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The '''E-meter '''is a device for displaying and/or recording the ] (EDA) of a human being. The word is a common abbreviation for '''Electropsychometer'''. It is also known in various applications as an ''electroencephaloneuromentimograph'', ''electrodermal activity meter'', ''electrodermal response meter'', ''electropsychogalvanometer'', ''electrogalvonometer'', ''electrogalvometer'', ''skin galvanometer'', or ''psychogalvanometer''.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
]


An '''E-meter''' is an electronic device manufactured by the ] at their ] production facility. It is a modified form of one of the three most typical components of the modern polygraph lie detector, and is designed to measure galvanic skin response. The pre-modified device used in typical lie detectors is known as an "electrodermal-activity-meter". The e-meter operates under the same electronic principles as the electrodermal-activity-meter. While electronically the two devices are quite similar, the aims and methodologies of the primary users of the two different instruments are quite different. While the primary aim of users of the typical electrodermal-activity-meter is to determine the honesty (or lack thereof) of a given interviewee, the Church of Scientology's intended use of its e-meters is to supposedly measure the "psyche, the human soul, spirit or mind."<ref> Published by the Church of Scientology, 2014, accessed 6/6/2015.</ref>
The E-meter has been used for more than a century by counselors of ] and ], as an ] tool in ]<ref>America's Alternative Religions, by Timothy Miller, 1995, ISBN 0-7914-2398-0;page 386</ref> and divergent groups,<ref>{{cite web|title=About Us|url=http://www.observationmountainacademy.com/Newsletter.html|website=Observation Mountain Academy|publisher=Observation Mountain Academy|accessdate=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ronsorg.ch/english/emeterenglish.htm|title = e-meter|date = 2015|accessdate = 2 April 2015|website = Ron's Org Grenchen|publisher = Ron's Org Grenchen|last = |first = }}</ref> as a research tool in many ], and as one component of the ] ] (]) system.


] and ] counselors and counselors-in-training perform such "measurements" in a therapeutic format, which the Church of Scientology refers to as ]. These Scientology auditing sessions incorporate the many unique theories, teachings and spiritual beliefs as found in Scientology Dianetics and auditing literature. The device is formally known as the '''Hubbard Electrometer'''. <ref> by Robert Todd Carroll, 2014, access date: 6/6/2015.</ref>
==History==
{{Main|Electrodermal activity}}
]
In 1849, ] in ] first observed that human skin was electrically active, a phenomenon that is now generally known as ] (EDA). The elements of EDA include moment to moment variation in skin ], ], and internally generated ], measured between the palms or the soles of the feet, or between two positions on the same palm or sole. Other more complex activity in response to alternating current has been studied.<ref name="Boucsein">{{cite book|last1=Boucsein|first1=Wolfram|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411260|pages=3–4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref>


A 1971 ruling of the United States District Court, District of Columbia (333 F. Supp. 357), specifically stated, "The E-meter has no proven usefulness in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease, nor is it medically or scientifically capable of improving any bodily function." <ref name="the mind game">The Mind Game, by Norman Spinrad, 1980, published by Bantam Books, ISBN: 0553250612.</ref>
In 1878 in Switzerland, Hermann and Luchsinger demonstrated a connection between EDA and sweat glands. Vigouroux (France, 1879) was the first researcher to relate these phenomena to psychological activity. In 1888, the French neurologist ] demonstrated that skin resistance activity could be changed by emotional stimulation and that activity could be inhibited by drugs.<ref name="Boucsein">{{cite book|last1=Boucsein|first1=Wolfram|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411260|pages=3–4|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref>


