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| The Americans won the Space Race, wether it happened or not. | |||
| {{About|| discussion of all spaceflight programs to date|History of spaceflight|a list of key events|Timeline of the Space Race|other uses of the term|Space Race (disambiguation)}} | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2012}} | |||
| ]'' (replica) in 1957]] | |||
| ] (pictured) and ] on the Moon, July 1969.]] | |||
| ] and cosmonaut ] shake hands in space, signifying the end of the "space race"]] | |||
| The '''Space Race''' was a 20th-century (1955–1972) competition between two ] rivals, the ] (USSR) and the ] (US), for supremacy in ] capability. It had its origins in the ]-based ] between the two nations that occurred following ], enabled by captured ] technology and personnel. | |||
| The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch ], unmanned ]s of the ], ], and ], and ] in ] and to the Moon. The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the ], by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of ], and later beat the US to the first human in space, ], on April 12, 1961. The Space Race peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with ], and concluded in a period of ] with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative ], resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew. | |||
| The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth ] and ]s, and continuing human space presence on the ]. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and ], which led to beneficial ]. | |||
| ==Early rocket development== | |||
| ===World War II Germany=== | |||
| ] (1912–1977), technical director of ]'s missile program, became the United States' lead rocket engineer during the 1950s and 1960s]] | |||
| The Space Race can trace its origins to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during ] when ] researched and built operational ]. Starting in the early 1930s, during the last stages of the ], German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid-fueled ]s, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 147</ref> The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included ] and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long-range ] in order to get around the ]' ban on research and development of long-range ]s.<ref>Cornwell (2004), p. 146</ref> ], a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at ] in 1932.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 148</ref> Von Braun had dreams about conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 150</ref> | |||
| During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the ] army rocket centre, and von Braun was the technical director of the ] program.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 96</ref> They would lead the team that built the ], which became the first vehicle to reach ] during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943.<ref>Burrows (1998), pp. 99–100</ref> By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the ] ("Vengeance Weapon" 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a {{convert|320|km|mi||sp=us}} range carrying a {{convert|1130|kg|lb|sp=us}} ] at {{convert|4000|km/h|mi/h||sp=us}}.<ref>Burrows (1998), pp. 98–99</ref> Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and ] detection provided little warning.<ref>Stocker (2004), pp. 12–24</ref> Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945.<ref>Gainor (2001), p. 68</ref> After the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.<ref name="Schefter29">Schefter (1999), p. 29</ref><ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 41</ref> | |||
| At war's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany's rocket ] along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 24–41</ref> Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with ], recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.<ref name="Schefter29"/> | |||
| ===Allied rocket teams assembled=== | |||
| ] (left), with the "father of the Soviet atomic bomb" ], and "Chief Theoretician" ] in 1956]] | |||
| The German rocket center in Peenemünde was located in the eastern part of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems.<ref name="Siddiqi24-34">Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 24–34</ref> The Soviet rocket engineers were led by ].<ref name="Siddiqi24-34"/> He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during ]'s ] and imprisoned for six years in Siberia.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 4, 11, 16</ref> After the war, he became the USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviet counterpart to von Braun.<ref name="schefter7-10">Schefter (1999), pp. 7–10</ref> His identity was kept a ] throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer."<ref name="schefter7-10"/> In the West, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.<ref name="schefter7-10"/> | |||
| After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials moved most of the captured German rocket specialists to ] on ], about {{convert|240|km|mi|sp=us}} northwest of Moscow.<ref name="siddiqi45">Siddiqi (2003a), p. 45</ref> They were not allowed to participate in Soviet missile design, but were used as problem-solving consultants to the Soviet engineers.<ref name="Gatland 100-01"/> They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes"; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100-ton engine; assistance in the "layout" of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components.<ref name="siddiqi45"/> With their help, particularly Helmut Groettrup's group, Korolev ] the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the ], in 1948.<ref name="Groettrup">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/earsiles.htm|title= Early Russian Ballistic Missiles|work= Encyclopedia Astronautix |last= Wade|first= Mark|accessdate=24 July 2010|archiveurl= //web.archive.org/web/20061016145847/http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/earsiles.htm|archivedate= 16 October 2006}}</ref> Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Groettrup Group's G4-R10 design from 1949.<ref name="Groettrup"/> The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951–53.<ref name="Groettrup"/> | |||
| The American professor ] had worked on developing ]s since 1914, and demonstrated a light battlefield rocket to the ] only five days before the signing of the ]. He also started developing ]s in 1921; yet he had not been taken seriously by the public,<ref>Goddard's 1919 research paper ''A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes'' was famously ridiculed in a ''New York Times'' editorial.</ref> and was not sponsored by the government as part of the post-WW II rocket development effort. Von Braun, himself inspired by Goddard's work, was bemused by this when debriefed by his American handlers, asking them, "Why didn't you just ask Dr. Goddard?"{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} | |||
| Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army's ], located in ], in 1945.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 123</ref> They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing American engineers in their operation.<ref name="Burroughs129-134">Burrows (1998), pp. 129–134</ref> These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two-stage rocket, the ]-V2 combination, in 1949.<ref name="Burroughs129-134"/> The German rocket team was moved from ] to the Army's new ], located in ], in 1950.<ref name="Burroughs137">Burrows (1998), p. 137</ref> From here, von Braun and his team would develop the Army's first operational medium-range ballistic missile, the ], that would, in slightly modified versions, launch both America's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions.<ref name="Burroughs137"/> It became the basis for both the ] and ].<ref name="Burroughs137"/> | |||
| ===Cold War missile race=== | |||
| {{Quote box |title = |quote = The cold war would become the great engine, the supreme catalyst, that sent rockets and their cargoes far above Earth and worlds away. If ], ], ], and others were the fathers of rocketry, the competition between capitalism and communism was its midwife. |source = William E. Burrows,<br/>''This New Ocean'', "The Other World Series", p. 147 |align = left |width = 35% |border = 3px |fontsize = |bgcolor = #CCCCCC }} | |||
| The ] (1947–1991) developed between two former allies, the Soviet Union and the United States, soon after the end of the Second World War. It involved a continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition, primarily between the Soviet Union and its ]s (often referred to as the ]), and the powers of the ], particularly the United States.<ref name = "Schmitz">Schmitz, (1999), pp. 149–154</ref> Although the primary participants' military forces never clashed directly, they expressed this conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.<ref name = "Schmitz" /> | |||
| In simple terms, the Cold War could be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism.<ref name="Burroughs147-49">Burrows (2012), pp. 147–149</ref> The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on the ].<ref name="Burroughs147-49" /> American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time, might devastate its cities.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet Union that included development of the ], as well as intercontinental ]s and intercontinental ballistic missiles (]s) capable of delivering nuclear weapons.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> A new fear of communism and its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid ].<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> With communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and political culture condoned extensive "]s" to expose communist spies.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> Part of the American reaction to the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large ], under the control of the ] (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium-bombers based close to Soviet airspace (in western Europe and in ]) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.<ref name="Polmar&Laur">Polmer and Laur (1990), pp. 229–241</ref> | |||
