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*'']'' (spp. ''cynomolgi'', ''bastianellii'') *'']'' (spp. ''cynomolgi'', ''bastianellii'')
*'']''<ref name=Coatney1966>{{cite journal | author = Coatney GR, Chin W, Contacos PG, King HK | year = 1966 | title = Plasmodium inui'', a quartan-type malaria parasite of Old World monkeys transmissible to man | url = | journal = J Parasitol | volume = 52 | issue = | pages = 660–666 | doi=10.2307/3276423}}</ref> *'']''<ref name=Coatney1966>{{cite journal | author = Coatney GR, Chin W, Contacos PG, King HK | year = 1966 | title = Plasmodium inui'', a quartan-type malaria parasite of Old World monkeys transmissible to man | url = | journal = J Parasitol | volume = 52 | issue = 4| pages = 660–666 | doi=10.2307/3276423| jstor = 3276423 | last2 = Chin | last3 = Contacos | last4 = King }}</ref>
*'']''<ref name="Contacos1970">{{cite journal |author=Contacos PG, Coatney GR, Orihel TC, Collins WE, Chin W |title=Transmission of ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' from the chimpanzee to man by mosquito bite |journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg |volume=19 |pages=190–5 |year=1970 |pmid=5443069 |issue=2}}</ref><ref name="Rodhain1955">{{cite journal |author=Rodhain J, Dellaert R |title=Contribution a l'etude de ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' E. Brumpt (2eme note). Transmission de ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' a l'homme |journal=Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. |volume=35 |pages=757–75 |year=1955}}</ref> *'']''<ref name="Contacos1970">{{cite journal |author=Contacos PG, Coatney GR, Orihel TC, Collins WE, Chin W |title=Transmission of ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' from the chimpanzee to man by mosquito bite |journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg |volume=19 |pages=190–5 |year=1970 |pmid=5443069 |issue=2|last2=Coatney |last3=Orihel |last4=Collins |last5=Chin |last6=Jeter }}</ref><ref name="Rodhain1955">{{cite journal |author=Rodhain J, Dellaert R |title=Contribution a l'etude de ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' E. Brumpt (2eme note). Transmission de ''Plasmodium schwetzi'' a l'homme |journal=Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. |volume=35 |pages=757–75 |year=1955}}</ref>
*'']''{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} *'']''{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
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;falciparum ;falciparum
Until recently the only known host of ''P. falciparum'' was humans but this species has also been described in gorillas ('']'')<ref name="Prugnolle2010">{{cite journal | author = Prugnolle F, Durand P, Neel C, Ollomo B, Ayala FJ, Arnathau C, Etienne L, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Nkoghe D ''et al.'' | year = 2010 | title = African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including ''Plasmodium falciparum'' | url = | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 107 | issue = 4| pages = 1458–1463 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0914440107 | pmid=20133889 | pmc=2824423}}</ref> and ]<ref name="Krief2010">Krief S, Escalante AA, Pacheco MA, Mugisha L, André C, Halbwax M, Fischer A, Krief JM, Kasenene JM, Crandfield M, Cornejo OE, Chavatte JM, Lin C, Letourneur F, Grüner AC, McCutchan TF, Rénia L, Snounou G (2010) On the Diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' from bonobos. PloS Pathog. 12;6(2):e1000765</ref> There has been a single report of ''P. falciparum'' in a brown howler monkey ('']'') and in black howler monkeys ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008">{{cite journal |author=Duarte AM, Malafronte Rdos S, Cerutti C |title=Natural ''Plasmodium'' infections in Brazilian wild monkeys: Reservoirs for human infections? |journal=Acta Trop. |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=179–85 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18620330 |doi=10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.05.020 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0001-706X(08)00165-4}}</ref> but until this is confirmed its validity should be considered dubious. Until recently the only known host of ''P. falciparum'' was humans but this species has also been described in gorillas ('']'')<ref name="Prugnolle2010">{{cite journal | author = Prugnolle F, Durand P, Neel C, Ollomo B, Ayala FJ, Arnathau C, Etienne L, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Nkoghe D | year = 2010 | title = African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including ''Plasmodium falciparum'' | url = | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 107 | issue = 4| pages = 1458–1463 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0914440107 | pmid=20133889 | pmc=2824423| author2 = and others | displayauthors = 1 }}</ref> and ]<ref name="Krief2010">Krief S, Escalante AA, Pacheco MA, Mugisha L, André C, Halbwax M, Fischer A, Krief JM, Kasenene JM, Crandfield M, Cornejo OE, Chavatte JM, Lin C, Letourneur F, Grüner AC, McCutchan TF, Rénia L, Snounou G (2010) On the Diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' from bonobos. PloS Pathog. 12;6(2):e1000765</ref> There has been a single report of ''P. falciparum'' in a brown howler monkey ('']'') and in black howler monkeys ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008">{{cite journal |author=Duarte AM, Malafronte Rdos S, Cerutti C |title=Natural ''Plasmodium'' infections in Brazilian wild monkeys: Reservoirs for human infections? |journal=Acta Trop. |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=179–85 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18620330 |doi=10.1016/j.actatropica.2008.05.020 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0001-706X(08)00165-4|last2=Malafronte Rdos |last3=Cerutti Jr |last4=Curado |last5=De Paiva |last6=Maeda |last7=Yamasaki |last8=Summa |last9=Neves Ddo |last10=De Oliveira |last11=Gomes Ade }}</ref> but until this is confirmed its validity should be considered dubious.