==Description and use==
The first EDA meter was developed in Russia 1889 by ]. It was popularized for ] by ] in a series of papers published in German in 1906 and in English in 1919.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/junglect.html|title = Notes on Carl Gustav Jung|date = |accessdate = 4 April 2015|website = Sonoma State University|publisher = Sonoma State University|last = Daniels|first = Victor|quote=By 1906 was using GSR and breath measurement to note changes in respiration and skin resistance to emotionally charged worlds. Found that indicators cluster around stimulus words which indicate the nature of the subject's complexes...Much later L. Ron Hubbard used this approach in Scientology's "auditing," using the "e-meter" (a galvanic skin response indicator) to discern the presence of complexes.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1 = Binswanger|first1 = L.|editor1-last = Jung|editor1-first = Carl|title = Studies in Word-Association|date = 1919|publisher = Moffat, Yard & company|location = New York, NY|pages = 446 et seq|url = https://archive.org/stream/studiesinwordass00jung#page/446/mode/2up/search/psychogalvanic|accessdate = 30 March 2015|chapter = XII}}</ref><ref name="Anderson">{{cite web|last1=Anderson|first1=Kevin|title=Report of the Board of Enquiry into Scientology|url=http://www.apologeticsindex.org/The%20Anderson%20Report.pdf#page=128|website=ApologeticsIndex|publisher=Apologetics Index (TM)|accessdate=2 April 2015|page=128|quote=The E-meter is not a new type of instrument. It is one which is well known to science and has been in use in one form or another for many years. As early as the 1920's, experiments were conducted in psychological research with what was then called an electro-galvanometer or psychogalvanometer.}}</ref> Jung and his colleagues used meters to evaluate the emotional sensitivities of patients during ].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://scientology101.org/scientology-secrets/technology/technical-developments/|title = Possible origins for Dianetics and Scientology|accessdate = 2 April 2015|website = Scientology 101|last = Atack|first = Jon|quote=Some form of 'E-meter' has actually been in use since before WWI}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=You can learn control of how your skin talks|url=http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/61192107/|accessdate=8 April 2015|agency=The San Bernardino County Sun|publisher=The San Bernardino County Sun|date=October 11, 1977|location=San Bernardino, California|page=12|quote=Current research using the skin's electrical activity as a communications medium between patient and therapist looks promising in such stress problems as drug abuse, alcoholism, neuroses and other tension states.}}</ref> Jung was so impressed with the instrument, he allegedly cried, "Aha, a looking glass into the unconscious!"<ref name=":1">{{cite news|last1 = Brown|first1 = Barbara|title = Skin Talks -- And It May Not Be Saying What You Want To|url = http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/22744127/|accessdate = 8 April 2015|agency = Idaho State Journal|publisher = Field Enterprises, Inc.|date = November 9, 1977|location = Pocatello, Idaho|page = 32|quote = Carl Jung, possibly the most creative psychologist who ever lived, experimented with skin talk in 1900. Using a primitive instrument to record changes in skin electrical activity, he conducted psychological interviews with patients and found that the skin responded to hidden emotions. It is said he was so astounded by this phenomenon that he exclaimed, 'Aha, a looking glass into the unconscious!'}}</ref> Jung described his use of the device in counseling in his book, '']'', and such use has continued with various practitioners.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.mind-development.eu/jung.html|title = Carl Jung & Jungian Analytical Psychology|date = |accessdate = 9 April 2015|website = Mind Development Courses|publisher = |last = Mitchell|first = Gregory}}</ref>
{{main|Auditing (Scientology)}}
]


