Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 05:32, 4 July 2006

Down syndrome
Specialty	Medical genetics, neurology
Frequency	0.1%

Down syndrome (also Down's syndrome) or trisomy 21 is a genetic condition resulting from the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome. Down syndrome is characterized by a combination of major and minor abnormalities of body structure and function. Among features present in nearly all cases are impairment of learning and physical growth, and a recognizable facial appearance usually identified at birth. It is named after John Langdon Down, the British doctor who first described it in 1866.

While children with Down syndrome have lower than average cognitive ability, some have earned college degrees with accommodations, and nearly all will learn to read, write and do simple mathematics. The common physical features of Down syndrome also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include simian crease (a single crease across one or both palms), almond shaped eyes, shorter limbs, speech impairment, and enlarged tongue. In addition, health concerns for children with Down syndrome include a higher risk for congenital heart defects, gastroesophageal reflux disease, recurrent ear infections, obstructive sleep apnea, and thyroid disfunctions.

Early childhood intervention, screening for common problems, such as thyroid functioning, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, vocational training, etc., can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. Our experience with children with Down syndrome shows that while some genetic limitations cannot be overcome, education and proper care can produce excellent progress whatever the starting point. The commitment of parents, teachers, and therapists to individual children has produced previously unexpected positive results.

Characteristics

Individuals with Down syndrome may have some or all of the following physical characteristics: oblique eye fissures with small skin folds on the inner corner of the eyes, muscle hypotonia, flat nasal bridge, simian crease, large and protruding tongue, short neck, white spots on the iris, excessive flexibility in joints, congenital heart defect, excessive space between large and second toe, and fifth finger with one flexion furrow instead of two. In additional to observable physical characteristics, individuals with Down syndrome may have some medical concerns, discussed later.

Most children with Down syndrome have mental retardation in the mild (IQ 50-70) to moderate range (IQ 35-50), with scores for children with Mosaic Down syndrome some 10-30 points higher. Emotional and social abilities follow a more normal path, moderated by whatever cognitive disability the child may have.

History

English physician John Langdon Down first characterized Down syndrome as a distinct form of mental retardation in 1862, and in a more widely published report in 1866 entitled "Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots". Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities (epicanthal folds) with Mongolians, Down used the terms mongolism and mongolian idiocy. "Idiocy" was a medical term used at that time to refer to a severe degree of intellectual impairment.

By the 20 century, "mongolian idiocy" had become the most recognizable form of mental retardation. Most people with it were institutionalized. Few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most died in infancy or early adult life. With the rise of the eugenics movement, a number of states (33 of the 48 United States) and countries began programs of involuntary sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability. The ultimate expression of this type of public policy was the German euthanasia program "Aktion T-4" begun in 1940. Court challenges and public revulsion at the nature of these programs led to discontinuation or repeal of such programs during the decades after World War II. Even voluntary institutionalization of children with Down syndrome has become rare in Western countries.

Until the middle of the 20th century, the cause of Down syndrome remained unknown, although the presence in all races, the association with older maternal age, and the rarity of recurrence had been noticed. Standard medical texts assumed it was due to a combination of inheritable factors which had not been identified. There was some expert opinion that it might result from trauma occurring during pregnancy.

With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify the obvious abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape. In 1959, Professor Jérôme Lejeune discovered that Down's syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome. The extra chromosome was subsequently labeled as the 21st, and the condition as trisomy 21. The labeling of chromosome 21 represented an unintentional deviation from the genetic convention by which the 22 pairs of autosomes comprising the human karyotype were numbered from largest to smallest (excluding the sex chromosomes). Lejeune identified the extra chromosome in mongolism as the second smallest, hence 21. Although it was later determined that chromosome 22 is actually slightly larger than 21, it was deemed too confusing to change either the numbering of the two chromosomes or name of the trisomy.

In 1961, a group of nineteen geneticists wrote to the editor of The Lancet suggesting that mongolian idiocy had "misleading connotations," had become "an embarrassing term" and should be changed. The Lancet supported Down's Syndrome. The World Health Organization (WHO) officially dropped the reference to Mongolian in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate.