A possible report of ''P. falciparum'' in a greater spot-nosed monkeys ('']'') has not been confirmed in a large survey.<ref name=Ayouba2012>Ayouba A, Mouacha F, Learn GH, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Rayner JC, Sharp PM, Hahn BH, Delaporte E, Peeters M (2012) Ubiquitous ''Hepatocystis'' infections, but no evidence of ''Plasmodium falciparum''-like malarial parasites in wild greater spot-nosed monkeys (''Cercopithecus nictitans''). Int J Parasitol</ref> A possible report of ''P. falciparum'' in a greater spot-nosed monkeys ('']'') has not been confirmed in a large survey.<ref name=Ayouba2012>Ayouba A, Mouacha F, Learn GH, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Rayner JC, Sharp PM, Hahn BH, Delaporte E, Peeters M (2012) Ubiquitous ''Hepatocystis'' infections, but no evidence of ''Plasmodium falciparum''-like malarial parasites in wild greater spot-nosed monkeys (''Cercopithecus nictitans''). Int J Parasitol</ref>


A species that clusters with ''P. falciparum'' and ''P. reichenowi'' has been identified in ], Africa in chimpanzees ('']'').<ref name="Ollomo2009">{{cite journal |author=Ollomo B, Durand P, Prugnolle F |title=A new malaria agent in African hominids |journal=PLoS Pathog. |volume=5 |issue=5 | pages=e1000446 |date=May 2009 |pmid=19478877 |pmc=2680981 | doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1000446 | url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000446}}</ref> This appears to have diverged from these two species about 21 million years ago. It has only been identified from the sequence of its mitochondrion to date and further work is needed to characterise the species. A second report has confirmed the existence of this species in chimpanzees.<ref name="Prugnolle2010"/> A third report has confirmed the existence of this species.<ref name="Kaiser2010">{{cite journal | author = Kaiser M, Lowa A, Ulrich M, Ellerbrok H, Goffe AS, Blasse A, Zommers Z, Couacy-Hymann E, Babweteera F ''et al.'' |date=Dec 2010 | title = Wild chimpanzees infected with 5 ''Plasmodium'' species | url = | journal = Emerg Infect Dis | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1956–1959 | doi=10.3201/eid1612.100424}}</ref> A species that clusters with ''P. falciparum'' and ''P. reichenowi'' has been identified in ], Africa in chimpanzees ('']'').<ref name="Ollomo2009">{{cite journal |author=Ollomo B, Durand P, Prugnolle F |title=A new malaria agent in African hominids |journal=PLoS Pathog. |volume=5 |issue=5 | pages=e1000446 |date=May 2009 |pmid=19478877 |pmc=2680981 | doi=10.1371/journal.ppat.1000446 | url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000446|last2=Durand |last3=Prugnolle |last4=Douzery |last5=Arnathau |last6=Nkoghe |last7=Leroy |last8=Renaud }}</ref> This appears to have diverged from these two species about 21 million years ago. It has only been identified from the sequence of its mitochondrion to date and further work is needed to characterise the species. A second report has confirmed the existence of this species in chimpanzees.<ref name="Prugnolle2010"/> A third report has confirmed the existence of this species.<ref name="Kaiser2010">{{cite journal | author = Kaiser M, Lowa A, Ulrich M, Ellerbrok H, Goffe AS, Blasse A, Zommers Z, Couacy-Hymann E, Babweteera F |date=Dec 2010 | title = Wild chimpanzees infected with 5 ''Plasmodium'' species | url = | journal = Emerg Infect Dis | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1956–1959 | doi=10.3201/eid1612.100424|pmid=21122230 |author2=and others |displayauthors=1 }}</ref>


Night monkeys ('']'') can be infected with ''P. falciparum''. This infection may occur naturally.<ref name=da_Silva2013>{{cite journal | last1 = Da Silva | first1 = Araújo M | last2 = Messias | first2 = MR | last3 = Figueiró | first3 = MR | last4 = Gil | first4 = LH | last5 = Probst | first5 = CM | last6 = de Medeiros Vidal | first6 = N | last7 = Katsuragawa | first7 = TH | last8 = Krieger | first8 = MA | last9 = Pereira da Sliva | first9 = LH ''et al.'' | year = 2013 | title = Natural ''Plasmodium'' infection in monkeys in the state of Rondonia (Brazilian Western Amazon) | url = | journal = Malar J | volume = 12 | issue = 1| page = 180 }}</ref> Their potential role - if any - as a source of human infection is unknown. Night monkeys ('']'') can be infected with ''P. falciparum''. This infection may occur naturally.<ref name=da_Silva2013>{{cite journal | last1 = Da Silva | first1 = Araújo M | last2 = Messias | first2 = MR | last3 = Figueiró | first3 = MR | last4 = Gil | first4 = LH | last5 = Probst | first5 = CM | last6 = de Medeiros Vidal | first6 = N | last7 = Katsuragawa | first7 = TH | last8 = Krieger | first8 = MA | last9 = Pereira da Sliva | first9 = LH ''et al.'' | year = 2013 | title = Natural ''Plasmodium'' infection in monkeys in the state of Rondonia (Brazilian Western Amazon) | url = | journal = Malar J | volume = 12 | issue = 1| page = 180 | author10 = and others | displayauthors = 9 }}</ref> Their potential role - if any - as a source of human infection is unknown.