The E-meter measures changes in the ] of the human body by inducing a tiny electrical current through the body.<ref name="Cos-ref-general">Understanding the E-Meter by L. Ron Hubbard, Publisher: ], 1982, ISBN: 0-88404-078-X.</ref>
] (], ], ], and ]) built an EDA meter based on a ],<ref>"Technically it is a specially developed 'Wheatstone Bridge' well known to electrically minded people as a device to measure the amount of resistance to a flow of electricity", L. R. Hubbard, in: "The Book Introducing the E-Meter", page 1. Quoted in: Kotzé report, The Report of the Commission of Enquiry into Scientology, 1972, Republic of South Africa. Section III, Chapter 8</ref> a ] ], and a large ] that projected an image of the needle on the wall. He patented his device in 1954 as an ''electropsychometer'' or E-meter,<ref name="singh">{{cite book | last =Singh | first =Simon | authorlink = Simon Singh |author2=Edzard Ernst | title =] | publisher =W. W. Norton & Company | year =2008 | pages =163–65 | isbn = 0-393-06661-4}}</ref> and it came to be known as the "Mathison Electropsychometer."<ref name="freeman">{{cite book | last =Freeman | first =John | title =Suppressed and Incredible Inventions | publisher =Health Research | year =1987 | page =41 | isbn = 0-7873-1091-3}}</ref> In Mathison's words, the E-meter "has a needle that swings back and forth across a scale when a patient holds on to two electrical contacts."<ref name="singh" /> Mathison recorded in his book, ''Electropsychometry'', that the idea of the E-meter came to him in 1950 while listening to a lecture by ]:<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Hidden Story of Scientology|last = Garrison|first = Omar V.|publisher = The Citadel Press|year = 1974|isbn = 0-8065-0440-4|location = Secaucus, NJ|pages = 64}}</ref><blockquote>In 1950 ... I next attended a series of lectures being given by a very controversial figure, who several times emphasized that perhaps the major problem of psychotherapy was the difficulty of maintaining the communication of accurate or valid data from the patient to the therapist.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mathison|first1=Volney|title=Electropsychometry|date=1952|publisher=Mathison Electropsychometers|location=Los Angeles, CA|page=101|edition=1|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/E-Meter/Electropsychometry.pdf|accessdate=11 May 2015}}</ref> ... it appeared to me that the psychogalvanometer showed most promise.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Electropsychometry|last = Mathison|first = Volney G.|publisher = Mathison Psychometers|year = 1954|location = Los Angeles, CA|pages = 101–104|edition = 4|url = https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/E-Meter/Electropsychometry.pdf}}</ref></blockquote>Mathison began working with Hubbard in 1951<ref name=":5">{{cite news | title = Remember Venus? | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889564,00.html | work = | publisher = ] | date = 1952-12-22 | accessdate = 2008-01-28 }}</ref> and that year filed application for his first E-meter patent, . After the partnership broke up in 1954, Mathison continued improving his E-meters with additional patents ({{US patent|2736313}}, {{US patent|2810383}}), marketing them through his own company and publications, retaining many of the concepts and terms from his time with Hubbard.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mathison|first1=Volney|title=Electropsychometry|date=1952|publisher=Mathison Electropsychometers|location=Los Angeles, CA|page=1|edition=4|url=http://www.lermanet.com/exit/volney/Electropsychometry-4%231AF837.jpg|accessdate=12 May 2015}}</ref>
The device's primary component is an electrical ] called a ], functioning much like a ], that indicates changes in the subject's resistance. According to Scientology doctrine, the resistance corresponds to the "mental mass and energy" of the subject's mind, which change when the subject thinks of particular mental images (]).<ref> An explanation of te e-meter as presented on the Scientology.org website, accessed 6/6/2015.</ref> These concepts have no recognition among scientists outside of Scientology;<ref> by Benjamin Radford, 2012, accessed 6/6/2015.</ref> the action of the E-meter is more commonly attributed to ], an effect used in ]. <ref>Scientology, by James R. Lewis, published by Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN: 0195331494, see page 45.</ref>


E-meter sessions are conducted by church employees known as ]. Scientology materials traditionally refer to the subject as the "preclear", although auditors continue to use the meter well beyond the ] level. The preclear holds a pair of cylindrical electrodes ("cans") connected to the meter while the auditor asks the preclear a series of questions and notes both the verbal response and the activity of the meter. Auditor training describes ], with each having their own special significance.<ref name="Cos-ref-general"/>
In a separate line of development, EDA monitors were incorporated in ] machines by ]. Rigorous testing of the polygraph has yielded mixed results (see ]), and some critics classify polygraph operation as a ].