In 1974, the United States National Institute of Health convened a conference to standardize the naming of diseases and disorders. They recommended eliminating the possessive form: "The possessive form of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder." While both the possessive and non-possessive forms are used in the general population, Down syndrome is the accepted term among professionals in the USA, Canada and other countries, while Down's syndrome continues to be used in the United Kingdom and other areas.

Genetics

Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the 21st chromosome, either in whole (trisomy 21) or part (such as due to translocations). The effects of the extra copy varies greatly from individual to individual, depending on the extent of the extra copy, genetic background, environmental factors, and random chance. Down syndrome can occur in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species, such as chimpanzees and mice. Recently, researchers have been able to create transgenic mice with most of human chromosome 21 (in addition to their normal chromosomes).

A normal human karyotype is shown here. Every chromosome has two copies. In the bottom right, there are chromosomal differences between males (XY) and females (XX), which do not concern us. A normal human karyotype is designated as 46,XX or 46,XY, indicating 46 chromosomes with an XX arrangement for females and 46 chromosomes with an XY arrangement for males. For this section, we will use females for the karyotype designation (46,XX).

The extra chromosomal material can come about in several distinct ways. These are explained in the following sections.

Trisomy 21

Trisomy 21 (47,XX,+21) is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event. A normal gamete (either egg or sperm) has one copy of each chromosome (23 total). When it is combined with a gamete from the other parent during conception, the child has 46 chromosomes. However, with nondisjunction, a gamete is produced with an extra copy of chromosome 21 (the gamete has 24 chromosomes). When combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, the child now has 47 chromosomes, with three copies of chromosome 21. The trisomy 21 karyotype figure shows the chromosomal arrangement, with the prominent extra chromosome 21.

Trisomy 21 is the cause of approximately 95% of observed Down syndromes, with 88% coming from nondisjunction in the maternal gamete and 8% coming from nondisjunction in the paternal gamete. Mitotic nondisjunctions after conception would lead to mosaicism, and is discussed later.

There has been reported some cases of Down syndrome parents having trisomy 21 children. In these cases (all from mothers), the ovaries were trisomy 21, leading to a secondary nondisjunction during gametogenesis and a gamete with an extra chromosome 21. Such Down syndrome trisomies are indistinguishable from Down syndrome trisomies created through meiotic nondisjunction.

Robertsonian translocation

The extra chromosome 21 material that causes Down syndrome may be due to a translocation. The long arm of chromosome 21 is attached to another chromosome, often chromosome 14 (45,XX,t(14;21q)) or itself (called an isochromosome, 45,XX,t(21q;21q)) as seen in the translocation karyotype figure.

The manner by which this occurs is through a parent with a balanced translocation. The balanced translocation figure shows a 14/21 translocation, where the other chromosomes are not shown. The individual has two copies of everything on chromosome 14, and two copies of all of the material on the long arm of chromosome 21 (21q). The individual only has one copy of the material on the short arm of chromosome 21 (21p), but this appears to have no discernable effect. Individuals with this chromosomal arrangement are phenotypically normal. During meiosis, the chromosomal arrangement interferes with normal separation of chromosomes. Possible gametic arrangements are: Normal 14 and normal 21; Translocated 14/21 and normal 21; Translocated 14/21 only; Normal 14 and translocated 14/21; Normal 21 only. When combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, the last two are lethal, leading to spontaneous abortion. The first, combined with a normal gamete from the other parent, gives rise to a normal child. The second leads to a translocation Down syndrome child (see translocation karyotype figure). The third becomes a translocation carrier, like the parent.

Translocation Down syndrome is often referred to as familial Down syndrome. It is the cause of 2-3% of the observed Down syndromes. It does not show the maternal age effect, and is just as likely to have come from fathers as mothers.

Mosaicism

The individual is a mosaic of normal chromosomal arrangements and trisomy 21 (46,XX/47,XX,+21). This can occur in one of two ways: A nondisjunction event during an early cell division leads to a fraction of the cells with trisomy 21; or a Down syndrome embryo undergoes nondisjunction and some of the cells in the embryo revert back to the normal chromosomal arrangement. There is considerable variability in the fraction of trisomy 21, both as a whole and tissue-by-tissue. This is the cause of 1-2% of the observed Down syndromes. There is evidence that mosaic Down syndrome, may produce less developmental delay, on average, than full trisomy 21. It is likely that all people have an extremely small fraction of their cells that are trisomy 21, with no discernable effects.