Two additional species within the subgenus '']'' have been identified on the basis of DNA sequences alone: '']'' and '']''.<ref name="Prugnolle2010"/> and bonobos<ref name="Krief2010"/> ''P. billbrayi'' was found in two subspecies of chimpanzee ('']'' and '']''). ''P. billcollinsi'' was found in only one subspecies of chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''). Further work is needed to characterise these species. Two additional species within the subgenus '']'' have been identified on the basis of DNA sequences alone: '']'' and '']''.<ref name="Prugnolle2010"/> and bonobos<ref name="Krief2010"/> ''P. billbrayi'' was found in two subspecies of chimpanzee ('']'' and '']''). ''P. billcollinsi'' was found in only one subspecies of chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''). Further work is needed to characterise these species.
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Humans are currently considered to be the only host for ''P. malariae''. However Rodhain and Dellaert in the 1940s showed with transmission studies that ''P. malariae'' was present in chimpanzees.<ref name=Rodhain1940>Rodhain J (1940) Les plasmodiums des anthropoids de l'Afrique centrale et leurs relations avec les plasmodiums humains. Récepticité de l'homme au ''Plasmodium malariae''. (''Plasmodium rodhaini'' Brumpt) du chimpanzé. C. R. Soc. Biol. 133:276-277</ref><ref name=Rodhain1943>Rodhain J and Dellaert R (1943) L'infection á ''Plasmodium malariae'' du chimpanzé chez l'homme. Etude d'une premiére souche isolée de l'anthropoide Pan satyrus verus. Ann. Soc. Belge. Med. Trop. 23:19-46</ref> Humans are currently considered to be the only host for ''P. malariae''. However Rodhain and Dellaert in the 1940s showed with transmission studies that ''P. malariae'' was present in chimpanzees.<ref name=Rodhain1940>Rodhain J (1940) Les plasmodiums des anthropoids de l'Afrique centrale et leurs relations avec les plasmodiums humains. Récepticité de l'homme au ''Plasmodium malariae''. (''Plasmodium rodhaini'' Brumpt) du chimpanzé. C. R. Soc. Biol. 133:276-277</ref><ref name=Rodhain1943>Rodhain J and Dellaert R (1943) L'infection á ''Plasmodium malariae'' du chimpanzé chez l'homme. Etude d'une premiére souche isolée de l'anthropoide Pan satyrus verus. Ann. Soc. Belge. Med. Trop. 23:19-46</ref>
The presence of ''P. malaria'' in chimpanzees has been reported in Japan suggesting that this species may be able to act as a host.<ref name="Hayakawa2009">{{cite journal |author=Hayakawa T, Arisue N, Udono T |title=Identification of ''Plasmodium malariae'', a human malaria parasite, in imported chimpanzees |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=e7412 |year=2009 |pmid=19823579 |pmc=2756624 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007412 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007412}}</ref> A second paper has described the presence of ''P. malaria'' in wild chimpanzees.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> Another paper has reported several cases of ''P. malariae'' in brown howler monkey ('']'') and black howler monkeys ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008"/> It has been shown that splectomised three-striped night monkey ('']'') can be infected with ''P. malariae''.<ref name=Collins1969>{{cite journal | author = Collins WE, Contacos PG | year = 1969 | title = Infectivity of ''Plasmodium malariae'' in the Aotus trivirgatus monkey to ''Anopheles freeborni'' mosquitoes | url = | journal = J Parasitol | volume = 55 | issue = 6| pages = 1253–1257 | doi=10.2307/3277270}}</ref> Another paper has confirmed the presence of ''P. malaria'' in chimpanzees.<ref name=Pacheco2013>Pacheco MA, Cranfield M, Cameron K, Escalante AA (2013) Malarial parasite diversity in chimpanzees: the value of comparative approaches to ascertain the evolution of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' antigens. Malar J 12(1):328</ref> The presence of ''P. malaria'' in chimpanzees has been reported in Japan suggesting that this species may be able to act as a host.<ref name="Hayakawa2009">{{cite journal |author=Hayakawa T, Arisue N, Udono T |title=Identification of ''Plasmodium malariae'', a human malaria parasite, in imported chimpanzees |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=e7412 |year=2009 |pmid=19823579 |pmc=2756624 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007412 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007412|last2=Arisue |last3=Udono |last4=Hirai |last5=Sattabongkot |last6=Toyama |last7=Tsuboi |last8=Horii |last9=Tanabe |display-authors=9 }}</ref> A second paper has described the presence of ''P. malaria'' in wild chimpanzees.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> Another paper has reported several cases of ''P. malariae'' in brown howler monkey ('']'') and black howler monkeys ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008"/> It has been shown that splectomised three-striped night monkey ('']'') can be infected with ''P. malariae''.<ref name=Collins1969>{{cite journal | author = Collins WE, Contacos PG | year = 1969 | title = Infectivity of ''Plasmodium malariae'' in the Aotus trivirgatus monkey to ''Anopheles freeborni'' mosquitoes | url = | journal = J Parasitol | volume = 55 | issue = 6| pages = 1253–1257 | doi=10.2307/3277270| pmid = 4982903 | jstor = 3277270 | last2 = Contacos }}</ref> Another paper has confirmed the presence of ''P. malaria'' in chimpanzees.<ref name=Pacheco2013>Pacheco MA, Cranfield M, Cameron K, Escalante AA (2013) Malarial parasite diversity in chimpanzees: the value of comparative approaches to ascertain the evolution of ''Plasmodium falciparum'' antigens. Malar J 12(1):328</ref>


The existence of multiple independent reports seem to suggest that the chimpanzee and possibly other species may act as a host to ''P. malaria'' at least occasionally. The existence of multiple independent reports seem to suggest that the chimpanzee and possibly other species may act as a host to ''P. malaria'' at least occasionally.
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;vivax ;vivax