The meter has two control dials. The larger dial, known as the "tone arm", adjusts the meter ], while the smaller one controls the ]. Auditors manipulate the tone arm during an auditing session to keep the E-meter needle on a marked reference point.<ref name="Cos-ref-general"/>
===Scientology E-Meter===
]
The E-meter was adopted for use in ] and ] when Mathison collaborated with ] in 1951.<ref name=":5">{{cite news | title = Remember Venus? | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889564,00.html | work = | publisher = ] | date = 1952-12-22 | accessdate = 2008-01-28 }}</ref> Some sources say the E-meter was "developed by Volney Mathison following Hubbard's designs,"<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|title=Studies in Contemporary Religion: The Church of Scientology|date=2000|publisher=Signature Books, Inc.|location=United States of America|isbn=1-56085-139-2|page=10|accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref> or that Hubbard invented it.<ref>{{cite book
| editor1=Barrett, Stephen
| editor2=Wallace, Janssen
| year=1993
| chapter = The Gadgeteers
| title = The Health Robbers. A Close Look at Quackery in America
| pages=321–335
| publisher=Prometheus Books, Buffalo NY
| isbn=0-87975-855-4
}}</ref>


==History==
In the book, '']'', ] wrote: {{quote|In late 1954 the use of the E-meter was discontinued by Hubbard. Wrote Hubbard: "Yesterday, we used an instrument called an E-Meter to register whether or not the process was still getting results so that the auditor would know how long to continue it. While the E-Meter is an interesting investigation instrument and has played its part in research, it is not today used by the auditor... As we long ago suspected, the intervention of a mechanical gadget between the auditor and the preclear had a tendency to depersonalize the session..."<ref name="Corydon313">{{cite book |last=Corydon |first=Bent |title=Messiah or Madman |year=1987 |publisher=Lyle Stuart |page=313 }}</ref>}}
The E-meter has undergone many changes since it was invented in the 1940s by ], an early collaborator with Hubbard. The Mathison Electropsychometer (as it was then called) was produced for use by ] and ]s. It was adopted for use in Dianetics by Hubbard in the early 1950s, before being temporarily dropped in 1954 during a dispute with Mathison.<ref name="randi-mathison"> by Tim Farley, 2012, published by Randi.org, access date: 6/6/2015.</ref>


In a quote from Bent Corydon's "Messiah or Madman?", <blockquote>''It was the Mathison E-Meter, and Mathison was determined to keep it that way. So in late 1954 the use of the E-meter was discontinued by Hubbard. Wrote Hubbard: "Yesterday, we used an instrument called an E-Meter to register whether or not the process was still getting results so that the auditor would know how long to continue it. While the E-Meter is an interesting investigation instrument and has played its part in research, it is not today used by the auditor... As we long ago suspected, the intervention of a mechanical gadget between the auditor and the preclear had a tendency to depersonalize the session..."'' <ref> By Bent Croydon, and L. Ron Hubbard Jr., 1998, see page 313.</ref></blockquote>
Though it seemed for a while that Scientology's more advanced techniques would serve without an E-meter, a few months later in May 1955, Hubbard wrote: {{quote|And here come E-Meters back into the picture. The ] is, at this moment, building a new and better E-Meter than has ever been built before, under the trademarked name of Physio-galvanometer, or O-Meter. It has very little in common with the old type E-Meter. Nevertheless, an old type E-Meter can be utilized.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hubbard|first1=L. Ron|title=Professional Auditor's Bulletin No. 52|date=13 May 1955|publisher=Hubbard Communication Office|location=London, UK|isbn=87-87347-82-2|page=1|accessdate=17 May 2015}}</ref>}} The Scientology meter was smaller, based on ] rather than ], and powered by a low-voltage, ] rather than ].