Duplication of a portion of chromosome 21

Rarely, a region of chromosome 21 will undergo a duplication event. This will lead to extra copies of some, but not all, of the genes on chromosome 21 (46,XX,dup(21q)). If the duplicated region has genes that are responsible for Down syndrome physical and mental characteristics, such individuals will show those characteristics. This cause is very rare and no rate estimates are possible.

Incidence

The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1 per 1000 births. A recent study from the Center for Disease Control gives the rate as 1 per 733 live births. Approximately 95% of these are trisomy 21, making it the most common human aneuploidy. Down syndrome occurs in all ethnic groups and among all economic classes.

Maternal age influences the risk of conceiving a baby with Down syndrome. At maternal age 20 to 24, the risk is 1/1490, while at age 40 the risk is 1/106, and at age 49 the risk is 1/11. Although the risk increases with maternal age, most children with Down syndrome (80%) are born to women under the age of 35, reflecting the overall fertility of that age group. Other than maternal age, there are no other known risk factors. However, in up to 12% of trisomy 21 cases, the extra chromosome comes from the paternal gamete. There does not appear to be a paternal age effect.

Many standard prenatal screens can discover Down syndrome. Genetic counseling along with genetic testing, such as amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), and percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome. Genetic screens are often performed on pregnant women older than 30 or 35.

Prenatal screening

Pregnant women can be screened for various complications in their pregnancy. Some screens are designed to indicate neural tube defects (such as spina bifida), Trisomy 18, Down syndrome, or other possible problems. There are several common non-invasive screens that can indicate an increased chance for a Down syndrome fetus, as given in Table 1.

Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is 90%-95% and the rate of false positive of 2%-5%. False positives can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses (very rare with the ultrasound tests), incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.

Confirmation of the screen is normally accomplished with amniocentesis. This is an invasive procedure and involves taking amniotic fluid from the mother and identifying fetal cells. The risk of spontaneous abortion is approximately 1/200 to 1/300. The lab work can take a couple of weeks and will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems with a very low false positive rate. The vast majority of early screen positives are false. Amniocentesis confirmation presents a risk of spontaneously aborting a healthy fetus.

Ultrasound can also be a helpful tool for detecting certain markers that can be indicative of Down syndrome, including heart defects.

A 2002 review of elective abortion rates found that 91-93% of pregnancies with a diagnosis of Down syndrome were terminated. Physicians and ethicists are concerned about the ethical ramifications, with some commentators calling it "eugenics by abortion". Many members of the disability rights movement "believe that public support for prenatal diagnosis and abortion based on disability contravenes the movement's basic philosophy and goals."

Cognitive development

Cognitive development in children with Down syndrome is quite variable. Many can be successful in school, while others struggle. Because of this variability in expression of Down syndrome, it is important to evaluate children individually. The cognitive problems that are found among children with Down syndrome are also found among children without Down syndrome. This means that parents can take advantage of general programs that are offered through the schools or other means. Children with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities. It is not possible at birth to predict their capabilities. The identification of the best methods of teaching each particular child ideally begins soon after birth, through early intervention programs.

Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech. It is common for children with Down syndrome to need speech therapy to help with expressive language. Fine motor skills are delayed and often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development. Occupational therapy can address these issues.

Mainstreaming of children with Down syndrome is controversial. Mainstreaming is when students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their chronological peers. Children with Down syndrome do not age emotionally/socially and intellectually at the same rates as children without Down syndrome, so eventually the intellectual and emotional gap between children with and without Down syndrome widens. Complex thinking as required in sciences but also in history, the arts, and other subjects is often beyond their abilities, or achieved much later than in most children. Therefore, if they are to benefit from mainstreaming without feeling inferior most of the time, special adjustments must be made to the curriculum.

A danger in not mainstreaming is underestimating their abilities. This was more common in institutions, where children with Down syndrome often failed to reach their potential despite being capable of much more, but this issue is very real and present in the modern school system as well. Some European countries such as Germany and Denmark advise a two-teacher system, whereby the second teacher takes over a group of disabled children within the class. A popular alternative is cooperation between special education schools and mainstream schools. In cooperation, the core subjects are taught in separate classes, which neither slows down the non-disabled students nor neglects the disabled ones. Social activities, outings, and many sports and arts activities are performed together, as are all breaks and meals.

