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Hinduism is one of the most ancient world religions, claiming to trace its origins back for over 5,000 years. Today there are more than 900 million Hindu people worldwide.
Social oppression
Varna System
Main article: CasteThe Indian caste system in classical Indian legal texts of the Dharmashastra, most notably that by Manu, identified four varnas in Indian society. These are in descending hierarchical sequence: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra or the priests, warriors, business people and laborers. Untouchables (Dalit (outcaste)) are considered either a lower section of Shudra, or outside of the caste system altogether. In practice what this resulted in is a great deal of social oppression of the lowest castes, the Shudras and Dalits.
Dalit status has often been historically associated with occupations regarded as ritually impure: any occupation involving killing or handling of animal dead bodies. Engaging in these activities was considered to be polluting to the individual who performed them.
The untouchable (or Dalit) in Hindu Society was a person who worked in ignominious, "polluting" jobs dealing with the dead (animal and human), the collection and disposal of bodily waste, and other jobs that brought him/her into constant contact with what society considered 'disgusting'. These occupations, however, were not merely seen as something disgusting that nevertheless needed to be done: they were considered unclean and polluting towards the individual, and the thus-rendered polluted were considered unfit for physical or social contact with the non-polluted, "pure" sections of Society, and this pollution was considered to be 'contagious'. Untouchables used to live separately within a separate subcultural context of their own, outside the inhabitated limits of villages and townships, made pariahs in every sense of the word. No other castes could, or would, interfere with their social life since untouchables were lower in social ranking than even those of the shudra varna--they were regarded so worthless in human importance they were not even considered part of the caste/varna system. As a result, Dalits were commonly banned from fully participating in Hindu religious life (they could not enter the premises of a temple), and elaborate precautions were sometimes observed to prevent incidental contact between Dalits and higher-caste Hindus.
Untouchables were not allowed to use the same wells as the other castes; they weren't "pure" enough, and that would "pollute" the water and indirectly the other castes who drank it.
The untouchables were only allowed to wear clothing from off the bodies of the dead . In their home they ate from broken dishes. Untouchables suffered from extreme social restrictions. They were not allowed temple worship. No person of a higher caste could interact with them. No untouchable could enter a temple if a person of a higher caste was within--and since priests of the temple, of the highest caste, were never absent, untouchables were in effect barred from entering temples, shrines, or any other kind of religious ground.
If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to wash her/himself repeatedly and engage in long and rigorous rituals to purge her/himself of the impurity. Such contact even included the shadow of an Untouchable falling on the member of the higher caste.
The inclusion of lower castes into the mainstream was argued for by Mahatma Gandhi who called them "Harijans" (people of God). The term Dalit is used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising.
Critics also decry the socio-political fragmentation caused by the caste system. For example, there are over 80 subcastes of brahmins, and the Jat Hindu communities of Punjab and Haryana are considered a separate caste by themselves. These regional Jatis are infact a more important and defining charecteristics of the stratification of Indian society than dilineations based on Varnas. This has led to stark contrast and confrontations spawning movements with almost nationalistic fervor in todays India where many of the lower castes debate if they are even hindu or it was merely a political decision taken during the time of the partition . Technically, the Dalits include animists and other tribal religions that cannot be placed within the caste system.
Caste based politics still play a significant role in Indian social life as politic platforms, Dalit movements and violent conflicts all demonstrate.
Hindu Response
The varna system is, in fact, a part of organization of Hindu society as prescribed by the Bhartiya scriptures. The purpose of the varna system was to ensure an efficient organization of society so that each class was contributing a vital role to the society. A person became a part of one of the varna by virtue of their individual qualities. People could move among the varnas.
It is commonly seen today, that the terms varna and caste are used interchangeably. This is not correct.
The caste system developed out of the varna system after 600 A.D. This system is not related to Hinduism, but is a societial division which today is used to view people has higher or lower. Although outlawed by the Constitution of India, this practice is still common place today in India.
India and all of modern Hindu society almost universally condemns untouchability, even if the caste system debate is open. Untouchability was outlawed after India gained independence in 1947, and people who were formerly identified as untouchables have made considerable economic, social and political progress in India. However, social segregation, discrimination and acts of violence in India frequently cause political and sectarian tensions. It must be noted that untouchability and the caste system that exists in the modern era can be directly attributed as a result of codification in the form of the Manu Smriti of already prevalent social attitudes and norms.
Although the caste-system precribes the rules and obligations of each caste, it relies heavily on individual honesty and integrity in order to work. Unfortunately it turned out that people started taking only the advantages attached to their castes but ignored the obligations and responsibilites.
Status of Women
Main article: Women in HinduismThe oppression of women through condemned practices like Sati (widow self-immolation), the restrictions against divorce, property rights, child marriage or widow re-marriage were practices that arose in India's Middle Ages.
Hindu response and reform
The Hindu religion itself does not support any of the forms of opperession of women. This oppression of women started later and some say that this intensified only after the advent of the abrahamic religions which openly state that women are inferior to men.
As per hindu religious texts, women are actually more important than men and are divine. There is even an old sanskrit saying that, when roughly translated, says, "There would be wealth and prosperity where women are respected/worshiped".
The Hindu scriptures have provisions for divorce, property rights for women and widow re-marriage. Although, the practices restricting these rights developed within Hindu society in the middle ages, they are not supported by the religion.
The diverse nature of Hinduism and Hindus doesn't provide the atmosphere to have a common establishment encompassing all Hindus together as one. Even though Hindus are quite tolerant in general, when criticism or issues arise against Hindus or Hinduism, there is no individual or organization present to address that. Though certain organizations play the role of self-appointed guardians of Hinduism, the very nature of Hinduism doesn't accord an official stature to such an organization.