In 1958 when Scientologists Don Breeding and Joe Wallis developed a modified, smaller battery-operated version, which they presented to Hubbard, he again used it. This was christened the ''Hubbard'' electrometer. Hubbard patented it on ], ], as a "Device for Measuring and Indicating Changes in the Resistance of a Human Body" ({{US patent|3290589}}). The patent is now expired and in the public domain. The Church of Scientology continues to make, sell, and teach its use in auditing.<ref name="randi-mathison"/>
From then on, the E-meter was a required tool for Scientology ministers. The "Hubbard Mark II" E-meter was christened in 1960, and the Hubbard Mark III shortly after.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Boyd|title=What is Scientology? History, Beliefs, Rules, Secrets, and Facts|date=2014|publisher=Speedy Publishing|location=Newark, DE|page=5|edition=1}}</ref> On December 6, 1966, Hubbard won a patent on the Mark V version under the name "Hubbard Electropsychometer." Corydon wrote that the Hubbard E-meter was actually developed by Scientologists Don Breeding and Joe Wallis,<ref name="Corydon313" /> though the patent ({{US patent|3290589}}) does not list other developers.


Mathison never litigated the appropriation of his invention, but was bitter and disillusioned about Hubbard. In 1964 Mathison stated: ''"I decry the doings of trivial fakers, such as scientologists and the like, who glibly denounce hypnosis and then try covertly to use it in their phony systems."'' <ref>Dianetik und Scientology in ihrem Anspruch als Wissenschaft, by Tilo Müller, published by GRIN Verlag, 2010, ISBN: 978-3-640-58010-1.</ref>
Corydon's account was said to be based on the ] of Hubbard's son, ], but in 1987, DeWolf ] to prevent publication and swore an affidavit repudiating everything in the book.<ref>]</ref>


Today, models of the E-meter include the Mark V, the Mark VI and the Mark VII. As of 2015, the newest model E-meter, the Hubbard Mark Super VII Quantum- Planetary Dissemination Edition E-meter was listed on the Scientology website, Jezebel.com as a "bargain" at US $5,500.00 <ref>, 2015, accessed 6/6/2015.</ref> The 1995 price for the same item was US $3,850.00. Scientologists of the ] have developed their own E-meter models which are available at much lower prices. They offer also circuit diagrams and instructions for building a meter. (Hilton, 2001)
The Scientology E-meter has been redesigned and re-patented several times since it's first introduction to Dianetics (e.g.: {{US patent|4459995}}, {{US patent|4578635}}, {{US patent|4702259}}).