''P. vivax'' will infect chimpanzees. Infection tends to be low grade but may be persistent and remain as source of parasites for humans for some time. ''P. vivax'' is also known to infect ]s<ref name="Reid2006">{{cite journal |author=Reid MJ, Ursic R, Cooper D |title=Transmission of human and macaque ''Plasmodium spp''. to ex-captive orangutans in Kalimantan, Indonesia |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1902–8 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17326942 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol12no12/06-0191.htm |doi=10.3201/eid1212.060191}}</ref> and the brown howler monkey ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008"/> ''P. vivax'' has been reported from chimpanzees living in the wild.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> It has been suggested that ''vivax'' infection of the great apes in Africa may act as a reservoir given the prevalence of ] negative humans in this area.<ref name=Prugnolle2013>Prugnolle F, Rougeron V, Becquart P, Berry A, Makanga B, Rahola N, Arnathau C, Ngoubangoye B, Menard S, Willaume E, Ayala FJ, Fontenille D, Ollomo B, Durand P, Paupy C, Renaud F (2013) Diversity, host switching and evolution of ''Plasmodium vivax'' infecting African great apes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</ref> ''P. vivax'' will infect chimpanzees. Infection tends to be low grade but may be persistent and remain as source of parasites for humans for some time. ''P. vivax'' is also known to infect ]s<ref name="Reid2006">{{cite journal |author=Reid MJ, Ursic R, Cooper D |title=Transmission of human and macaque ''Plasmodium spp''. to ex-captive orangutans in Kalimantan, Indonesia |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis. |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1902–8 |date=December 2006 |pmid=17326942 |pmc=3291341 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol12no12/06-0191.htm |doi=10.3201/eid1212.060191|last2=Ursic |last3=Cooper |last4=Nazzari |last5=Griffiths |last6=Galdikas |last7=Garriga |last8=Skinner |last9=Lowenberger |display-authors=9 }}</ref> and the brown howler monkey ('']'')<ref name="Duarte2008"/> ''P. vivax'' has been reported from chimpanzees living in the wild.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> It has been suggested that ''vivax'' infection of the great apes in Africa may act as a reservoir given the prevalence of ] negative humans in this area.<ref name=Prugnolle2013>Prugnolle F, Rougeron V, Becquart P, Berry A, Makanga B, Rahola N, Arnathau C, Ngoubangoye B, Menard S, Willaume E, Ayala FJ, Fontenille D, Ollomo B, Durand P, Paupy C, Renaud F (2013) Diversity, host switching and evolution of ''Plasmodium vivax'' infecting African great apes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA</ref>


;ovale ;ovale
Like ''P. vivax'', ''P. ovale'' has been shown to be transmittable to ]. ''P. ovale'' has an unusual distribution pattern being found in ], ] the ] and ]. In spite of its admittedly poor transmission to chimpanzees given its discontigous spread, it is suspected that ''P. ovale'' may in fact be a ] with an as yet unidentified host. If this is actually the case, the host seems likely to be a primate. A report has been published suggesting that ''P. ovale'' may be a natural parasite of chimpanzees<ref name="Duval2009">{{cite journal |author=Duval L, Nerrienet E, Rousset D |title=Chimpanzee malaria parasites related to ''Plasmodium ovale'' in Africa |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e5520 |year=2009 |pmid=19436742 |pmc=2677663 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005520 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005520}} {{open access}}</ref> but this needs confirmation. ''P. ovale'' has since been described from chimpanzees living in the wild.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> This suggests that human infection with this species may as previously suspected be a zoonosis. Like ''P. vivax'', ''P. ovale'' has been shown to be transmittable to ]. ''P. ovale'' has an unusual distribution pattern being found in ], ] the ] and ]. In spite of its admittedly poor transmission to chimpanzees given its discontigous spread, it is suspected that ''P. ovale'' may in fact be a ] with an as yet unidentified host. If this is actually the case, the host seems likely to be a primate. A report has been published suggesting that ''P. ovale'' may be a natural parasite of chimpanzees<ref name="Duval2009">{{cite journal |author=Duval L, Nerrienet E, Rousset D |title=Chimpanzee malaria parasites related to ''Plasmodium ovale'' in Africa |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=e5520 |year=2009 |pmid=19436742 |pmc=2677663 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005520 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0005520|last2=Nerrienet |last3=Rousset |last4=Sadeuh Mba |last5=Houze |last6=Fourment |last7=Le Bras |last8=Robert |last9=Ariey |display-authors=9 }} {{open access}}</ref> but this needs confirmation. ''P. ovale'' has since been described from chimpanzees living in the wild.<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> This suggests that human infection with this species may as previously suspected be a zoonosis.