Hindu fundamentalism
Another criticism is directed towards the rise of Hindu nationalism or Hindutva in India. In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva (lit., "Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that 'no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms "Hindu", "Hindutva" and "Hinduism"; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage.' Hindutva ideology rose to importance in the Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement and the coming of Ayodhya issue to the forefront of Indian politics—wherein in December 1991, some Hindutva fundamentalists had destroyed the domes of the Babri mosque in Ayodhya, believed by many Hindus to be the birthplace of Lord Rama. Many Hindus and some historians claim that a Hindu temple commemorating his birthplace was destroyed by a Mughal commander Mir Baqi in his frenzy of iconoclasm in the 15th century.
Hindu response
Contrary to allegations, most organizations (such as RSS) subscribing to Hindutva frequently campaign against untouchability and caste based discrimination. Some of Hindutva is considered by its proponents as a means to reassert Hindu rights in a country where they are increasingly feeling marginalized despite being in majority. It is also considered to be a reaction to the forcible conversions of Hindus to Islam and Christianity, the Partition of India, increasing criticism of age-old Indian customs and an influx of Western cultural influences.
The purpose for which these type of organizations were born is to reassert Hindu rights in a country where they are increasingly feeling marginalized despite being in majority.
It is also a reaction to unacceptable ways adopted to convert Hindus to Islam/Christianity, the Partition of India, increasing criticism of age-old Indian customs and an influx of Western cultural influences.
The unacceptable ways include
- 1. Targeting socially and economically weak sections of the society and luring them with gifts(which some times, blatantly, could be in the form of cash). This is usually adopted by Christian missionaries.,
- 2. Physically forcing people to convert, and threatening them with death usually by stoning or lynching. ,
To counter the first way, the Hindus need to be educated about the Hindu religion and to counter the second way, force, and very unfortunately violence, some times becomes necessary.
Thus, this activity of protection of ones own religion is not fundamentalism. It is just about survival.
Ideology clash with Abrahamic religions
From the worldview of the three Abrahamic religions, Hinduism is criticized as being polytheistic. It should be noted that many Hindus do not view themselves as polytheists, and some feel that monism or monistic theism would be more apt. Hinduism does, however, present an appearance of polytheism to many external observers. More correctly, the Smarta view dominates the view of Hinduism in the West and has confused all Hindus to be seemingly polytheistic and is an inclusive monotheistic religion. In Hinduism, views are broad and range from monism, dualism, pantheism, panentheism, alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars, and strict monotheism. Hinduism has often been thought to be polytheistic as many of Hinduism's adherents, i.e., Smartas, who follow Advaita philosophy, are monists, and view multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being. Hindu monists see one unity, with the personal Gods, different aspects of only One Supreme Being, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism, and are valid to worship. Some of the Hindu aspects of God include Devi, Vishnu, Ganesh, and Siva. It is the Smarta view that dominates the view of Hinduism in the West. After all, Swami Vivekananda, a follower of Ramakrishna, along with many others, who brought Hindu beliefs to the West, were all Smarta in belief. Other denominations of Hinduism, as described later, don't hold this belief strictly and more closely adhere to a Western perception of what a monotheistic faith is. Additionally, like Judeo-Christian traditions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in less powerful entities, such as devas.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions of him, Hindus all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions. The two primary form of differences are between the two monotheistic religions of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu and Shaivism, which conceives God as Shiva. Other aspects of God are in fact aspects of Vishnu or Shiva; see Smartism for more information. Only a Smartist would have no problem worshiping Shiva or Vishnu together as he views the different aspects of God as leading to the same One God. It is the Smarta view that dominates the view of Hinduism in the West. By contrast, a Vaishnavite considers Vishnu as the one true God, worthy of worship and other forms as subordinate. See for example, an illustration of the Vaishnavite view of Vishnu as the one true God, at this link. Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that only Vishnu can grant the ultimate aim for mankind, moksha. See for example, this link. Similarly, many Shaivites also hold similar beliefs, as illustrated at at this link and at this link.
It is also charged with idolatry, which is defined as worship of God who does not conform to the Abrahamic YHVH. These accusations are natural because of the exclusive nature of Abrahamic religions. Hinduism on the other hand, is more tolerant of God as defined by other religions and does not subscribe to similar ideas of false god or idolatry.
Hindu reform movements
Hinduism has often proven to have one of the strongest currents of reform and adoption to change than any other world religion, undergoing constant evolution.
The first reform and synthesis of modern currents of change came when the ancient Vedic religion was synthesized with the religious practices and philosophies of the Dravidian peoples to form the basis of modern Hinduism.
India's independence movement, and the victory of freedom in 1947 helped the new democratic Government of India to end social, economic and political discrimination against women, children and members of different castes.
It has been the result of a reformist effort by Hindu society, that the evils of customs like untouchability and caste discrimination, tracing back thousands of years, were significantly eliminated from most parts of India from 1947 till today, just around 60 years.
Hindu women have today unprecedented access to higher education, and have rights to divorce, inherit property, run businesses and choose their own professions and are considered with respect and dignity in all Hindu religious activities.
Reform Leaders: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dayananda Saraswati, Adi Shankaracharya, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo
See also
- Hinduism, Hindu
- Contemporary Hindu movements
- Vedic religion, Jainism
- Bias in South Asian Studies
- Hindu Nationalism, Hindutva
- Criticism of Religion
- Ashvamedha
- "Hinduism and Hindutva: What Supreme Court says?", The Hindustan Times, January 8th, 1996.
- Dr. Ramesh Yeshwant Prabhoo v. Shri Prabhakar Kashinath Kunte and Others, Indian Supreme Court, Appeal no. 28345/1989, December 11, 1995.