==Proposed mechanism of operation==
==Modern applications==
]'s teachings propose a commonly held humanistic philosophical duality: that a human being consists of a physical body and an aware spiritual entity. He set out his theory of how the E-meter works in his book ''Understanding the E-Meter'':
] using an e-meter.]]
EDA meters are used in both therapist-patient<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayRecord&uid=1983-06160-001|title = Meta-analysis of comparative therapy outcome studies: A replication and refinement.|last = Shapiro|first = David A.|date = November 1982|journal = Psychological Bulletin|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 8 April 2015|last2 = Shapiro|first2 = Diana|issue = Vol 92(3)|publisher = American Psychological Association|pages = 581–604}}</ref> and ] settings.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nagai|first1=Yoko|last2=Goldstein|first2=Laura H.|last3=Fenwick|first3=Peter B.C.|last4=Trimblea|first4=Michael R.|title=Clinical efficacy of galvanic skin response biofeedback training in reducing seizures in adult epilepsy: a preliminary randomized controlled study|journal=Epilepsy & Behavior|date=April 2004|volume=5|issue=2|pages=216–223|doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2003.12.003|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1525505003003950|accessdate=9 April 2015|publisher=Elsevier|quote=Biofeedback training significantly reduced seizure frequency in the active biofeedback group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://holisticonline.com/Biofeedback-GSH.htm|title = Biofeedback, Galvanic skin response (GSH) or Electrodermal Response, Types of Biofeedback Machines or Biofeedback Techniques<|date = 1 January 2004|accessdate = 8 April 2015|website = Holisticonline.com|publisher = ICBS, Inc.|last = |first = }}</ref> EDA is one of the factors recorded by ], and EDA meters are often used in ] to gauge ] responses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Caprara|first1=H. John|last2=Eleazer|first2=Paul D.|last3=Barfield|first3=Robert D.|last4=Chavers|first4=Scott|title=Objective Measurement of Patient’s Dental Anxiety by Galvanic Skin Reaction|journal=Journal of Endodontics|date=16 December 2005|volume=29|issue=8|pages=493–496|doi=10.1097/00004770-200308000-00001|url=http://www.jendodon.com/article/S0099-2399(05)60391-3/abstract|accessdate=9 April 2015|publisher=Elsevier Inc.|quote=A statistically significant correlation was found between skin conductance and dental anxiety in all cases.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.amsciepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.1992.74.3c.1079?journalCode=pms|title = Biochemical and Galvanic Skin Responses to Music Stimuli by College Students in Biology and Music|last = Vanderark|first = Sherman D.|date = 1992|journal = Perceptual and Motor Skills|doi = 10.2466/pms.1992.74.3c.1079|pmid = |access-date = 8 April 2015|last2 = Ely|first2 = Daniel|publisher = Ammons Scientific|pages = 1079–1090|volume = 74}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/abn/51/1/30/|title = Galvanic skin response to Negro and white experimenters|last = Rankin|first = Robert E.|date = July 1955|journal = The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|access-date = 10 April 2015|publisher = American Psychological Association|last2 = Campbell, Donald T.|first2 = Donald T.|volume = 51|pages = 30–33|issue = 1}}</ref> EDA monitoring is on the increase in clinical applications.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ogorevc|first1=Jaka|last2=Geršak|first2=Gregor|last3=Novak|first3=Domen|last4=Drnovšek|first4=Janko|title=Metrological evaluation of skin conductance measurements|journal=Measurement|date=November 2013|volume=46|issue=9|pages=2993–3001|doi=10.1016/j.measurement.2013.06.024|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263224113002571|accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> Hugo D. Critchley, Chair in Psychiatry at the ] states, "EDA is a sensitive ] index of changes in autonomic sympathetic arousal that are integrated with emotional and cognitive states."<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Critchley|first1=Hugo D.|title=Book Review: Electrodermal Responses: What Happens in the Brain|journal=Neuroscientist|date=April 2002|volume=8|issue=2|pages=132–142|doi=10.1177/107385840200800209|url=http://nro.sagepub.com/content/8/2/132.abstract|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref>


:''For the meter to be read, the tiny flow of electrical energy through the preclear (person) has to remain steady. When this tiny flow is changed the needle of the E-Meter moves. This will happen if the preclear pulls in or releases mental mass. This mental mass (condensed energy), acts as an additional resistance or lack of resistance to the flow of electrical energy from the E-Meter.'' <ref name="Cos-ref-general"/>
===Use in Scientology===
E-meters are used in Scientology and ] by Scientology ministers known as "]." Scientology materials traditionally refer to the subject as the "]," although auditors continue to use the meter on subjects who are well beyond the "]" level. The auditor gives the preclear a series of commands or questions while the preclear holds a pair of cylindrical ] ("cans") connected to the meter, and the auditor notes both the verbal response and the activity of the meter. Auditor training includes familiarization with a number of ], each with a specific significance.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/the-practice-of-scientology/how-the-e-meter-works.html |title=How the E-Meter works, Church of Scientology International |publisher=Scientology.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref>


Hubbard claimed that this "mental mass" has the same physical characteristics, including weight, as ] as commonly understood by lay persons:
Some critics of Dianetics and Scientology assert that the Scientology concepts associated with the E-meter and its use are regarded by the scientific and medical communities as ], and that the E-meter has never been subjected to ]s as a therapeutic tool.<ref>{{Cite episode |title=Inside Scientology Reaching for the Stars|series=Nightline |network=ABC |date=23 October 2009}}</ref> Nevertheless, by 1972, more than 1500 articles on electrodermal activity (EDA) had been published in professional publications, and today EDA is regarded as the most popular method for investigating human ] phenomena.<ref name="Boucsein-7">{{cite book|last1=Boucsein|first1=Wolfram|title=Electrodermal Activity|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461411260|page=7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref> Even apart from Scientology,