It has been recently shown that ''P. ovale'' is actually two genetically distinct species that coexist. These species are ''Plasmodium ovale curtisi'' and ''Plasmodium ovale wallikeri''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Two nonrecombining sympatric forms of the human malaria parasite ''Plasmodium ovale'' occur globally|author=Sutherland CJ, Tanomsing N, Nolder D, Oguike M, Jennison C, Pukrittayakamee S, Dolecek C, Hien TT, do Rosário VE, Arez AP, Pinto J, Michon P, Escalante AA, Nosten F, Burke M, Lee R, Blaze M, Otto TD, Barnwell JW, Pain A, Williams J, White NJ, Day NP, Snounou G, Lockhart PJ, Chiodini PL, Imwong M, Polley SD|journal=J Infect Dis|year=2010|volume=201|issue=10|pages=1544&ndash;50|pmid=20380562|doi=10.1086/652240}}</ref> These two species separated between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago. It has been recently shown that ''P. ovale'' is actually two genetically distinct species that coexist. These species are ''Plasmodium ovale curtisi'' and ''Plasmodium ovale wallikeri''.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Two nonrecombining sympatric forms of the human malaria parasite ''Plasmodium ovale'' occur globally|author=Sutherland CJ, Tanomsing N, Nolder D, Oguike M, Jennison C, Pukrittayakamee S, Dolecek C, Hien TT, do Rosário VE, Arez AP, Pinto J, Michon P, Escalante AA, Nosten F, Burke M, Lee R, Blaze M, Otto TD, Barnwell JW, Pain A, Williams J, White NJ, Day NP, Snounou G, Lockhart PJ, Chiodini PL, Imwong M, Polley SD|journal=J Infect Dis|year=2010|volume=201|issue=10|pages=1544&ndash;50|pmid=20380562|doi=10.1086/652240|last2=Tanomsing|last3=Nolder|last4=Oguike|last5=Jennison|last6=Pukrittayakamee|last7=Dolecek|last8=Hien|last9=Do Rosário|last10=Arez|last11=Pinto|last12=Michon|last13=Escalante|last14=Nosten|last15=Burke|last16=Lee|last17=Blaze|last18=Otto|last19=Barnwell|last20=Pain|last21=Williams|last22=White|last23=Day|last24=Snounou|last25=Lockhart|last26=Chiodini|last27=Imwong|last28=Polley}}</ref> These two species separated between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago.


; knowlesi ; knowlesi
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== Species previously described as infecting humans but no longer recognised as valid == == Species previously described as infecting humans but no longer recognised as valid ==


Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid.<ref name="Coatney1936">{{cite journal |author=Coatney GR, Roudabush RL |title=A catalog and host-index of the genus ''Plasmodium'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=338–53 |year=1936 |doi=10.2307/3271859 |jstor=3271859}}</ref> Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here. Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid.<ref name="Coatney1936">{{cite journal |author=Coatney GR, Roudabush RL |title=A catalog and host-index of the genus ''Plasmodium'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=338–53 |year=1936 |doi=10.2307/3271859 |jstor=3271859|last2=Roudabush }}</ref> Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here.
{{columns-list|4| {{columns-list|4|
''P. camerense''<br/> ''P. camerense''<br/>
Line 293: Line 293:
*''P. uilenbergi'' - '']'' *''P. uilenbergi'' - '']''
*''P. vivax'' - ]s (''Pongo species''), ]s ('']''),<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> monkeys '']'',<ref name="Collins2008">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Sullivan JS, Nace D, Williams T, Williams A, Barnwell JW |title=Observations on the sporozoite transmission of ''Plasmodium vivax'' to monkeys |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=287–8 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18372652 |doi=10.1645/GE-1283.1 }}</ref> '']'',<ref name="Collins1998">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Richardson BB, Morris CL, Sullivan JS, Galland GG |title=Salvador II strain of ''Plasmodium vivax'' in ''Aotus'' monkeys and mosquitoes for transmission-blocking vaccine trials |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=29–34 |date=July 1998 |pmid=9684622 |url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9684622}}</ref> the brown howler monkey ('']'') and tamarins ('']'' and '']'') *''P. vivax'' - ]s (''Pongo species''), ]s ('']''),<ref name="Kaiser2010"/> monkeys '']'',<ref name="Collins2008">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Sullivan JS, Nace D, Williams T, Williams A, Barnwell JW |title=Observations on the sporozoite transmission of ''Plasmodium vivax'' to monkeys |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=287–8 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18372652 |doi=10.1645/GE-1283.1 |last2=Sullivan |last3=Nace |last4=Williams |last5=Williams |last6=Barnwell }}</ref> '']'',<ref name="Collins1998">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Richardson BB, Morris CL, Sullivan JS, Galland GG |title=Salvador II strain of ''Plasmodium vivax'' in ''Aotus'' monkeys and mosquitoes for transmission-blocking vaccine trials |journal=Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=29–34 |date=July 1998 |pmid=9684622 |url=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9684622|last2=Richardson |last3=Morris |last4=Sullivan |last5=Galland }}</ref> the brown howler monkey ('']'') and tamarins ('']'' and '']'')
*''P. youngei'' - white handed ] ('']'') *''P. youngei'' - white handed ] ('']'')
Line 509: Line 509:
*'']'' - ''P. vivax'' *'']'' - ''P. vivax''
*'']'' - ''P. coatneyi'', ''P. vivax''<ref name="Collins2002">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Sullivan JS, Nace D |title=Experimental infection of ''Anopheles farauti'' with different species of ''Plasmodium'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=295–8 |date=April 2002 |pmid=12054000 |jstor=3285576 | doi = 10.1645/0022-3395(2002)0882.0.CO;2 }}</ref> *'']'' - ''P. coatneyi'', ''P. vivax''<ref name="Collins2002">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Sullivan JS, Nace D |title=Experimental infection of ''Anopheles farauti'' with different species of ''Plasmodium'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=295–8 |date=April 2002 |pmid=12054000 |jstor=3285576 | doi = 10.1645/0022-3395(2002)0882.0.CO;2 |year=2002 |last2=Sullivan |last3=Nace |last4=Williams |last5=Sullivan |last6=Galland |last7=Grady |last8=Bounngaseng }}</ref>


*'']'' - ''P. vivax'' *'']'' - ''P. vivax''