Alternative treatment

The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential is a non-profit organization which treats children who have, as the IAHP terms it, "some form of brain injury," including children with Down syndrome. The approach of "Psychomotor Patterning" is not proven, and is considered alternative medicine.

Health

Individuals with Down syndrome are at risk for various medical conditions. There is no way to predict what conditions they will have, if any. In addition, all these medical conditions can be exhibited by individuals without Down syndrome. It is important to keep these medical risks in mind while undergoing wellness checkups. The American Academy of Pediatrics has issued a policy statement on the health supervision for children with Down syndrome.

A partial list of risks is given below. Risks run from 80% for hearing deficits to 44% for congenital heart defects to 20% for hypothyroidism to rare but significantly increased risks for Leukemia.

• Congenital heart defects
• Increased susceptibility to infection
• Muscular/Skeletal abnormalities, including generally poor muscle tone (muscle hypotonia).
• Respiratory problems
• Obstructive sleep apnea
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease
• Obstructed digestive tracts
• Thyroid dysfunctions (hypothyroidism)
• Acute myeloid leukemia, although their survival and relapse rate is much better than average
• Infertility (nearly absolute in males, fertility in females is possible)
• Hearing deficits
• Enlargement of tongue in relationship to size of mouth
• Eye problems (cataracts, strabismus, near and far sightedness)
• Alzheimer's disease

There is some evidence that individuals with Down syndrome have a much lower rate of lung cancer than others, as is expected for all cancers caused by tumor suppressor genes.

As with all risks, this does not mean that everyone with Down syndrome will get these diseases, nor that an individual will get any of them. The concentration on wellness in individuals with Down syndrome and increased medical technology has vastly improved the length and quality of life. Current estimates give life expectancy in the United States as 55 years, compared to 77 years for the population in general. This life expectancy is a tremendous increase in recent years.

Plastic surgery

Plastic surgery has sometimes been advocated and performed on children with Down Syndrome, based on the idea that surgery can create a more normal facial appearance, which will decrease social stigma, and thus lead to a better quality of life. The National Down Syndrome Society has issued a "Position Statement on Cosmetic Surgery for Children with Down Syndrome" which states that "The goal of inclusion and acceptance is mutual respect based on who we are as individuals, not how we look." Plastic surgery on children with Down Syndrome is uncommon.

Medical research

Down syndrome disorders are based on the having too many copies of the genes located on chromosome 21. In general, this leads to an overexpression of the genes. Understanding the genes involved may help to target medical treatment to individuals with Down syndrome. It is estimated that chromosome 21 contains 200 to 250 genes. Recent research has identified a region of the chromosome that contains the main genes responsible for the pathogenesis of Down syndrome, located in the proximal part of 21q22.3. The search for major genes involved in Down syndrome characteristics is normally in the region 21q22.1–21q22.3.

Some suspected genes involved in features of Down syndrome are given in the Table 2:

To date, "no gene has yet been fully linked to any feature associated with Down syndrome."

Sociological and cultural aspects

It is not surprising that families of people with Down syndrome are at the forefront of disability advocacy.

Advocates for people with Down syndrome point to various factors, such as special education and parental support groups, that make life easier for parents. There are also great strides being made in education, housing, and social settings to create "Down-friendly" environments. In most developed countries, since the early 20th century many people with Down syndrome were housed in institutions or colonies and excluded from society. However, in the 21st century there is a change among parents, educators and other professionals generally advocating a policy of "inclusion", bringing people with any form of mental or physical disability into general society as much as possible. In many countries, people with Down syndrome are educated in the normal school system and there are increasingly higher quality opportunities to mix "special" education with regular education settings.

Despite this change, the reduced abilities of people with Down syndrome pose a challenge to their parents and families. While living with their parents is preferable to institutionalization for most adults with Down syndrome, they often encounter patronising attitudes and discrimination in the wider community.

World Down Syndrome Day

The first World Down Syndrome Day was held on 21 March 2006. The day and month were chosen to correspond with 21 and trisomy respectively. It was proclaimed by Down Syndrome International.