:''"In Scientology it has been discovered that mental energy is simply a finer, higher level of physical energy. The test of this is conclusive in that a thetan "mocking up" (creating) mental image pictures and thrusting them into the body can increase the body mass and by casting them away again can decrease the body mass. This test has actually been made and an increase of as much as thirty pounds, actually measured on scales, has been added to, and subtracted from, a body by creating "mental energy." Energy is energy. Matter is condensed energy."'' <ref name="Cos-ref-general"/>
Scientologists claim that in the hands of a trained operator, the meter can indicate whether a person has been relieved from the spiritual impediment of past experiences.<ref>Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights by the European Court of Human Rights, ISBN 90-247-2383-3</ref> In accordance with a 1974 federal court order, the Church of Scientology asserts that the E-meter is intended for use only in church-sanctioned auditing sessions; it is not a curative or medical device.<ref>Religionsfreiheit und Konformismus: Über Minderheiten und die Macht der Mehrheit, Gerhard Besier, 2004. ISBN 3-8258-7654-3 </ref> The E-meters used by the Church were previously manufactured by Scientologists at their ] facility,<ref name="Sptimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.sptimes.com/TampaBay/102598/scientologygold.html |title=A Place called Gold, St. Petersburg Times, 1998 |publisher=Sptimes.com |date=1998-10-25 |accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref> but now are manufactured in ] and ].<ref name="Sptimes.com" />


This text in ''Understanding the E-Meter'' is accompanied by three pictures. The first shows a man standing on a weighing scale, which reflects a weight of "150" (the units are not given but are presumably pounds). The next shows the man on the same scale, weighed down under a burden of "Mental Image Pictures", and the scale indicates a weight of "180". The last picture shows the man standing upright on the scale, now unburdened by "Mental Image Pictures" and with a smile on his face, while the scale again indicates a weight of "150".<ref name="Cos-ref-general"/>
According to Hubbard, the E-meter is used by the operator for three vital functions:
# To determine what process to run and what to run it on.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hubbard|first=L Ron|title=Unreading Questions and Items|journal=HCO Bulletin 27 May 1970}}</ref>
# To observe how well the process is running.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hubbard|first=L Ron|title=SOP Goals|journal=HCO Bulletin 18 February 1961}}</ref>
# To know when the process should be stopped.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hubbard|first=L Ron|title=Floating Needles and End Phenomena|journal=HCO Bulletin 20 February 1970}}</ref>
The E-meter is used to assess the emotion charge of single words, of whole sentences, and of questions. It can also indicate the general state of the subject when the operator is not speaking.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/the-practice-of-scientology/how-the-e-meter-works.html |title=How the E-Meter works, Church of Scientology International |publisher=Scientology.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref> Few users of the E-meter claim that it does anything to the subject. To most, it does no more than suggest to the operator a change of mental, emotional, or parasympathetic nervous state or activity.<ref name="Lebron-1">{{cite book|last1=Lebron|first1=Robyn|title=Searching for Spiritual Unity... Can There Be Common Ground?|date=13 Jan 2012|publisher=CrossBooks|isbn=9781462719525|page=549|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CJQZ83QrqEIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA549#v=onepage&q=e-meter&f=false|accessdate=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cavanaugh|first1=Jeanne|title=Scientology and the FDA: A Look Back, A Modern Analysis, And A New Approach|date=April 27, 2004|publisher=Harvard University|location=Boston, MA|url=http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8965552/Cavanaugh.html?sequence=2|accessdate=2 April 2015|quote=As described, Scientology does not assert that the E-meter can directly cure or mitigate disease; rather, the E-meter plays a vital role in the allegedly illness-alleviating process of auditing by identifying the presence and location of the cause of psychosomatic illnesses. Other systems work to actually accomplish the discharge of illness-causing agents.}}</ref>