| For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941,<ref name=Burroughs149-51>Burrows (1998), pp. 149–151</ref> the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste its cities and military centers.<ref name=Burroughs149-51/> Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of ]s (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.<ref name="Gatland 100-01">Gatland (1976), pp. 100–101</ref> | |||
| ], and ] for Sputnik, Vostok, Voskhod, and Soyuz]] | |||
| In 1953, Korolev was given the go-ahead to develop the ] rocket, which represented a major advance from the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G-4, the new rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on 21 August 1957 and became the world's first fully operational ICBM the following month.<ref>Hall & Shayler (2001), p. 56</ref> It would later be used to launch the first satellite into space, and ] would launch all piloted Soviet spacecraft.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 468–469</ref> | |||
| The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the ].<ref name="Atlas">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/atlas.htm |title= Atlas |work= Encyclopedia Astronautix |last= Wade|first= Mark|accessdate=24 July 2010}}</ref> However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947.<ref name="Atlas"/> In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX-1593, and by 1955 this program was receiving top-priority funding.<ref name="Atlas"/> The MX-1593 program evolved to become the ], with its maiden launch occurring on 11 June 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM.<ref name="Atlas"/> Its upgraded version, the ] rocket, would later serve as an operational nuclear ICBM and be used as the orbital launch vehicle for ] and the remote-controlled ] used in ].<ref name="Atlas"/> | |||
| With the Cold War as an engine for change in the ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, a coherent space policy began to take shape in the United States during the late 1950s.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 138</ref> Korolev would take much inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibility that the United States might prevail.<ref name="Siddiqia">Siddiqi (2003a), p.383</ref> | |||
| ==The race to space begins== | |||
| {{Further|Soviet space program|Space policy of the United States}} | |||
| ===First artificial satellite=== | |||
| In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race.<ref name="Schefter3-5">Schefter (1999), pp. 3–5</ref> In separate announcements, just four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958.<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> On July 29, 1955, ], president ]'s press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the ] (IGY).<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> Four days later, at the ] in Copenhagen, scientist ] spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future".<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the ] to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the ''de facto'' start date for the Space Race.<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> The ] began a policy of treating development of its space program as a ]. | |||
| Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=us}}, might be construed as violating that nation's sovereign airspace.<ref name="Schefter8">Schefter (1999), p. 8</ref> He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 6</ref> Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the ], and he used the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law.<ref name="Schefter8"/> Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "warmonger" if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore he selected the untried ]'s ], which was a research-only booster.<ref name="Schefter15-18">Schefter (1999), pp. 15–18</ref> This meant that von Braun's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter-C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle.<ref name="Schefter15-18"/> On September 20, 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter-C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, but the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.<ref name="Schefter15-18"/> | |||
| Korolev received word about von Braun's 1956 Jupiter-C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R-7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing ] as his primary satellite.<ref name="ObjectD">Cadbury (2006), pp.154–157</ref> It was given the designation 'D', to distinguish it from other R-7 payload designations 'A', 'B', 'V', and 'G' which were nuclear weapon payloads.<ref name="Siddiqi151">Siddiqi (2003a), p. 151</ref> Object D would dwarf the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of {{convert|1400|kg|lb|sp=us}}, of which {{convert|300|kg|lb|sp=us}} would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet's magnetic field.<ref name="Siddiqi151"/> However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the Council of Ministers to create a ''prosteishy sputnik'' (PS-1), or simple satellite.<ref name="ObjectD"/> The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 155</ref> The new ''sputnik'' was a shiny sphere that would be a much lighter craft, weighing {{convert|83.8|kg|lb|sp=us}} and having a {{convert|58|cm|in|adj=on|sp=us}} diameter.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| | url = http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/ | |||
| | title = Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age | |||
| | first = Steve | |||
| | last = Garber | |||
| | date = 10 October 2007 | |||
| | work = Sputnik 50th Anniversary | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | location = Washington | |||
| }}</ref> The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but it did have two radio transmitters operating on different ] frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth's ].<ref name="von Hardesty72-73">Hardesty (2007), pp. 72–73</ref> | |||
| {{Listen | |||
| | filename = Sputnik beep.ogg | |||
| | title = ''Beep ... beep ... beep'' | |||
| | alt = | |||
| | description = The signals of ''Sputnik 1'' continued for 22 days | |||
| }} | |||
| Korolev was buoyed by the first successful launches of his R-7 rocket in August and September, which paved the way for him to launch his ''sputnik''.<ref name="Siddiqi163-168">Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 163–168</ref> Word came that the Americans were planning to announce a major breakthrough at an International Geophysical Year conference at the ] in Washington D.C., with a paper entitled "Satellite Over the Planet", on 6 October 1957.<ref name="Cadbury163">Cadbury (2006), p. 163</ref> Korolev anticipated that von Braun might launch a Jupiter-C with a satellite payload on or around the fourth or fifth of October, in conjunction with the paper.<ref name="Cadbury163"/> He hastened the launch, moving it to the fourth of October.<ref name="Cadbury163"/> The launch vehicle for PS-1, was a modified R-7 – vehicle 8K71PS number M1-PS– without much of the test equipment and radio gear that was present in the previous launches.<ref name="Siddiqi163-168"/> It arrived at the Soviet missile base ] in September and was prepared for its mission at ].<ref name="Siddiqi163-168"/> On Friday, October 4, 1957, at exactly 10:28:34 pm Moscow time, the R-7, with the now named '']'' satellite, lifted off the launch pad, and placed this artificial "moon" into an orbit a few minutes later.<ref name="Hardesty 74">Hardesty (2007), p. 74</ref> This "fellow traveler," as the name is translated in English, was a small, beeping ball, less than two feet in diameter and weighing less than 200 pounds. But the celebrations were muted at the launch control centre until the down-range far east tracking station at ] received the first distinctive beep ... beep ... beep sounds from Sputnik 1's radio transmitters, indicating that it was on its way to completing its first orbit.<ref name="Hardesty 74"/> About 95 minutes after launch, the satellite flew over its launch site, and its radio signals were picked up by the engineers and military personnel at Tyura-Tam: that's when Korolev and his team celebrated the first successful artificial satellite placed into Earth-orbit.<ref>Cadbury (2006), p. 164–165</ref> | |||
| ===US reaction=== | |||
| {{Main|Sputnik crisis}} | |||
| The Soviet success caused public controversy in the United States, and Eisenhower ordered the civilian rocket and satellite project, Vanguard, to move up its timetable and launch its satellite much sooner than originally planned.<ref name="Brzezinski254-67">Brzezinski (2007), pp. 254–267</ref> The December 6, 1957 ] occurred at ] in Florida, broadcast live in front of a US television audience.<ref name="Brzezinski254-67"/> It was a monumental failure, exploding a few seconds after launch, and it became an international joke. The satellite appeared in newspapers under the names Flopnik, Stayputnik, Kaputnik,<ref>O'Neill, Terry. The Nuclear Age. San Diego: Greenhaven, Inc., 2002. | |||
| (146)</ref> and Dudnik.<ref>Knapp, Brian. Journey into Space. Danbury: Grolier, 2004.(17)</ref> In the United Nations, the Russian delegate offered the U.S. representative aid "under the Soviet program of technical assistance to backwards nations."<ref>O'Neill, Terry. The Nuclear Age. San Diego: Greenhaven, Inc., 2002.(146)</ref> Only in the wake of this very public failure did von Braun's Redstone team get the go-ahead to launch their Jupiter-C rocket as soon as they could. In Britain, the USA's Western Cold War ally, the reaction was mixed: some members of the population celebrated the fact that the Soviets had reached space first, while others feared the destructive potential that military uses of spacecraft might bring.<ref>Barnett, Nicholas. '"Russia Wins Space Race": The British Press and the Sputnik Moment', ''Media History'', (2013) 19:2, 182-195.</ref> | |||
| ], ], and Wernher von Braun display a full-scale model of ''Explorer 1'' at a Washington, DC news conference after confirmation the satellite was in orbit]] | |||