Notable individuals

Notable people with Down syndrome include:

• Chris Burke, actor (Life Goes On) and autobiographer
• Anne de Gaulle (1928-1948), daughter of Charles de Gaulle
• Brad Silverman, actor (I am Sam, Quantum Leap)
• Pascal Duquenne, actor (Le Huitième Jour aka The Eighth Day, Toto le héros aka Toto the Hero)
• Andrea Friedman, actor (Life Goes On), guest appearances on many other shows
• Stephane Ginnsz, actor (Duo (film)) First actor with Down syndrome in the lead part of a motion picture. (Official Site of the Film Duo;Stephane Ginnsz Official Website)
• Judith Scott, artist
• Miguel Tomasin, singer with Argentinian avant-rock band Reynols
• Joey Moss, Edmonton Oilers Locker room attendent

The Down Syndrome Association of Los Angeles has a more complete list of individuals with Down syndrome in roles in TV and movies.

Portrayal in fiction

• Bret Lott: Jewel
• Morris West: The Clowns of God
• Bernice Rubens: A Solitary Grief
• Emily Perl Kingsley: Welcome to Holland
• The Kingdom and its American counterpart, Kingdom Hospital
• Elizabeth Laird: Red Sky in the Morning
• Stephen King: Dreamcatcher
• Dean Koontz: The Bad Place
• Flannery O'Connor: The Violent Bear It Away
• William Faulkner: Benjamin Compson in The Sound and the Fury