*'']'' - ''P. fieldi'', ''P. vivax''<ref name="Collins1994">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Morris CL, Richardson BB, Sullivan JS, Galland GG |title=Further studies on the sporozoite transmission of the Salvador I strain of ''Plasmodium vivax'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=512–7 |date=August 1994 |pmid=8064516 |doi=10.2307/3283184 |jstor=3283184}}</ref> *'']'' - ''P. fieldi'', ''P. vivax''<ref name="Collins1994">{{cite journal |author=Collins WE, Morris CL, Richardson BB, Sullivan JS, Galland GG |title=Further studies on the sporozoite transmission of the Salvador I strain of ''Plasmodium vivax'' |journal=J. Parasitol. |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=512–7 |date=August 1994 |pmid=8064516 |doi=10.2307/3283184 |jstor=3283184|last2=Morris |last3=Richardson |last4=Sullivan |last5=Galland }}</ref>
*'']'' - ''P. falciparum'' *'']'' - ''P. falciparum''
Line 521: Line 521:
*'']'' - ''P. falciparum'', ''P. vivax'' *'']'' - ''P. falciparum'', ''P. vivax''


*'']'' - ''P. fieldi'', ''P. knowlesi''<ref name=Wharton>{{cite journal | author=Wharton RH, Eyles DE. | title=''Anopheles hackeri,'' a vector of ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' in Malaya | year=1961 | journal=Science | volume=134 | pages=279–80 | doi=10.1126/science.134.3474.279 | pmid=13784726 | issue=3474}}</ref> *'']'' - ''P. fieldi'', ''P. knowlesi''<ref name=Wharton>{{cite journal | author=Wharton RH, Eyles DE. | title=''Anopheles hackeri,'' a vector of ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' in Malaya | year=1961 | journal=Science | volume=134 | pages=279–80 | doi=10.1126/science.134.3474.279 | pmid=13784726 | issue=3474| last2=Eyles }}</ref>


*'']'' - ''P. vivax'' *'']'' - ''P. vivax''
Line 533: Line 533:
*'']'' - ''P. eylesi'', ''P. fieldi'' *'']'' - ''P. eylesi'', ''P. fieldi''


*'']'' - ''P. knowlesi''<ref name=Vythilingam2006>{{cite journal | author=Vythilingam I, Tan CH, Asmad M, Chan ST, Lee KS, Singh B. | title=Natural transmission of ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' to humans by ''Anopheles latens'' in Sarawak, Malaysia | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | year=2006 | volume=100 | pages=1087–88 | doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.02.006 | pmid=16725166 | issue=11 }}</ref><ref name="Tan2008">{{cite journal |author=Tan CH, Vythilingam I, Matusop A, Chan ST, Singh B |title=Bionomics of ''Anopheles latens'' in Kapit, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo in relation to the transmission of zoonotic simian malaria parasite ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' |journal=Malar. J. |volume=7 |issue= |pages=52 |year=2008 |pmid=18377652 |pmc=2292735 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-7-52 |url=http://www.malariajournal.com/content/7//52}}</ref> *'']'' - ''P. knowlesi''<ref name=Vythilingam2006>{{cite journal | author=Vythilingam I, Tan CH, Asmad M, Chan ST, Lee KS, Singh B. | title=Natural transmission of ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' to humans by ''Anopheles latens'' in Sarawak, Malaysia | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | year=2006 | volume=100 | pages=1087–88 | doi=10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.02.006 | pmid=16725166 | issue=11 | last2=Tan | last3=Asmad | last4=Chan | last5=Lee | last6=Singh }}</ref><ref name="Tan2008">{{cite journal |author=Tan CH, Vythilingam I, Matusop A, Chan ST, Singh B |title=Bionomics of ''Anopheles latens'' in Kapit, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo in relation to the transmission of zoonotic simian malaria parasite ''Plasmodium knowlesi'' |journal=Malar. J. |volume=7 |issue= |pages=52 |year=2008 |pmid=18377652 |pmc=2292735 |doi=10.1186/1475-2875-7-52 |url=http://www.malariajournal.com/content/7//52|last2=Vythilingam |last3=Matusop |last4=Chan |last5=Singh }}</ref>


*'']'' - ''P. eylesi'' *'']'' - ''P. eylesi''

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Red blood cell infected with malaria

List of Plasmodium species infecting primates
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemosporida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
Species

Plasmodium billbrayi
Plasmodium billcollinsi
Plasmodium bouillize
Plasmodium brasilianum
Plasmodium bucki
Plasmodium cercopitheci
Plasmodium coatneyi
Plasmodium coulangesi
Plasmodium cynomolgi bastianelli
Plasmodium cynomolgi ceylonensis
Plasmodium cynomolgi cynomolgi
Plasmodium eylesi
Plasmodium falciparum
Plasmodium fieldi
Plasmodium foleyi
Plasmodium fragile
Plasmodium girardi
Plasmodium georgesi
Plasmodium gonderi
Plasmodium gonderi
Plasmodium gora
Plasmodium gorb
Plasmodium inui
Plasmodium jefferyi
Plasmodium joyeuxi
Plasmodium knowlesi
Plasmodium lemuris
Plasmodium malariae
Plasmodium ovale curtisi
Plasmodium ovale wallikeri
Plasmodium percygarnhami
Plasmodium petersi
Plasmodium reichenowi
Plasmodium rodhaini
Plasmodium sandoshami
Plasmodium semnopitheci
Plasmodium schwetzi
Plasmodium silvaticum
Plasmodium simiovale
Plasmodium simium
Plasmodium uilenbergi
Plasmodium vivax
Plasmodium youngei

The Plasmodium species infecting primates include the parasites causing malaria in humans.