| On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four-stage ] rocket derived from the US Army's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space Biology and Medicine: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics|location=Washington, DC.|page=285}}</ref> The satellite ] was {{convert|30.8|lb|kg|disp=flip}} in mass.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space and Biology: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc.|location=Washington, DC.|page=285}}</ref> It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a ]. It passed in and out of the Earth-encompassing radiation belt with its 360 km by 2534 km orbit therefore saturating the tube's capacity and proving what Dr. ], a space scientist at the ], had theorized.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space Biology and Medicine: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc.|location=Washington, DC|page=285}}</ref> The belt, named the ], is a doughnut-shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator.<ref name="Ref-1">{{cite book|last=Angelo|first=Joseph, A.|title=Encyclopedia of Space Astronomy|year=2006|publisher=Facts on Files, Inc.|location=New York, NY|page=634}}</ref> Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite actually measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels; the temperature in the spacecraft; and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no ] for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously.<ref>{{cite book|last=Angelo|first=Joseph, A.|title=Encyclopedia of Space Astronomy|year=2006|publisher=Facts on Files, Inc.|location=New York, NY|page=225}}</ref> Two months later in March 1958, a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments. | |||
| On April 2, 1958, President Eisenhower reacted to the Soviet space lead in launching the first satellite, by recommending to the US Congress that a civilian agency be established to direct nonmilitary space activities. Congress, led by ] ], responded by passing the ], which Eisenhower signed into law on July 29, 1958. This law turned the ] into the ] (NASA). It also created a Civilian-Military Liaison Committee, chaired by the President, responsible for coordinating the nation's civilian and military space programs. | |||
| On October 21, 1959, Eisenhower approved the transfer of the Army's remaining space-related activities to NASA. On July 1, 1960, the Redstone Arsenal became NASA's ], with von Braun as its first director. Development of the ], which when mature, would finally give the US parity with the Soviets in terms of lifting capability, was thus transferred to NASA. | |||
| ==First humans in space== | |||
| ] | |||
| The US Air Force had been developing a program to launch the first man in space, named ]. This program studied several different types of one-man space vehicles, settling on a ] launched on a derivative ], and selecting a group of nine candidate pilots. After NASA's creation, the program was transferred over to the civilian agency and renamed ] on November 26, 1958. NASA selected a new group of ] (from the Greek for "star sailor") candidates from Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilots, and narrowed this down to ] for the program. Capsule design and astronaut training began immediately, working toward preliminary suborbital flights on the ], followed by orbital flights on the Atlas. Each flight series would first start unmanned, then carry a primate, then finally men. | |||
| By 1959, American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Mercury's first launch.<ref name="bello1959">{{cite news | url=http://features.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2012/06/03/the-early-space-age-fortune-1959/?section=magazines_fortune | title=The Early Space Age | work=Fortune |year=1959 | accessdate=5 June 2012 | author=Bello, Francis}}</ref> On April 12, 1961, the USSR surprised the world again by launching ] into a single orbit around the Earth in a craft they called ].<ref name="HallGagarin">Hall (2001), pp. 149–157</ref> They dubbed Gagarin the first ], roughly translated from Russian and Greek as "sailor of the universe". Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his spacecraft in an emergency by opening an envelope he had in the cabin that contained a code that could be typed into the computer, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space.<ref name="HallGagarin"/> Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at {{convert|7000|m|ft|sp=us}}, and landing by parachute.<ref name="HallGagarin"/> The ] (International Federation of Aeronautics) credited Gagarin with the world's first human space flight, although their qualifying rules for aeronautical records at the time required pilots to take off and land with their craft. For this reason, the Soviet Union omitted from their FAI submission the fact that Gagarin did not land with his capsule. When the FAI filing for ]'s second Vostok flight in August 1961 disclosed the ejection landing technique, the FAI committee decided to investigate, and concluded that the technological accomplishment of human spaceflight lay in the safe launch, orbiting, and return, rather than the manner of landing, and so revised their rules accordingly, keeping Gagarin's and Titov's records intact.<ref></ref> | |||
| Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to the ].<ref>Pervushin (2011), </ref> April 12 was declared ] in the USSR, and is celebrated today in Russia as one of the official "Commemorative Dates of Russia."<ref name="32FZ">{{Cite Russian law | |||
| |ru_entity=Государственная Дума | |||
| |ru_type=Федеральный закон | |||
| |ru_number=32-ФЗ | |||
| |ru_date=13 марта 1995 г. | |||
| |ru_title=О днях воинской славы и памятных датах России | |||
| |ru_effective_date=со дня официального опубликования | |||
| |ru_published_in="Российская Газета", №52 | |||
| |ru_published_date=15 марта 1995 г | |||
| |ru_url=http://ntc.duma.gov.ru/duma_na/asozd/asozd_text.php?code=22479 | |||
| |ru_amendment_type=Федерального закона | |||
| |ru_amendment_number=59-ФЗ | |||
| |ru_amendment_date=10 апреля 2009 г | |||
| |ru_amendment_title=О внесении изменения в статью 1.1 федерального закона "О днях воинской славы и памятных датах России" | |||
| |en_entity=] | |||
| |en_type=Federal Law | |||
| |en_number=32-FZ | |||
| |en_date=March 13, 1995 | |||
| |en_title=On the Days of Military Glory and the Commemorative Dates in Russia | |||
| |en_effective_date=the day of the official publication | |||
| |en_url | |||
| |en_amendment_type=Federal Law | |||
| |en_amendment_number=59-FZ | |||
| |en_amendment_date=April 10, 2009 | |||
| |en_amendment_title=On Amending Article 1.1 of the Federal Law "On the Days of Military Glory and the Commemorative Dates in Russia" | |||
| }}</ref> In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/events/humanspaceflightday/ |title= UN Resolution A/RES/65/271, The International Day of Human Space Flight (12 April) |date=2011-04-07 |accessdate=2015-01-19}}</ref> | |||
| {{Listen | |||
| | filename = Gagarin-Poyekhali.ogg | |||
| | title = ''Poyekhali!'' | |||
| | alt = | |||
| | description = Gagarin's voice | |||
| }} | |||
| The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch: | |||
| {{quote|Korolev: "Preliminary stage..... intermediate..... main..... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right." | |||
| Gagarin: "{{lang|ru-Latn|Поехали!}}" (''Poyekhali!'' - ''Let's go!'').}}<ref>Hall and Shayler, p.150</ref> Gagarin's informal ''poyekhali!'' became a historical phrase in the Eastern Block, used to refer to the beginning of the human space flight era.<ref name=Dushenko>{{cite book | last = Душенко| first = Константин | url = https://books.google.de/books?id=UZqhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT920&dq=гагарин+поехали+песня&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kxy9VLXzAsWtPLvEgJAK&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=поехали | title = Большой словарь цитат и крылатых выражений | language = Russian | publisher = Litres | year = 2014 | ISBN = 978-5-699-40115-4}}</ref><ref>Pervushin (2011), </ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Three weeks later, on May 5, 1961, ] became the first American in space, launched in a ] on ], in a spacecraft he named ''Freedom 7''.<ref>Schefter (1999), pp. 138–143</ref> Though he did not achieve orbit like Gagarin, he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft's ] and ] firing.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp. 153–154</ref> After his successful return, Shepard was celebrated as a national hero, honored with parades in Washington, New York and Los Angeles, and received the ] from ] ].<ref>{{cite AV media |year=1961 |title=As World Watched. Spaceman Hailed After U.S. Triumph, 1961/05/08 (1961) |medium=Motion picture |url=http://www.archive.org/details/1961-05-08_As_World_Watched |accessdate=February 20, 2012 |publisher=] |oclc=709678549}}</ref> | |||
| ==Kennedy directs the race toward the Moon== | |||
| {{Quote box |title = |quote =We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win ... | |||
| It is for these reasons that I regard the decision last year to shift our efforts in space from low to high gear as among the most important decisions that will be made during my incumbency in the office of the Presidency.|source =John F. Kennedy,<br/>Speech at Rice University, Houston, September 12, 1962<ref name="wechoose"/>|date=12 September 1962|align = right |width = 35% |border = 3px |fontsize = |bgcolor = #CCCCCC }} | |||
| {{Wikisource|We choose to go to the moon}} | |||
| After Gagarin's flight, President ] sensed the humiliation and fear on the part of the American public over the Soviet lead. He sent a memo dated April 20, 1961, to Vice President ], asking him to look into the state of America's space program, and into programs that could offer ] the opportunity to catch up.<ref>Kennedy to Johnson, 20 April 1961.</ref> The two major options at the time seemed to be, either establishment of an Earth orbital space station, or a manned landing on the Moon. Johnson in turn consulted with von Braun, who answered Kennedy's questions based on his estimates of US and Soviet rocket lifting capability.<ref>von Braun to Johnson,, 29 April 1961.</ref> Based on this, Johnson responded to Kennedy, concluding that much more was needed to reach a position of leadership, and recommending that the manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that the US had a fighting chance to achieve it first.<ref name="lbjmemo">Johnson to Kennedy, 28 April 1961.</ref> | |||