References

1. Debra Wood (2005). "Down syndrome". Retrieved 2006-06-30.
2. "Keep Kids Healthy article on Down syndrome". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessed= ignored (help)
3. Strom, C. "FAQ from Mosaic Down Syndrome Society". Retrieved 2006-06-03.
4. Down, J.L.H. (1866). "Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots". Clinical Lecture Reports, London Hospital. 3: 259. For a history of the disorder, see Conor, Ward. "John Langdon Down and Down's syndrome (1828 - 1896)". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
5. "John Langdon Down: The Man and the Message". Down Syndrome Research and Practice. 6 (1): 19–24. 1999. Retrieved 2006-06-02. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
6. Warkany, J. (1971). Congenital Malformations. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. pp. 313–314. ISBN 0-8151-9098-0.
7. "Jérôme Lejeune Foundation". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
8. Allen, Gordon, C.E. Benda, J.A. Böök, C.O. Carter, C.E. Ford, E.H.Y. Chu, E. Hanhart, George Jervis, W. Langdon-Down, J. Lejeune, H. Nishimura, J. Oster, L.S. Penrose, P.E. Polani, Edith L. Potter, Curt Stern, R. Turpin, J. Warkany, and Herman Yannet (1961). "Mongolism (Correspondence)". The Lancet. 277 (7180): 775.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
9. ^ Leshin, Len (2003). "What's in a name". Retrieved 2006-05-12.
10. A planning meeting was held on March 20, resulting in a letter to The Lancet."Classification and nomenclature of malformation (Discussion)". The Lancet. 303 (7861): 798. 1974.
11. BBC News (22 September 2005). "Down's syndrome recreated in mice". Retrieved 2006-06-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
12. For a description of human karyotype see Mittleman, A. (editor) (1995). "An International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomeclature". Retrieved 2006-06-04. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
13. There is a nice animation that shows nondisjunction at "Meiotic nondisjunction animation". Retrieved 2006-06-31. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
14. ^ "Down syndrome occurrence rates (NIH)". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
15. For an example of mosaic Down syndrome mother, see Karkany, J. (1971). Congenital Malformations. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. pp. 319–322. ISBN 0-8151-9098-0.
16. Leshin, L. (2000). "Mosaic Down Syndrome". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
17. ^ Based on estimates by National Institute of Child Health & Human Development "Down syndrome rates". Retrieved 2006-06-21. Cite error: The named reference "NIHestimates" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
18. Center for Disease Control (6 January 2006). "Improved National Prevalence Estimates for 18 Selected Major Birth Defects, United States, 1999-2001". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 54 (51 & 52): 1301–1305. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
19. Hook, E.B. (1981). "Rates of chromosomal abnormalities at different maternal ages". Obstet Gynecol. 58: 282.
20. Estimate from "National Down Syndrome Center". Retrieved 2006-04-21.
21. Margareta Mikkelsen, Hanne Poulsen, Kim G. Nielsen (2006). "Incidence, survival, and mortality in Down syndrome in Denmark". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 37 (S2): 75–78. Retrieved 2006-07-03.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
22. ^ For a current estimate of rates, see Benn, PA, J Ying, T Beazoglou, JFX Egan. "Estimates for the sensitivity and false-positive rates for second trimester serum screening for Down syndrome and trisomy 18 with adjustments for cross-identification and double-positive results". Prenatal Diagnosis. 21 (1): 46–51.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
23. ^ Some practices report adding Nasal Bone measurements and increasing the detection rate to 95% with a 2% False Positive Rate.
24. NIH FASTER study (NEJM 2005 (353):2001). See also J.L. Simplson's editorial (NEJM 2005 (353):19).
25. Caroline Mansfield, Suellen Hopfer, Theresa M. Marteau (1999). "Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: a systematic literature review". Prenatal Diagnosis. 19 (9): 808–812.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
26. Glover, NM and Glover, SJ (1996). "Ethical and legal issues regarding selective abortion of fetuses with Down syndrome". Ment. Retard. 34 (4). {{cite journal}}: Text "pages207-214" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
27. George Will (14 April 2005). "Eugenics By Abortion:Is perfection an entitlement?". Washington Post: A37. Retrieved 2006-07-03. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
28. Erik Parens and Adrienne Asch (2003). "Disability rights critique of prenatal genetic testing: Reflections and recommendations". Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 9 (1): 40-47. Retrieved 2006-07-03.
29. "New Parent Guide". National Down Syndrome Society. Retrieved 2006-05-12. Also "Research projects - Early intervention and education". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
30. Bird, G. and S. Thomas (2002). "Providing effective speech and language therapy for children with Down syndrome in mainstream settings: A case example". Down Syndrome News and Update. 2 (1): 30–31. Also, Kumin, Libby (1998). "Comprehensive speech and language treatment for infants, toddlers, and children with Down syndrome". In Hassold, T.J.and D. Patterson (ed.). Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together. New York: Wiley-Liss.
31. "Development of Fine Motor Skills in Down Syndrome". Retrieved 2006-07-03.
32. M. Bruni. "Occupational Therapy and the Child with Down Syndrome". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
33. S.E.Armstrong. "Inclusion: Educating Students with Down Syndrome with Their Non-Disabled Peers". Retrieved 2006-05-12. Also, see Debra L. Bosworth. "Benefits to Students with Down Syndrome in the Inclusion Classroom: K-3". Retrieved 2006-06-12. Finally, see a survey by NDSS on inclusion, Gloria Wolpert (1996). "The Educational Challenges Inclusion Study". National Down Syndrome Society. Retrieved 2006-06-28.
34. There are many such programs. One is described by Action Alliance for Children, K. Flores. "Special needs, "mainstream" classroom". Retrieved 2006-05-13. Also, see Flores, K. "Special needs, "mainstream" classroom" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-05-13.
35. For criticism of the method, see Novella, S. "Psychomotor Patterning". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
36. See Cohen, W.I. (1999). "Health Care Guidelines for Individuals with Down Syndrome: 1999 Revision". Down Syndrome Quarterly. 4 (3). Retrieved 2006-06-02. Some record sheets that can be used are given in Cohen, W.I. "Recordsheet for Children Birth to Age 12". Retrieved 2006-06-02. and Cohen, W.I. "Recordsheet for Children Age 13 to Adulthood". Retrieved 2006-06-02. In the UK, the Down's Syndrome Medical Information Group has "growth charts available". Retrieved 2006-06-13.
37. American Academy of Pediatrics (2001). "Supervision for children with Down syndrome". Pediatrics. 107 (2): 442–449. Retrieved 2006-06-03.
38. Sallie B. Freeman, Lisa F. Taft, Kenneth J. Dooley, Katherine Allran, Stephanie L. Sherman, Terry J. Hassold, Muin J. Khoury, Denise M. Saker (1998). "Population-based study of congenital heart defects in Down syndrome". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 80 (3): 213–217.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
39. For references on health effects, see "Down syndrome health". Retrieved 2006-06-02. Also, Debra L. Bosworth. "Benefits to Students with Down Syndrome in the Inclusion Classroom: K-3". Retrieved 2006-06-12.
40. "Associated Medical Conditions". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
41. National Down Syndrome Society. "Position Statement on Cosmetic Surgery for Children with Down Syndrome". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
42. Parens, E. (editor) (2006). Surgically Shaping Children : Technology, Ethics, and the Pursuit of Normality. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883059. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
43. ^ See Leshin, L. (2003). "Trisomy 21: The Story of Down Syndrome". Retrieved 2006-05-21.
44. Zohra Rahmani, Jean-Louis Blouin, Nicole Créau-Goldberg, Paul C. Watkins, Jean-François Mattei, Marc Poissonnier, Marguerite Prieur, Zoubida Chettouh, Annie Nicole, Alain Aurias, Pierre-Marie Sinet, Jean-Maurice Delabar (2005). "Down syndrome critical region around D21S55 on proximal 21q22.3". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 37 (S2): 98–103.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
45. OMIM, NIH. "V-ETS Avian Erythroblastosis virus E26 Oncogene Homolog 2". Retrieved 2006-06-29.
46. Song, W.-J., Sternberg, L. R., Kasten-Sportes, C., Van Keuren, M. L., Chung, S.-H., Slack, A. C., Miller, D. E., Glover, T. W., Chiang, P.-W., Lou, L.; Kurnit, D. M. (1996). "Isolation of human and murine homologues of the Drosophila minibrain gene: human homologue maps to 21q22.2 in the Down syndrome 'critical region". Genomics. 38: 331–339.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
47. Fuentes JJ, Pritchard MA, Planas AM, Bosch A, Ferrer I, Estivill X (1995). "A new human gene from the Down syndrome critical region encodes a proline-rich protein highly expressed in fetal brain and heart". Hum Mol Genet. 4 (10): 1935–1944.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
48. See the pamphlet: Inclusion: Educating Students with Down Syndrome with Their Non-Disabled Peers. National Down Syndrome Society. Retrieved 2006-05-21.
49. "World Down Syndrome Day". Retrieved 2006-06-02.

