as ]s in ]. ], derived from ''N. tabacum'' ] 'Bright Yellow-2', are among the most important research tools in plant ].<ref>Ganapathi TR et al . (2004) "Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) – A model system for tissue culture interventions and genetic engineering." Indian Journal of Biotechnology 3, 171 – 184.</ref> Tobacco has played a pioneering role in ] culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which ] works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural ]. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using ] to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant.<ref name=PNAS>Fraley, RT et al. (1983) Expression of bacterial genes in plant cells. Proc. NatL. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 4803-4807 </ref> This research laid the groundwork for all genetically modified crops.<ref name=TransgenicScience>{{cite web|url=http://www.cottoncrc.org.au/communities/Cotton_Info/The_Science_behind_Transgenic_cotton |title=Science of Transgenic Cotton |publisher=Cottoncrc.org.au |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| ===Genetic modification=== | |||
| Because of its importance as a research tool (see above), transgenic tobacco was the first GM crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.<ref name="James 1996">{{cite web|last=James|first=Clive|title=Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995|url=http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf|publisher=The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications|accessdate=17 July 2010|year=1996}}</ref> | |||
| ====Field trials==== | |||
| Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation, have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.<ref name=GMOCompass>{{cite web|url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/304.tobacco.html |title=Tobacco |publisher=GMO Compass |date= |accessdate=2013-10-03}}</ref> | |||
| ====Production==== | |||
| Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco.<ref name="James 1996" /><ref name=GMOCompass /> The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997.<ref>Conner AJ, Glare TR, Nap JP. Plant J. 2003 Jan;33(1):19-46.</ref>{{rp|3}} In the US, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content are available under the market name Quest.<ref name=GMOCompass /> | |||
| ===Advertising=== | |||
| {{Main|Tobacco advertising}} | |||
| Tobacco advertising is the advertising of tobacco products by the tobacco industry through a variety of media including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. It is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries. | |||
| {{Gallery | |||
| |title= | |||
| |footer= | |||
| |width=150 | |||
| |lines=3 | |||
| |File:Belomorkanalsav.jpg|] - Russian cigarettes | |||
| |File:Hans Rudi Erdt -Problem Cigarettes, 1912.jpg|Hans Rudi Erdt: Problem Cigarettes, 1912 | |||
| |File:FLI 117.jpg|French Painted Mural Advertisement | |||
| |File:Fachgeschäft für Tabakwaren.JPG|Tobacco display in Munich | |||
| |File:MuradTurksfull1918Life.jpg|Advertisement for "Murad" Turkish cigarettes 1918 | |||
| |File:EgyptianDeitiesLifeAd.jpg|Advertisement for "Egyptian Deities" cigarettes 1919 | |||
| }} | |||
| ===Cinema=== | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| * '']'' | |||
| ==Gallery== | |||
| {{Gallery | |||
| |title= | |||
| |footer= | |||
| |width=115 | |||
| |lines=6 | |||
| |File:Tobacco.jpg|''Broadleaf tobacco'' inspected in ]. | |||
| |File:Tobacoo field poland1.jpg|Tobacco field in northern ] | |||
| |File:Tobacco flowers poland1.jpg|Flowers of tobacco plant in northern Poland in September | |||
| |File:Tobacco Flowers.jpg|Tobacco flowers of tobacco plant in ]. | |||
| |File:Tabacco Field.jpg|Tobacco field in Rolesville, North Carolina. | |||
| |File:H022; Growing Tobacco.jpeg|Tobacco grown in ], ], c. 1921-1939 | |||
| |Image:TobaccoField.JPG|Tobacco growing in the ] | |||
| }} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| ===Notes=== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ===Bibliography=== | |||
| {{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