| Until this time, Kennedy's support for sending an American to the Moon was not a foregone conclusion. ] of MIT, who served as a science advisor to presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy, and himself an opponent of manned space exploration, remarked, "If Kennedy could have opted out of a big space program without hurting the country in his judgement, he would have."<ref>Quoted in John M. Logsdon, ''The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970) p. 111.</ref> In March 1961, when NASA administrator James E. Webb submitted a budget request to fund a Moon landing before 1970, Kennedy rejected it because it was simply too expensive.<ref>David Bell, Memorandum for the President, "National Aeronautics and Space Administration Budget Problem," 22 March 1961, NASA Historical Reference Collection; U.S. Congress, House, Committee of Science and Astronautics, ''NASA Fiscal 1962 Authorization'', ''Hearings'', 87th Cong., 1st. sess., 1962, pp. 203, 620; Logsdon, Decision to go to the Moon, pp. 94–100.</ref> Some were surprised by his eventual support of NASA and the space program because of how often he had attacked the Eisenhower administration's inefficiency during the election.<ref>Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Picador, 1979.(179)</ref> | |||
| Kennedy ultimately decided to pursue what became the ], and on May 25 asked for Congressional support in an address to a special joint session: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |last=Kennedy | |||
| |first= John F. | |||
| |url=//web.archive.org/web/20100302132856/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/Urgent+National+Needs+Page+4.htm | |||
| |title= Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs | |||
| |work=Historical Resources | |||
| |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum | |||
| |date=25 May 1961 | |||
| |page=4 | |||
| |accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
| He justified the program in terms of its importance to national security, and its focus of the nation's energies on other scientific and social fields.<ref name="wechoose">{{cite web | |||
| |last=Kennedy | |||
| |first= John F. | |||
| |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm | |||
| |title= Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort|work=Historical Resources | |||
| |publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum | |||
| |date=12 September 1962 | |||
| |accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref> He rallied popular support for the program in his "]" speech, on 12 September 1962, before a large crowd at ] Stadium, in Houston, Texas, near the construction site of the new ] facility.<ref name="wechoose"/> | |||
| Khrushchev responded to Kennedy's implicit challenge with silence, refusing to publicly confirm or deny the Soviets were pursuing a "Moon race". However, as would later be disclosed, they pursued such a program in secret over the next nine years. | |||
| ==Completion of Vostok and Mercury programs== | |||
| ===Mercury=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| American ] repeated Shepard's suborbital flight in '']'' on July 21, 1961. Almost a year after the Soviet Union put a human into orbit, astronaut ] became the first American to orbit the Earth, on February 20, 1962.<ref name="Schefter156–164">Schefter (1999), pp. 156–164</ref> His ] mission completed three orbits in the ''Friendship 7'' spacecraft, and splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean, after a tense reentry, due to what falsely appeared from the telemetry data to be a loose heat-shield.<ref name="Schefter156–164"/> As the first American in orbit, Glenn became a national hero, and received a ] in ], reminiscent of that given for ]. On February 23, 1962, President Kennedy escorted him in a parade at ], where he awarded Glenn with the NASA service medal. | |||
| The United States launched three more Mercury flights after Glenn's: '']'' on May 24, 1962 duplicated Glenn's three orbits; '']'' on October 3, 1962, six orbits; and '']'' on May 15, 1963, 22 orbits (32.4 hours), the maximum capability of the spacecraft. NASA at first intended to launch one more mission, extending the spacecraft's endurance to three days, but since this would not beat the Soviet record, it was decided instead to concentrate on developing Project Gemini. | |||
| ===Vostok=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] became the first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control of his ] craft on August 6, 1961.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp. 115–116</ref> The Soviet Union demonstrated 24-hour launch pad turnaround and the capability to launch two piloted spacecraft, ] and ], in essentially identical orbits, on August 11 and 12, 1962.<ref>Hall (2001), pp.183,192</ref> The two spacecraft came within approximately {{convert|6.5|km|mi|sp=us}} of one another, close enough for radio communication.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp.117–118</ref> Vostok 4 also set a record of nearly four days in space. Though the two craft's orbits were as nearly identical as possible given the accuracy of the launch rocket's guidance system, slight variations still existed which drew the two craft at first as close to each other as {{convert|6.5|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}, then as far apart as {{convert|2850|km|nmi|sp=us|abbr=off}}. There were no maneuvering rockets on the Vostok to permit ], required to keep two spacecraft a controlled distance apart.<ref>Hall (2001), pp. 185–191</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The Soviet Union duplicated its dual-launch feat with ] and ] (June 16, 1963). This time they launched the first woman (also the first civilian), ], into space on Vostok 6.<ref name="Hall194-218">Hall(2001), pp. 194–218</ref> Launching a woman was reportedly Korolev's idea, and it was accomplished purely for propaganda value.<ref name="Hall194-218"/> Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but Tereshkova was the only one to fly.<ref name="Hall194-218"/> The USSR didn't again open its cosmonaut corps to women until 1980, two years after the United States opened its astronaut corps to women. | |||
| The Soviets kept the details and true appearance of the Vostok capsule secret until the April 1965 Moscow Economic Exhibition, where it was first displayed without its aerodynamic nose cone concealing the spherical capsule. The "Vostok spaceship" had been first displayed at the July 1961 ], mounted on its launch vehicle's third stage, with the nose cone in place. A tail section with eight fins was also added, in an apparent attempt to confuse western observers. This spurious tail section also appeared on official commemorative stamps and a documentary.<ref>Gatland (1976), p. 254</ref> | |||
| ==Kennedy proposes a joint US-USSR program== | |||
| On September 20, 1963, in a speech before the ], President Kennedy proposed that the United States and the Soviet Union join forces in their efforts to reach the Moon. Soviet Premier ] initially rejected Kennedy's proposal.<ref name="spacedaily">{{cite web|last=Sietzen|first=Frank|title=Soviets Planned to Accept JFK's Joint Lunar Mission Offer|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/russia-97h.html|work="SpaceCast News Service" Washington DC -|accessdate=2 October 1997}}</ref> | |||
| On October 2, 1997, it was reported that Khrushchev's son Sergei claimed Khrushchev was poised to accept Kennedy's proposal at the time of ]. During the next few weeks he reportedly concluded that both nations might realize cost benefits and technological gains from a joint venture, and decided to accept Kennedy's offer based on a measure of rapport during their years as leaders of the world's two superpowers, but changed his mind and dropped the idea since he did not have the same trust for Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.<ref name="spacedaily" /> | |||
| As President, Johnson steadfastly pursued the Gemini and Apollo programs, promoting them as Kennedy's legacy to the American public. One week after Kennedy's death, he issued an executive order renaming the Cape Canaveral and ] facilities after Kennedy. | |||
| ==Gemini and Voskhod== | |||
| Focused by the commitment to a Moon landing, in January 1962 the US announced ], a two-man spacecraft that would support the later three-man Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of ] and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length to simulate going to the Moon and back, and ] to accomplish useful work outside the spacecraft. | |||
| Meanwhile, Korolev had planned further, long-term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his ] facilities.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6">Siddiqi (2003a), pp.384–386</ref> At that time, the Americans announced their ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. These plans included major advancements in spacecraft capabilities, including a two-person spacecraft, the ability to change orbits, the capacity to perform an ] (EVA), and the goal of docking with another spacecraft.<ref name="Siddiqia" /> These represented major advances over the previous Mercury or Vostok capsules, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these innovations.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6"/> Korolev already had begun designing the Vostok's replacement, the next-generation ], a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 149</ref> However, Soyuz would not be available for at least three years, and it could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or 1965.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 198</ref> Political pressure in early 1964–which some sources claim was from Khrushchev while other sources claim was from other Communist Party officials—pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans to new space firsts in the size of flight crews, and the duration of missions.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6"/> | |||
| ===Voskhod program=== | |||