Further reading

• Beck, M.N. (1999). Expecting Adam. New York: Berkley Books.
• Buckley, S. (2000). Living with Down Syndrome. Portsmouth, UK: The Down Syndrome Educational Trust.
• Down Syndrome Research Foundation (2005). Bright Beginnings: A Guide for New Parents. Buckinghamshire, UK: Down Syndrome Research Foundation.
• Hassold, T.J. (1999). editors, (ed.). Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together. New York: Wiley Liss. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Kingsley, J. (1994). Count us in — Growing up with Down Syndrome. San Diago: Harcourt Brace. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Pueschel, S.M. (1997). editors, (ed.). Adolescents with Down Syndrome: Toward a More Fulfilling Life. Baltimore, MD USA: Paul H. Brookes. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Selikowitz, M. (1997). Down Syndrome: The Facts (2 edition ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
• Van Dyke, D.C. (1995). Medical and Surgical Care for Children with Down Syndrome. Bethesda, MD USA: Woodbine House. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Zuckoff, M. (2002). Choosing Naia: A Family's Journey. New York: Beacon Press.

External links

For comprehensive lists of Down syndrome links see

• Directory of Down Syndrome Internet Sites (US based, but contains international links)
• UK resources for Down's syndrome

Societies and Associations

• Down Syndrome International

By Country

• Canadian Down Syndrome Society (Canada)
• Down Syndrome Research Foundation web site (Canada)
• Down's Syndrome Association web site (UK)
• Down's Syndrome Research Foundation (UK)
• National Down Syndrome Society web site (USA)
• National Down Syndrome Congress web site (USA)
• International Mosaic Down Syndrome Association (USA)

Informational

• Down Syndrome Information web site
• Stanford University's Center for Down Syndrome Research
• The Down's Syndrome Medical Interest Group
• Down Syndrome: For New Parents
• Your Genes/Your Health information on Down syndrome
• Down syndrome: Health Issues. Medical Essays and Information
• Mosaic Down Syndrome on the Web
• About Down Syndrome website

Conferences

• 9th World Down Syndrome Congress (2006, Vancouver)
• Bright Beginnings Conference for Parents and Professionals (2006, London) -- Report

• Congenital genetic disorders
• Disability
• Eponymous diseases
• Pediatrics
• Syndromes