Species infecting humans

(Plasmodium brasilianum and Plasmodium rhodiani which have been reported to infect humans, are likely synonymous with P. malariae)

The first six listed here are the only common species that infect humans. While infection of humans by other species is known, they are quite rare, in some instances, only a single case. In a number of the cases, the means of infection is unknown, and may be due to accident, i.e. infection by laboratory equipment or a bite by an animal.

With the use of the polymerase chain reaction additional species have been and are still being identified that infect humans:

One possible experimental infection has been reported with Plasmodium eylesi. Fever and low grade parasitemia were apparent at 15 days. The volunteer (Dr Bennett) had previously been infected by Plasmodium cynomolgi and the infection was not transferable to a gibbon (P. eylesi 's natural host) so this cannot be regarded as definitive evidence of its ability to infect humans. A second case has been reported that may have been a case of P. eylesi but the author was not certain of the infecting species.

A possible infection with Plasmodium tenue has been reported. This report described a case of malaria in a three year old black girl from Georgia, USA who had never been outside the US. She suffered from both P. falciparum and P. vivax malaria and while forms similar to those described for P. tenue were found in her blood even the author was skeptical about the validity of the diagnosis.

Confusingly Plasmodium tenue was proposed in the same year (1914) for a species found in birds. The human species is now considered to be likely to have been a misdiagnosis and the bird species is described on the Plasmodium tenue page.

Notes

falciparum

Until recently the only known host of P. falciparum was humans but this species has also been described in gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and bonobos There has been a single report of P. falciparum in a brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba) and in black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) but until this is confirmed its validity should be considered dubious.

A possible report of P. falciparum in a greater spot-nosed monkeys (Cercopithecus nictitans) has not been confirmed in a large survey.

A species that clusters with P. falciparum and P. reichenowi has been identified in Gabon, Africa in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). This appears to have diverged from these two species about 21 million years ago. It has only been identified from the sequence of its mitochondrion to date and further work is needed to characterise the species. A second report has confirmed the existence of this species in chimpanzees. A third report has confirmed the existence of this species.

Night monkeys (Aotus nigriceps) can be infected with P. falciparum. This infection may occur naturally. Their potential role - if any - as a source of human infection is unknown.

Two additional species within the subgenus Laverania have been identified on the basis of DNA sequences alone: Plasmodium billbrayi and Plasmodium billcollinsi. and bonobos P. billbrayi was found in two subspecies of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes and Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). P. billcollinsi was found in only one subspecies of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes). Further work is needed to characterise these species.

malariae

Humans are currently considered to be the only host for P. malariae. However Rodhain and Dellaert in the 1940s showed with transmission studies that P. malariae was present in chimpanzees. The presence of P. malaria in chimpanzees has been reported in Japan suggesting that this species may be able to act as a host. A second paper has described the presence of P. malaria in wild chimpanzees. Another paper has reported several cases of P. malariae in brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba) and black howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) It has been shown that splectomised three-striped night monkey (Aotus trivirgatus) can be infected with P. malariae. Another paper has confirmed the presence of P. malaria in chimpanzees.

The existence of multiple independent reports seem to suggest that the chimpanzee and possibly other species may act as a host to P. malaria at least occasionally.

vivax

P. vivax will infect chimpanzees. Infection tends to be low grade but may be persistent and remain as source of parasites for humans for some time. P. vivax is also known to infect orangutans and the brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) P. vivax has been reported from chimpanzees living in the wild. It has been suggested that vivax infection of the great apes in Africa may act as a reservoir given the prevalence of Duffy antigen negative humans in this area.

ovale

Like P. vivax, P. ovale has been shown to be transmittable to chimpanzees. P. ovale has an unusual distribution pattern being found in Africa, Myanmar the Philippines and New Guinea. In spite of its admittedly poor transmission to chimpanzees given its discontigous spread, it is suspected that P. ovale may in fact be a zooenosis with an as yet unidentified host. If this is actually the case, the host seems likely to be a primate. A report has been published suggesting that P. ovale may be a natural parasite of chimpanzees but this needs confirmation. P. ovale has since been described from chimpanzees living in the wild. This suggests that human infection with this species may as previously suspected be a zoonosis.

It has been recently shown that P. ovale is actually two genetically distinct species that coexist. These species are Plasmodium ovale curtisi and Plasmodium ovale wallikeri. These two species separated between 1.0 and 3.5 million years ago.

knowlesi

Plasmodium knowlesi has a natural reservoir in the macaques of Southeast Asia, and was only in 1965 identified as being transmissible to humans.

Other species

The remaining species capable of infecting humans all have other primate hosts.

Plasmodium taxonomy

  • P. cynomolgi - P. cynomolgi bastianelli, P. cynomolgi ceylonensis and P. cynomolgi cynomolgi.
  • P. inui - P. inui inui and P. inui shortii
  • P. knowlesi - P. knowlesi edesoni and P. knowlesi knowlesi.
  • P. ovale - P. ovale curtisi and P. ovale wallikeri
  • P. vivax - P. vivax hibernans, P. vivax chesson and P. vivax multinucleatum.

Interrelatedness - The evolution of these species is still being worked out and the relationships given here should be regarded as tentative. This grouping, while originally made on morphological grounds, now has considerable support at the DNA level.

  • P. brasilianum, P. inui and P. rodhaini are similar to P. malariae (quartan malaria group)
  • P. cynomolgi, P. fragile, P. knowlesi, P. simium and P. schwetzi are similar to P. vivax
  • P. fieldi and P. simiovale are similar to P. ovale
  • P. falciparum is closely related to P. reichenowi.