| {{Main|Voskhod programme}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Gemini took a year longer than planned to accomplish its first flight, allowing the Soviets to achieve another first, launching ] on October 12, 1964, the first spacecraft with a three-cosmonaut crew.<ref>{{cite news | |||
| | title = Space Troika on Target | |||
| | author = Special | |||
| | agency = UPI | |||
| | newspaper = ] | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | location = Toronto | |||
| | date = 13 October 1964 | |||
| | page = 1}}</ref> The USSR touted another technological achievement during this mission: it was the first space flight during which cosmonauts performed in a shirt-sleeve-environment.<ref name="Schefter199-200">Schefter (1999), p. 199–200</ref> However, flying without spacesuits was not due to safety improvements in the Soviet spacecraft's environmental systems; rather this innovation was accomplished because the craft's limited cabin space did not allow for spacesuits. Flying without spacesuits exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk in the event of potentially fatal cabin depressurization.<ref name="Schefter199-200"/> This feat would not be repeated until the US ] flew in 1968; this later mission was designed from the outset to safely transport three astronauts in a ] while in space. | |||
| Between October 14–16, 1964, ] and a small cadre of high-ranking Communist Party officials, deposed Khrushchev as Soviet government leader a day after Voskhod 1 landed, in what was called the "Wednesday conspiracy".<ref>{{cite news | |||
| | title = Kremlin summit probably greased skids for Mr. K | |||
| | last = Gayn | |||
| | first = Mark | |||
| | newspaper = ] | |||
| | publisher = ] | |||
| | location = Toronto | |||
| | date = 16 October 1964 | |||
| | page = 11}}</ref> | |||
| The new political leaders, along with Korolev, ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod program, cancelling Voskhod 3 and 4, which were in the planning stages, and started concentrating on the race to the Moon.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 510–511</ref> Voskhod 2 would end up being Korolev's final achievement before his death on January 14, 1966, as it would become the last of the many space firsts that demonstrated the USSR's domination in spacecraft technology during the early 1960s. According to historian Asif Siddiqi, Korolev's accomplishments marked "the absolute zenith of the Soviet space program, one never, ever attained since."<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 460</ref> There would be a two-year pause in Soviet piloted space flights while Voskhod's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, was designed and developed.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 207</ref> | |||
| On March 18, 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated the competition, by launching the two-cosmonaut ] mission with ] and ].<ref name="NYT650319">{{cite news | |||
| | title = Russian Floats in Space for 10 Minutes; Leaves Orbiting Craft With a Lifeline; Moscow Says Moon Trip Is 'Target Now' | |||
| | first = Henry | |||
| | last = Tanner | |||
| | url = http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0318.html?scp=2&sq=Voskhod%202&st=cse | |||
| | newspaper = ] | |||
| | location = New York | |||
| | date = 19 March 1965 | |||
| | page = 1}}</ref> Voskhod 2's design modifications included the addition of an inflatable airlock to allow for ] (EVA), also known as a spacewalk, while keeping the cabin pressurized so that the capsule's electronics wouldn't overheat.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 448</ref> Leonov performed the first-ever EVA as part of the mission.<ref name="NYT650319"/> A fatality was narrowly avoided when Leonov's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the airlock.<ref name="schefter205">Schefter (1999), p. 205</ref> In order to overcome this, he had to partially depressurize his spacesuit to a potentially dangerous level.<ref name="schefter205"/> He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft's atmospheric controls flooded the cabin with 45% pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry.<ref name="Siddiqi454-460"/> The reentry involved two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land {{convert|386|km|mi|sp=us}} off its designated target area, the town of ]; and the instrument compartment's failure to detach from the descent apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.<ref name="Siddiqi454-460">Siddiqi (2003a), pp.454–460</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Project Gemini=== | |||
| {{Main|Project Gemini}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Though delayed a year to reach its first flight, Gemini was able to take advantage of the USSR's two-year hiatus after Voskhod, which enabled the US to catch up and surpass the previous Soviet lead in piloted spaceflight. Gemini achieved several significant firsts during the course of ten piloted missions: | |||
| * On ] (March 1965), astronauts ] and ] became the first to demonstrate their ability to change their craft's orbit. | |||
| * On ] (August 1965), astronauts ] and ] set a record of almost eight days in space, long enough for a piloted lunar mission. | |||
| * On ] (December 1965), Command Pilot ] achieved the first ] with ], accurately matching his orbit to that of the other craft, ] for three consecutive orbits at distances as close as {{convert|1|ft|m|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| | title =THE WORLD'S FIRST SPACE RENDEZVOUS | |||
| | work =Apollo to the Moon; To Reach the Moon – Early Human Spaceflight | |||
| | publisher = Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum | |||
| | url =http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/rm.ey.g7.3.html | |||
| | accessdate =17 September 2007}}</ref> | |||
| * Gemini 7 also set a human spaceflight endurance record of fourteen days for ] and ], which stood until both nations started launching space laboratories in the early 1970s. | |||
| * On ] (March 1966), Command Pilot ] achieved the first docking between two spacecraft, his Gemini craft and an ]. | |||
| * ] (September 1966), commanded by Conrad, achieved the first direct-ascent rendezvous with its Agena target on the first orbit, and used the Agena's rocket to achieve an ] of {{convert|742|nmi|km}}, the manned Earth orbit record still current as of {{Plain now}}. | |||
| * On ] (November 1966), ] spent over five hours working comfortably during three (EVA) sessions, finally proving that humans could perform productive tasks outside their spacecraft. This proved to be the most difficult goal to achieve. | |||
| Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts who would be chosen to fly the Apollo lunar missions. | |||
| ==Soviet manned Moon programs== | |||
| {{Main|Soviet manned lunar programs}} | |||
| {{multiple image | |||
| | direction = vertical | |||
| | width = <!-- integer width in pixels; no "px" suffix --> | |||
| | image1 = Apollo vs LOK (RP1357, p176, 191-220).svg | |||
| | alt1 = | |||
| | caption1 = Soyuz 7K-L3 (Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl), alongside the ] to scale | |||
| | image2 = Manned Moon landers LK vs LM - to scale drawing.png | |||
| | alt2 = | |||
| | caption2 = LK lunar lander (Lunniy Korabl), alongside the ] to scale | |||
| }} | |||
| Korolev's design bureau produced two prospectuses for circumlunar spaceflight (March 1962 and May 1963), the main spacecraft for which were early versions of his Soyuz design. Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Command 655-268 officially established two secret, competing manned programs for circumlunar flights and lunar landings, on August 3, 1964. The circumlunar flights were planned to occur in 1967, and the landings to start in 1968.<ref name="MirHeritage">Portree, Part 1 - 1.2 Historical Overview</ref> | |||
| The circumlunar program (Zond), created by ]'s design bureau ], was to fly two cosmonauts in a stripped-down ], launched by Chelomey's ] rocket. The Zond sacrificed habitable cabin volume for equipment, by omitting the Soyuz orbital module. Chelomey gained favor with Khruschev by employing members of his family. | |||
| Korolev's lunar landing program was designated '''N1/L3''', for its ] and a more advanced ] spacecraft, also known as the lunar orbital module ("''Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl''", LOK), with a crew of two. A separate lunar lander ("''Lunniy Korabl''", LK), would carry a single cosmonaut to the lunar surface.<ref name="MirHeritage"/> | |||
| The N1/L3 launch vehicle had three stages to Earth orbit, a fourth stage for Earth departure, and a fifth stage for lunar landing assist. The combined space vehicle was roughly the same height and takeoff mass as the three-stage US ] ] and exceeded its takeoff thrust by 28%, but had only roughly half the ] payload capability. | |||
| Following Khruschev's ouster from power, Chelomey's Zond program was merged into the N1/L3 program. | |||
| ==Outer space treaty== | |||
| The US and USSR began discussions on the peaceful uses of space as early as 1958, presenting issues for debate to the ],<ref name="inesap"> Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and International Law.</ref><ref> ''Nuclear Weapons and Contemporary International Law'' N.Singh, E. WcWhinney (p.289)</ref><ref> UN Resolution 1348 (XIII).</ref> which created a ] in 1959.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/COPUOS/copuos.html | title = United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space | publisher = United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs}}</ref> | |||
| On May 10, 1962, Vice President Johnson addressed the Second National Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space revealing that the United States and the USSR both supported a resolution passed by the Political Committee of the UN General Assembly on December 1962, which not only urged member nations to "extend the rules of international law to outer space," but to also cooperate in its exploration. Following the passing of this resolution, Kennedy commenced his communications proposing a cooperative American/Soviet space program.<ref>Papers of John F. Kennedy. Presidential Papers. National Security Files. Subjects. Space activities: US/USSR cooperation, 1961-1963. http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKNSF-308-006.aspx</ref> | |||