| * <cite id="WHO2008MPOWER">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf|format=PDF|title=WHO REPORT on the global TOBACCO epidemic|accessdate=2008-01-01|author=|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2008 |work=|publisher=World Health Organization|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="WHO2004GBD">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update|accessdate=2008-01-01|author=|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2008 |work=|publisher=World Health Organization|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="HNPGuindonBoisclair">{{cite web|url=http://www1.worldbank.org/tobacco/pdf/Guindon-Past,%20current-%20whole.pdf|format=PDF|title=Past, current and future trends in tobacco use|accessdate=2008-01-02|author=G. Emmanuel Guindon, David Boisclair|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2003 |work=|publisher=The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank|location=Washington DC|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="WomenTobaccoChallenges21st">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/media/en/WomenMonograph.pdf|format=PDF|title=Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century|accessdate=2009-01-02|author=The World Health Organization, and the Institute for Global Tobacco Control, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2001 |work=|publisher=World Health Organization|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="2001SurgeonGeneralWomen">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/2001/|title=Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking|accessdate=2009-01-03|author=|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2001 |work=|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="MortalityDevelopedOxford">{{cite web|url=http://www.ctsu.ox.ac.uk/~tobacco/SMK_All_PAGES.pdf|format=PDF|title=Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950-2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics|accessdate=2009-01-03|author=Richard Peto, Alan D Lopez, Jillian Boreham, and Michael Thun|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2006 |work=|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, NY|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="SmokeGilmanZhou">{{cite book|last=|first=|authorlink= |first1=Sander L.|last1=Gilman|first2=Xun|last2=Zhou|editor=|others=|title=Smoke: A Global History of Smoking|url=http://books.google.com/?id=mM5bYb_uVcwC|format=|accessdate=2009-01-01|edition=|series=|volume=|date=|origyear=|year=2004 |publisher=Reaktion Books|location=|language=|isbn=978-1-86189-200-3|oclc=|doi=|id=|page=|pages=|nopp=|chapter=|chapterurl=|quote=|ref=|bibcode=|laysummary=|laydate=|separator=|postscript=|lastauthoramp=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="ACS2004">{{cite web | |||
| |url=http://tobaccodocuments.org/pm/2073777259-7269.html | |||
| |title=Cancer Facts and Figures 2004: Basic Cancer Facts | |||
| |accessdate=2009-01-21 | |||
| |author= | |||
| |last= | |||
| |first= | |||
| |authorlink= | |||
| |date= | |||
| |year= | |||
| |work= | |||
| |publisher=American Cancer Society | |||
| |location= | |||
| |pages= | |||
| |language= | |||
| |doi= | |||
| |archiveurl= | |||
| |archivedate= | |||
| |quote= | |||
| }}</cite><!-- ACS. 2004. Cancer Facts and Figures 2004: Basic Cancer Facts. American Cancer Society. --><!-- CITATION INCOMPLETE --> | |||
| * <cite id="Lichtenstein2000">{{cite book|author=Paul Lichtenstein, Ph.D., Niels V. Holm, M.D., Ph.D., Pia K. Verkasalo, M.D., Ph.D., Anastasia Iliadou, M.Sc., Jaakko Kaprio, M.D., Ph.D., Markku Koskenvuo, M.D., Ph.D., Eero Pukkala, Ph.D., Axel Skytthe, M.Sc., and Kari Hemminki, M.D., Ph.D.|title=Environmental and Heritable Factors in the Causation of Cancer — Analyses of Cohorts of Twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/343/2/78|format=|accessdate=2009-01-21|edition=|series=|volume=343|date=|origyear=|year=2000 |publisher=New England Journal of Medicine|location=|language=|isbn=|oclc=|doi=|bibcode=|id=|page=|pages=|nopp=|chapter=|chapterurl=|quote=|ref=|laysummary=|laydate=|separator=|postscript=|lastauthoramp=}}</cite> | |||