Notes

  • P. kochi has been described as a parasite of monkeys. This species is currently classified as Hepatocystis kochi. This may be subject to revision.
  • P. brasilianum and P. rodhaini seem likely to be the same species as P. malariae.
  • P. lemuris may actually belong to the Haemoproteus genus. Clarification of this point awaits DNA examination.
  • P. shortii is currently (2007) regarded as a junior synonym of P. inui.

Species previously described as infecting humans but no longer recognised as valid

Taxonomy in parasitology until the advent of DNA based methods has always been a problem and revisions in this area are continuing. A number of synonyms have been given for the species infecting humans that are no longer recognised as valid. Since perusal of the older literature may be confusing some currently defunct species names are listed here.

4

Plasmodium shortii and Plasmodium osmaniae are now considered to be junior synonyms of Plasmodium inui.

Species infecting other hosts

This section lacks an overview of its topic. You can help by writing the lead section. (March 2014)

Most if not all Plasmodium species infect more than one host: the host records shown here should be regarded as incomplete.

  • P. malagasi - lemurs
  • P. ovale - chimpanzees (Pan)
  • P. reichenowi - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
  • P. rodhaini - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species
  • P. schwetzi - chimpanzee (Pan) species and gorilla (Gorilla) species

It has been proposed that the species P. gora and P. gorb should be renamed P. adleri and P. blacklocki respectively.

Primate groups and Plasmodium species

New World monkeys of the family Cebidae: P. brasilianum and P. simium

Old World monkeys of the Cercopithecidae family: P. coatneyi, P. cynomolgi, P. fieldi, P. fragile, P.gonderi, P. georgesi, P. inui, P. knowlesi, P. petersi, P. shortti and P. simiovale

Gibbons of the Hylobatidae family: P. eylesi, P. hylobati, P. jefferyi and P. youngi

Orangutans (Pongo): P. pitheci and P. silvaticum

Gorillas and chimpanzees: P. billcollini, P. billbrayii, P. falciparum, P. gabonensi, P. gora, P. gorb, P. reichenowi, P. rodhaini and P. schwetzi

Mosquitoes known to transmit human malaria listed by region

This section lacks an overview of its topic. You can help by writing the lead section. (March 2014)

This listing may be incomplete as the taxonomy of this genus is under revision.

North American

Central American

South American

North Eurasian

Mediterranean

Afro-Arabian

Afrotropical

Indo-Iranian

Indo-Chinese hills

Malaysian

Chinese

Australasian

Primate mosquito vectors and associated Plasmodium species

This section lacks an overview of its topic. You can help by writing the lead section. (March 2014)

References

  1. Coatney GR, Chin W, Contacos PG, King HK; Chin; Contacos; King (1966). "Plasmodium inui, a quartan-type malaria parasite of Old World monkeys transmissible to man". J Parasitol. 52 (4): 660–666. doi:10.2307/3276423. JSTOR 3276423.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. Contacos PG, Coatney GR, Orihel TC, Collins WE, Chin W; Coatney; Orihel; Collins; Chin; Jeter (1970). "Transmission of Plasmodium schwetzi from the chimpanzee to man by mosquito bite". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 19 (2): 190–5. PMID 5443069.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. Rodhain J, Dellaert R (1955). "Contribution a l'etude de Plasmodium schwetzi E. Brumpt (2eme note). Transmission de Plasmodium schwetzi a l'homme". Ann. Soc. Belg. Med. Trop. 35: 757–75.
  4. Tsukamoto M (1977). "An imported human malarial case characterized by severe multiple infections of the red blood cells". Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 19 (2): 95–104.
  5. Russel PF (1928). "Plasmodium tenue (Stephens): A review of the literature and a case report". Am. J. Trop. Med. s1-8 (5): 449–79.
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  9. Ayouba A, Mouacha F, Learn GH, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Rayner JC, Sharp PM, Hahn BH, Delaporte E, Peeters M (2012) Ubiquitous Hepatocystis infections, but no evidence of Plasmodium falciparum-like malarial parasites in wild greater spot-nosed monkeys (Cercopithecus nictitans). Int J Parasitol
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  12. Da Silva, Araújo M; Messias, MR; Figueiró, MR; Gil, LH; Probst, CM; de Medeiros Vidal, N; Katsuragawa, TH; Krieger, MA; Pereira da Sliva, LH; et al. (2013). "Natural Plasmodium infection in monkeys in the state of Rondonia (Brazilian Western Amazon)". Malar J. 12 (1): 180. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author10= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first9= (help); Unknown parameter |displayauthors= ignored (|display-authors= suggested) (help)
  13. Rodhain J (1940) Les plasmodiums des anthropoids de l'Afrique centrale et leurs relations avec les plasmodiums humains. Récepticité de l'homme au Plasmodium malariae. (Plasmodium rodhaini Brumpt) du chimpanzé. C. R. Soc. Biol. 133:276-277
  14. Rodhain J and Dellaert R (1943) L'infection á Plasmodium malariae du chimpanzé chez l'homme. Etude d'une premiére souche isolée de l'anthropoide Pan satyrus verus. Ann. Soc. Belge. Med. Trop. 23:19-46
  15. Hayakawa T, Arisue N, Udono T; Arisue; Udono; Hirai; Sattabongkot; Toyama; Tsuboi; Horii; Tanabe (2009). "Identification of Plasmodium malariae, a human malaria parasite, in imported chimpanzees". PLoS ONE. 4 (10): e7412. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007412. PMC 2756624. PMID 19823579. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |display-authors=9 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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