| The UN ultimately created a '']'', which was signed by the United States, USSR, and the ] on January 27, 1967 and went into force the following October 10. | |||
| {{Wikisource|Outer Space Treaty of 1967}} | |||
| This treaty: | |||
| * bars party States from placing ] in Earth orbit, on the Moon, or any other celestial body; | |||
| * exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications; | |||
| * declares that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration and use by all the States; | |||
| * explicitly forbids any government from claiming a celestial resource such as the Moon or a planet, claiming that they are the ], "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means". However, the State that launches a space object retains jurisdiction and control over that object; | |||
| * holds any State liable for damages caused by their space object; | |||
| * declares that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty", and "States Parties shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities"; and | |||
| * "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment." | |||
| The treaty remains in force, signed by 102 member states. – {{As of|2015}} | |||
| ==Disaster strikes both sides== | |||
| In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to temporary halts. Both had been rushing at full-speed toward the first piloted flights of Apollo and Soyuz, without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews. | |||
| ] | |||
| On January 27, 1967, the same day the US and USSR signed the Outer Space Treaty, the crew of the ], Command Pilot ], Senior Pilot ], and Pilot ], were killed in a fire that swept through their spacecraft cabin during a ground test, less than a month before the planned February 21 launch. An investigative board determined the fire was probably caused by an electrical spark, and quickly grew out of control, fed by the spacecraft's pure oxygen atmosphere. Crew escape was made impossible by inability to open the ] hatch cover against the greater-than-atmospheric internal pressure.<ref name="sea5"/> The board also found design and construction flaws in the spacecraft, and procedural failings, including failure to appreciate the hazard of the pure-oxygen atmosphere, as well as inadequate safety procedures.<ref name="sea5"/> All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty-two months until the first piloted flight could be made.<ref name="sea5">{{cite book|first=Robert C., Jr. |last=Seamans|publisher=NASA History Office|title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapter=Findings, Determinations And Recommendations|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html|date=5 April 1967 |accessdate=7 October 2007}}</ref> | |||
| Mercury and Gemini veteran Grissom had been a favored choice of ], NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing. | |||
| ]" sculpture left on the Moon in 1971 by the crew of ] in memory of 14 deceased NASA astronauts and USSR cosmonauts]] | |||
| Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was having its own problems with Soyuz development. Engineers reported 200 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday."{{Citation needed|date=August 2014}} On April 24, 1967, the single pilot of ], ], became the first in-flight spaceflight fatality. The mission was planned to be a three-day test, to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted ], but the mission was plagued with problems. Early on, Komarov's craft lacked sufficient electrical power because only one of two ] had deployed. Then the automatic ] began malfunctioning and eventually failed completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which was only partially effective. The flight controllers aborted his mission after only one day. During the emergency re-entry, a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chute to fail, and the reserve chute became tangled with the drogue chute; Komarov was killed on impact. Fixing the spacecraft faults caused an eighteen-month delay before piloted Soyuz flights could resume. | |||
| ==Onward to the Moon== | |||
| The United States recovered from the Apollo 1 fire, fixing the fatal flaws in an improved version of the ]. The US proceeded with unpiloted test launches of the ] launch vehicle (] and ]) and the ] (]) during the latter half of 1967 and early 1968.<ref>Cadbury (2006), pp. 310–312, 314–316</ref> Apollo 1's mission to check out the ] in Earth orbit was accomplished by Grissom's backup crew commanded by ] on ], launched on October 11, 1968.<ref>Burrows (1999), p. 417</ref> The eleven-day mission was a total success, as the spacecraft performed a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the United States to continue with its lunar mission schedule.<ref>Murray (1990), pp. 323–324</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The Soviet Union also fixed the parachute and control problems with Soyuz, and the next piloted mission ] was launched on October 26, 1968.<ref name="Hall144-47">Hall (2003), pp. 144–147</ref> The goal was to complete Komarov's rendezvous and docking mission with the un-piloted Soyuz 2.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> Ground controllers brought the two craft to within {{convert|200|m|ft|sp=us}} of each other, then cosmonaut ] took control.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> He got within {{convert|40|m|ft|sp=us}} of his target, but was unable to dock before expending 90 percent of his maneuvering fuel, due to a piloting error that put his spacecraft into the wrong orientation and forced Soyuz 2 to automatically turn away from his approaching craft.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> The first docking of Soviet spacecraft was finally realised in January 1969 by the ] and ] missions. It was the first-ever docking of two manned spacecraft, and the first transfer of crew from one space vehicle to another.<ref> and on Encyclopedia Astronautica</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The Soviet ] was not yet ready for piloted ] missions in 1968, after five unsuccessful and partially successful automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on March 10, 1967; Cosmos 154 on April 8, 1967; ] September 27, 1967; ] on November 22, 1967.<ref name=tent>{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/tent_launch.html |title=Tentatively Identified Missions and Launch Failures|publisher=NASA NSSDC|first=David R.|last=Williams|accessdate=30 July 2010|date=6 January 2005}}</ref> ] was launched on March 2, 1968, and successfully made a circumlunar flight.<ref name="Siddiqi616-618">Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 616, 618</ref> After its successful flight around the Moon, Zond 4 encountered problems with its Earth reentry on March 9, and was ordered destroyed by an explosive charge {{convert|15000|m|ft|sp=us}} over the ].<ref>Hall (2003), p. 25</ref> The Soviet official announcement said that Zond 4 was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction, due to its recovery trajectory positioning it over the Atlantic Ocean instead of over the USSR.<ref name="Siddiqi616-618"/> | |||
| ] | |||
| During the summer of 1968, the Apollo program hit another snag: the first pilot-rated Lunar Module (LM) was not ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight until March 1969, and sending ] into lunar orbit without the LM in December.<ref>Kraft (2001), pp. 284–297</ref> This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviet Union might be ready for a piloted Zond flight during late 1968.<ref>Chaikin (1994),pp.57–58</ref> In September 1968, ] made a circumlunar flight with ] on board and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first successful water landing of the Soviet space program in the Indian Ocean.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp.654–656</ref> It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated flight, not piloted, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft en route to the Moon.<ref>Turnhill (2003), p. 134</ref> On November 10, 1968 another automated test flight, ] was launched, but this time encountered difficulties in its Earth reentry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it to crash-land only {{convert|16|km|mi|sp=us}} from where it had been launched six days earlier.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp.663–666</ref> It turned out there was no chance of a piloted Soviet circumlunar flight during 1968, due to the unreliability of the Zonds.<ref name="Cadbury318-19">Cadbury (2006), pp. 318–319</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| On December 21, 1968, ], ], and ] became the first humans to ride the ] rocket into space on Apollo 8. They also became the first to leave low-Earth orbit and go to another celestial body, and entered lunar orbit on December 24.<ref name="Poole19-34">Poole (2008), pp. 19–34</ref> They made ten orbits in twenty hours, and transmitted one of the most watched TV broadcasts in history, with their ] from lunar orbit, that concluded with a reading from the biblical ].<ref name="Poole19-34"/> Two and a half hours after the broadcast, they fired their engine to perform the first ] to leave lunar orbit and return to the Earth.<ref name="Poole19-34"/> Apollo 8 safely landed in the Pacific ocean on December 27, in NASA's first dawn splashdown and recovery.<ref name="Poole19-34"/> | |||
| The American Lunar Module was finally ready for a successful piloted test flight in low Earth orbit on ] in March 1969. The next mission, ], conducted a "dress rehearsal" for the first landing in May 1969, flying the LM in lunar orbit as close as {{convert|47400|ft|km}} above the surface, the point where the powered descent to the surface would begin.<ref name="chariots12-7">{{cite book|last1=Brooks |first1=Courtney G. |last2=Grimwood |first2=James M. |last3=Swenson |first3=Loyd S., Jr. |others=Foreword by ] |title=Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/cover.html |accessdate=January 29, 2008 |series=NASA History Series |year=1979 |publisher=Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-486-46756-6 |oclc=4664449 |lccn=79001042 |id=NASA SP-4205 |chapter=''Apollo 10:'' The Dress Rehearsal |chapterurl=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch12-7.html}}</ref> With the LM proven to work well, the next step was to attempt the actual landing. | |||