| * <cite id="Montesano2001">{{cite journal|url=http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ejc/article/PIIS0959804901002660/abstract|title=Environmental causes of human cancers|accessdate=2009-01-21|author=Montesano, R., and Hall, J.|last=|first=|authorlink= |date=|year=2001 |format=|work=|publisher=European Journal of Cancer|location=|pages=|language=|doi=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|quote=}}</cite> | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |last=Janet E. Ash, Maryadele J. O'Neil, Ann Smith, Joanne F. Kinneary | |||
| |first=|authorlink=|title=The Merck Index|origyear=1996|edition=12|date=June 1997 | |||
| |publisher=Merk and Co.|isbn=0-412-75940-3}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| {{Refbegin|30em}} | |||
| <!-- CONVERT TO TEMPLATES; CHECK TO SEE IF IT CAN BE MOVED TO BIBLIOGRAPHY --> | |||
| * Benedict, Carol. ''Golden-Silk Smoke: A History of Tobacco in China, 1550-2010'' (2011) | |||
| * Breen, T. H. (1985). ''Tobacco Culture''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00596-6. ''Source on tobacco culture in 18th-century Virginia pp. 46–55'' | |||
| * Burns, Eric. The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007. | |||
| * W.K. Collins and S.N. Hawks. "Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production" 1st Edition, 1993 | |||
| * Fuller, R. Reese (Spring 2003). Perique, the Native Crop. ''Louisiana Life''. | |||
| * Gately, Iain. ''Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced Civilization.'' Grove Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8021-3960-4. | |||
| * Graves, John. "Tobacco that is not Smoked" in ''From a Limestone Ledge'' (the sections on snuff and chewing tobacco) ISBN 0-394-51238-3 | |||
| * Grehan, James. Smoking and "Early Modern" Sociability: The Great Tobacco Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries). ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. III, Issue 5. 2006. 22 March 2008 | |||
| * Hahn, Barbara. ''Making Tobacco Bright: Creating an American Commodity, 1617-1937'' (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2011) 248 pages; examines how marketing, technology, and demand figured in the rise of Bright Flue-Cured Tobacco, a variety first grown in the inland Piedmont region of the Virginia-North Carolina border. | |||
| * Killebrew, J. B. and Myrick, Herbert (1909). ''Tobacco Leaf: Its Culture and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture.'' Orange Judd Company. ''Source for flea beetle typology (p. 243)'' | |||
| * Murphey, Rhoads. ''Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture: 16th-18th Centuries''. Burlington, VT: Ashgate: Variorum, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7546-5931-0 ISBN 0-7546-5931-3 | |||
| * Price, Jacob M. “Tobacco Use and Tobacco Taxation: A battle of Interests in Early Modern Europe”. ''Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology''. Jordan Goodman, et al. New York: Routledge, 1995 166-169 ISBN 0-415-09039-3 | |||
| * Poche, L. Aristee (2002). ''Perique tobacco: Mystery and history''. | |||
| * Tilley, Nannie May ''The Bright Tobacco Industry 1860–1929'' ISBN 0-405-04728-2. ''Source on flea beetle prevention (pp. 39–43), and history of flue-cured tobacco'' | |||
| * Rivenson A., Hoffmann D., Propokczyk B. et al. Cancer Res (48) 6912–6917, 1988. (link to abstract; free full text pdf available) | |||
| * Schoolcraft, Henry R. Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1851–57) | |||
| * Shechter, Relli. ''Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East: The Egyptian Tobacco Market 1850–2000''. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2006 ISBN 1-84511-137-0 | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links | |||
| |wikt=Tobacco | |||
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| |q=Tobacco | |||
| |s=Tobacco | |||
| |commons=Category:Tobacco | |||
| |n=Category:Tobacco | |||
| |v=Category:Tobacco | |||
| }} | |||
| * | |||
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| * - WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation | |||
| * | |||
| * Medicinal history http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1079499/ | |||
| {{Plantation agriculture in the Southeastern United States}} | |||
| {{Psychoactive substance use}} | |||
| {{Drug use}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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| ] | |||
| {{Link FA|mk}} | |||
| {{Link FA|sl}} | |||
Revision as of 01:33, 15 May 2014
It is bad for you. don't use it.