| Unknown to the Americans, the Soviet Moon program was in deep trouble.<ref name="Cadbury318-19"/> After two successive launch failures of the ] in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered delay.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 665 & 832–834</ref> The launch pad explosion of the ] on July 3, 1969 was a significant setback.<ref name="SiddiqiN1-2nd launch">Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 690–693</ref> The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility.<ref name="SiddiqiN1-2nd launch"/> Without the N-1 rocket, the USSR could not send a large enough payload to the Moon to land a human and return him safely.<ref>Parry (2009), pp.178–179</ref> | |||
| ==Apollo 11== | |||
| {{Main|Apollo 11}} | |||
| ] during the first Moon walk in 1969]] | |||
| Apollo 11 was prepared with the goal of a July landing in the ].<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 144–151</ref> The crew, selected in January 1969, consisted of commander (CDR) ], Command Module Pilot (CMP) ], and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) ].<ref>Chaikin (1994), p. 138</ref> They trained for the mission until just before the actual launch day.<ref>Chaikin (1994), pp. 163–183</ref> On July 16, 1969, at exactly 9:32 am ], the Saturn V rocket, AS-506, lifted off from ] in Florida.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 38–44</ref> | |||
| The trip to the Moon took just over three days.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |last=Jones | |||
| |first=Eric M. | |||
| |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/Apollo11_Press-Kit_restored.pdf | |||
| |title=Apollo 11 Press Kit | |||
| |page=33 | |||
| |work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal | |||
| |date=1 January 2010 | |||
| |accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> After achieving orbit, Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module, named ''Eagle'', and after a landing gear inspection by Collins remaining in the Command/Service Module ''Columbia'', began their descent. After overcoming several computer overload alarms caused by an antenna switch left in the wrong position, and a slight downrange error, Armstrong took over manual flight control at about {{convert|180|m|ft|sp=us}}, and guided the Lunar Module to a safe landing spot at 20:18:04 ], July 20, 1969 (3:17:04 pm ]). The first humans on the Moon would wait another six hours before they ventured out of their craft. At 02:56 UTC, July 21 (9:56 pm CDT July 20), Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon.<ref name="first step"/> | |||
| {{listen|filename=Neil Armstrong small step.wav|title=Neil Armstrong's historic first words on the Moon.|description="That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."|format=]}} | |||
| The first step was witnessed by at least one-fifth of the population of Earth, or about 723 million people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=spaceprogram| title=Space Program and television|publisher=The Museum of Broadcast Communications|last=Paterson|first=Chris|year=2010|accessdate=11 August 2010}}</ref> His first words when he stepped off the LM's landing footpad were, "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."<ref name="first step">Murray (1990), p. 356</ref> Aldrin joined him on the surface almost 20 minutes later.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |last=Jones | |||
| |first=Eric M. | |||
| |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html | |||
| |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal | |||
| |page=MET 109:43:16 | |||
| |work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal | |||
| |date=1 January 2010 | |||
| |accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> Altogether, they spent just under two and one-quarter hours outside their craft.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| |last=Jones | |||
| |first=Eric M. | |||
| |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html | |||
| |title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal | |||
| |work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal | |||
| |date=1 January 2010 | |||
| |accessdate=15 August 2010}} Mission elapsed time (MET) from when Armstrong states that he will step off the LM at 109hrs:24mins:13secs to when Armstrong was back inside the LM at 111hrs:38mins:38sec</ref> The next day, they performed the first launch from another celestial body, and rendezvoused back with ''Columbia''.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 250– 251</ref> | |||
| Apollo 11 left lunar orbit and returned to Earth, landing safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 252–262</ref> When the spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy's commitment to landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth before the end of the decade; the mission was completed with 161 days to spare.<ref>Murray (1990), p. 347</ref> With the safe completion of the Apollo 11 mission, the Americans won the race to the Moon.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 288</ref> | |||
| ==The race winds down== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| NASA had ambitious follow-on human spaceflight plans as it reached its lunar goal, but soon discovered it had expended most of its political capital to do so.<ref>Hepplewhite, p. 186</ref> | |||
| The first landing was followed by another, precision landing on ] in November 1969. NASA had achieved its first landing goal with enough Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launchers left for eight follow-on lunar landings through Apollo 20, conducting extended-endurance missions and transporting the landing crews in ]s on the last five. They also planned an ] to develop a longer-duration Earth orbital workshop (later named ]) to be constructed in orbit from a spent ] upper stage, using several launches of the smaller ] launch vehicle. But planners soon decided this could be done more efficiently by using the two live stages of a Saturn V to launch the workshop pre-fabricated from an S-IVB (which was also the Saturn V third stage), which immediately removed Apollo 20. Belt-tightening budget cuts soon led NASA to cut Apollo 18 and 19 as well, but keep three extended/Lunar Rover missions. ] encountered an in-flight spacecraft failure and had to abort its lunar landing in April 1970, returning its crew safely but temporarily grounding the program again. It resumed with four successful landings on ] (February 1971), ] (July 1971), ] (April 1972), and ] (December 1972). | |||
| In February 1969, President ] convened a ] to set recommendations for the future US civilian space program, headed by his Vice President ].<ref>Hepplewhite, p. 123</ref> Agnew was an enthusiastic proponent of NASA's follow-on plans, and the STG recommended plans to develop a reusable ] including a ], which would facilitate development of permanent ]s in Earth and lunar orbit, perhaps a base on the lunar surface, and the first human flight to Mars as early as 1986 or as late as 2000.<ref>Hepplewhite, pp. 136-150</ref> However, Nixon had a better sense of the declining political support in Congress for a new Apollo-style program, which had disappeared with the achievement of the landing, and he intended to pursue detente with the USSR and China, which he hoped might ease Cold War tensions. He cut the spending proposal he sent to Congress to include funding for only the Space Shuttle, with perhaps an option to pursue the Earth orbtal space station for the foreseeable future.<ref>Hepplewhite, pp. 150-177</ref> | |||
| Meanwhile, the USSR continued briefly trying to perfect their N1 rocket, finally canceling it in 1976, after two more launch failures in 1971 and 1972.<ref>Portree, 1.2.4 Manned Lunar Program (1964-1976)</ref> | |||
| ===Salyuts and Skylab=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Having lost the race to the Moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on orbital space stations. During 1969 and 1970, they launched six more Soyuz flights after Soyuz 3, then launched the first ], the ] laboratory designed by ], on April 19, 1971. <!-- The dimensions, habitable volume and mass of the Salyuts don't seem to be readily available, but should go here.--> Three days later, the ] crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure enough connection to safely enter the station. The ] crew of ], ] and ] successfully docked on June 7, and completed a record 22-day stay. The crew became the second in-flight space fatality during their reentry on June 30. They were ] when their spacecraft's cabin lost all pressure, shortly after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve, that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew was not wearing pressure suits and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred. | |||
| Salyut 1's orbit was increased to prevent premature reentry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on October 11, after 175 days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut-class station designated Durable Orbital Station-2 (DOS-2) on July 29, 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit. After the DOS-2 failure, the USSR attempted to launch four more Salyut-class stations through 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage, which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it wouldn't hold pressure. While all of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, some of them were actually covers for the military ] reconnaissance stations. | |||
| The United States launched the orbital workstation ] 1 on May 14, 1973. It weighed {{convert|169950|lb|kg}}, was {{convert|58|ft|m|sp=us}} long by {{convert|21.7|ft|m|sp=us}} in diameter, with a habitable volume of {{convert|10000|ft3|m3|sp=us}}. Skylab was damaged during the ascent to orbit, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent manned missions repaired the station, and the final mission's crew, ], set the Space Race endurance record with 84 days in orbit when the mission ended on February 8, 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before reentering the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on July 11, 1979. | |||
| ===Apollo–Soyuz Test Project=== | |||
| {{Main|Apollo-Soyuz Test Project}} | |||
| ], ], ], ], and ]]] | |||
| In May 1972, President ] and Soviet ] ] negotiated an easing of relations known as ], creating a temporary "thaw" in the Cold War. In the spirit of good sportsmanship, the time seemed right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race" began to subside. | |||
| The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the ] (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module for the Apollo that was compatible with the Soviet docking system, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz/Soyuz as well as Soyuz/Salyut). The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other's craft, which had incompatible cabin atmospheres. The USSR used the ] mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP. | |||
| The joint mission began when ] was first launched on July 15, 1975 at 12:20 ], and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on July 17 at 16:19 ]. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts, and visited each other's craft. | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| ===Human spaceflight after Apollo=== | |||
| ] | |||
| In the 1970s, the United States began developing a new generation of reusable orbital spacecraft known as the ], and launched a range of unmanned probes. The USSR continued to develop space station technology with the ] and ] ('Peace' or 'World', depending on the context) space station, supported by Soyuz spacecraft. They developed their own large space shuttle under the ]. However, the USSR ] and the remains of its space program were distributed to various Eastern European countries. The United States and Russia would work together in space with the ], and again with the ]. | |||
| The Russian ], which launched the first Sputnik at the beginning of the space race, is still in use today. It services the ] (ISS) as the launcher for both the ] and ] spacecraft. It also ferries both Russian and American crews to and from the station. | |||
| ===Advances in technology, education, and science=== | |||
| American concerns that they had fallen behind the Soviet Union in the race to space led quickly to a push by legislators and educators for greater emphasis on mathematics and the physical sciences in American schools. The United States' ] of 1958 increased funding for these goals from childhood education through the post-graduate level. | |||
| The scientists educated through these efforts helped develop technologies that have been adapted for use in the kitchen, in transportation systems, in athletics, and in many other areas of modern life. Dried fruits and ready-to-eat foods (in particular food sterilization and package sealing techniques), stay-dry clothing, and even no-fog ski goggles have their roots in space science.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} | |||
| Today over a thousand artificial satellites orbit Earth, relaying communications data around the planet and facilitating ] of data on weather, vegetation, and human movements for the nations who employ them. In addition, much of the micro-technology that fuels everyday activities, from time-keeping to enjoying music, derives from research initially driven by the Space Race.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Human spaceflight|Spaceflight|Robotics}} | |||
| {{colbegin}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{colend}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{reflist|colwidth=20em}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
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| |url=//web.archive.org/web/20080723213816/http://www.space.com/spacelibrary/books/library_gainor_020125.html | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{Cite book | |||
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| * {{cite book | |||
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| }} | |||
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| |accessdate=15 August 2010 | |||
| }} | |||
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| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= Apollo: The Race to the Moon | |||
| |last= Murray | |||
| |first= Charles | |||
| |authorlink= Charles Murray (political scientist) | |||
| |author2=Catherine Bly Cox | |||
| |year= 1990 | |||
| |publisher= Touchstone (]) | |||
| |location= New York | |||
| |isbn= 0-671-70625-X | |||
| |url=http://www.amazon.com/Apollo-Charles-Murray/dp/0976000806/ref=pd_sim_b_2 | |||
| |quote= The link is to the 2004 edition, pages differ, but content the same.}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= Moonshot: The Inside Story of Mankind's Greatest Adventure | |||
| |last= Parry | |||
| |year= 2009 | |||
| |publisher = ] | |||
| |location= Chatham, United Kingdom | |||
| |isbn= 978-0-09-192837-7 | |||
| |url= | |||
| |first= Dan | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= Strategic Air Command: People, Aircraft, and Missiles | |||
| |last= Polmar | |||
| |first= Norman | |||
| |author2=Timothy M. Laur | |||
| |edition=2 | |||
| |year= 1990 | |||
| |publisher= Nautical and Publishing Company of America | |||
| |location= Baltimore | |||
| |isbn=0-933852-77-0 | |||
| |url=}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth | |||
| |last= Poole | |||
| |year= 2008 | |||
| |publisher = Yale University | |||
| |location= New Haven, Connecticut | |||
| |isbn= 978-0-300-13766-8 | |||
| |url= http://books.google.com/?id=5qHuAAAAMAAJ&dq=isbn=9780300137668&cd=1 | |||
| |first= Robert | |||
| | authorlink = Robert Poole (historian) | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{Citation | |||
| | last = Portree | |||
| | first = David S.F. | |||
| | author-link = | |||
| | title = Mir Hardware Heritage | |||
| | place = Houston TX | |||
| | publisher = NASA | |||
| | series = NASA Reference Publicaton 1357 | |||
| | volume = | |||
| | origyear = | |||
| |date=March 1995 | |||
| | edition = | |||
| | chapter = Part 1: Soyuz | |||
| | chapterurl = http://en.wikisource.org/Mir_Hardware_Heritage/Part_1_-_Soyuz#1.2.1_First_Prospectus_for_Circumlunar_Travel_.281962.29 | |||
| | language = | |||
| | url = | |||
| | archiveurl = | |||
| | archivedate = | |||
| | jfm = }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= The Race: The uncensored story of how America beat Russia to the Moon | |||
| |last= Schefter | |||
| |first= James | |||
| |year= 1999 | |||
| |publisher= ] | |||
| |location= New York | |||
| |isbn= 0-385-49253-7 | |||
| |url= http://books.google.com/?id=Y7m6edRkG2EC&dq=isbn%3A0385492537 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia | |||
| |author=Schmitz, David F. | |||
| |editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John | |||
| |encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History | |||
| |title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes | |||
| |url= http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-American-Military-History/dp/0195071980/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1280768501&sr=1-1#reader_0195071980 | |||
| |accessdate=16 June 2008 | |||
| |year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press | |||
| |isbn=0-19-507198-0}} | |||
| * {{Cite book | |||
| |first=Robert C., Jr. | |||
| |last=Seamans | |||
| |publisher=NASA History Office | |||
| |title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board | |||
| |chapter=Findings, Determinations And Recommendations | |||
| |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html | |||
| |date=5 April 1967 | |||
| |accessdate=7 October 2007}} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge | |||
| |last= Siddiqi | |||
| |first= Asif A. | |||
| |year= 2003a | |||
| |publisher= ] | |||
| |location= Gainesville | |||
| |isbn= 0-8130-2627-X | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= The Soviet Space Race with Apollo | |||
| |last= Siddiqi | |||
| |first= Asif A. | |||
| |year= 2003b | |||
| |publisher= ] | |||
| |location= Gainesville | |||
| |isbn= 0-8130-2628-8 | |||
| |url= | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title=Britain and Ballistic Missile Defence, 1942–2002 | |||
| |last=Stocker | |||
| |first=Jeremy | |||
| |year=2004 | |||
| |publisher=Frank Case | |||
| |location=London | |||
| |isbn= 0-7146-5696-8 | |||
| |pages=12–24 | |||
| |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dlhwx7atBr0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=0714656968&cd=1#v=onepage&q | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book | |||
| |title= The Moonlandings: An Eyewitness Account | |||
| |last= Turnhill | |||
| |first= Reginald | |||
| |year= 2004 | |||
| |publisher= ] | |||
| |location= New York | |||
| |isbn=0-521-81595-9 | |||
| |url= http://www.amazon.com/Moonlandings-Eyewitness-Account-Reginald-Turnill/dp/052103535X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1280339638&sr=1-1 | |||
| }} | |||
| * {{cite book|title=108 минут, изменившие мир|first=Антон |last=Первушин|year=2011|publisher=Эксмо|isbn=978-5-699-48001-2}} (Anton Pervushin. ''108 minutes which changed the world''; in Russian) | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Spoken Misplaced Pages-2|2005-07-02|Space_Race_Part_1.ogg|Space_Race_Part_2.ogg|...}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * from ], 2002-12-03 | |||
| * at the ] ] | |||
| * – Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * at russianspaceweb.com | |||
| * | |||
| *{{YouTube|9yW2cObTTy8|John F. Kennedy Moon Speech at Rice Stadium and Apollo 11 Mission Video}} | |||
| {{Public sector space agencies}} | |||
| {{Cold War}} | |||
| {{Spaceflight}} | |||
| {{NASA navbox}} | |||
| {{US history}} | |||
| {{United States topics}} | |||
| ] | |||
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| ] | |||
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| ] | |||
| ] | |||
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| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 17:04, 5 May 2015
The Americans won the Space Race, wether it happened or not.