== Controversy ==
==Functional description==
The E-meter became the subject of a major controversy with the US ] in the early 1960s, when the FDA became concerned that the church was using the E-meter to practice medicine without a license. <ref>, by Wallace Janssen, 1993, published by Prometheus Boooks, Buffalo NY, ISBN: 0-87975-855-4, see pages 321 - 335.</ref>
One of E-meter's primary components is a ], an electrical circuit configuration invented in 1833<ref>"The Genesis of the Wheatstone Bridge" by Stig Ekelof discusses ] and ]'s contributions, and why the bridge carries Wheatstone's name. Published in "Engineering Science and Education Journal", volume 10, no 1, February 2001, pages 37-40.</ref> that enables the detection of very small differences between two ]s (in this case, ]). The E-meter is constructed so that one resistance is the subject's body and the other is a ] controlled by the operator. A small voltage from the battery is applied to electrodes held in the subjects hands. As the electrical properties (electrodermal activity) of the subject's body changes during the counseling,<ref>HCO WW Staff: Essential Information Every Scientologist Should Know, HCO Information Letter of 24 November 1963. Hubbard Communications Office, East Grinstead, Sussex, England. Quoted in: Kotzé report, The Report of the Commission of Enquiry into Scientology, 1972, Republic of South Africa. Section III, Chapter 8</ref><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite book|
first=L. Ron|last=Hubbard|
title=Understanding the E-Meter|
publisher=]|
year=1982|
isbn=0-88404-078-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Brown|first1=Barbara|title=Skin Talks -- And It May Not Be Saying What You Want To|url=http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/22744127/|accessdate=8 April 2015|agency=Idaho State Journal|publisher=Field Enterprises, Inc.|date=November 9, 1977|location=Pocatello, Idaho|page=32}}</ref> the resulting changes in the small electrical current are displayed in needle movements on a large analog panel meter. The dial face is without numbers because the absolute resistance in ]s is relatively unimportant, while the operator watches primarily for characteristic needle motions.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://e-meter-star.com/books.files/Understanding_the_E_Meter.pdf#page=58|title = Understanding the E-Meter|date = 1982|accessdate = 31 March 2015|website = The Starlight Meter|publisher = |last = Hubbard|first = Lafayette}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How the E-Meter Works|url=http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/the-practice-of-scientology/how-the-e-meter-works.html|website=Church of Scientology International|publisher=Church of Scientology International|accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.trans4mind.com/download-pdfs/metercourse.pdf#page=23|title = The GSR Meter Course|date = 2001|accessdate = 8 April 2015|website = Tools for Transformation|publisher = Trans4Mind Ltd.|last = Shepherd|first = Peter|page=23}}</ref> The ] applied to the electrodes is less than 1.5V, and the ] through the subject's body is less than a half a ].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/the-practice-of-scientology/how-the-e-meter-works.html|title = How the E-Meter Works|date = |accessdate = 4 April 2015|website = Scientology|publisher = Church of Scientology International}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.trans4mind.com/download-pdfs/metercourse.pdf#page=10|title = The GSR Meter Course|date = 2001|accessdate = 8 April 2015|website = Tools for Transformation|publisher = Trans4Mind Ltd.|last = Shepherd|first = Peter|page=10}}</ref>


On ], ], more than one hundred E-meters were seized by ] at the "Founding Church of Scientology" building in ] The church was accused of making false claims that the devices effectively treated some 70 percent of all physical and mental illness. The FDA also charged that the devices did not bear adequate directions for treating the conditions for which they were recommended.<ref>], by Christopher Riche Evans, publihed by Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974, ISBN: 0-374-13324-7, see chapter 6.</ref><ref>Bare-faced Messiah: The true story of L. Ron Hubbard, by Russell Miller, published by Key Porter Books, 1987, ISBN: 1-55013-027-7, see chapter 15.</ref>
In the Scientology E-meter, the large control, known as the "tone arm," adjusts the ], while a smaller controls the ]. The operator manipulates the tone arm to keep the needle near the center of the dial so its motion is easily observed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hubbard|first1=Lafayette|title=The Book of E-meter Drills|page=11|url=http://e-meter-star.com/books.files/E-meter_drills.pdf#page=11|accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref> A simple E-meter powered by direct current, such as that used by the Scientologists and the like, displays several kinds of electrodermal activity (EDA) on the one dial without distinction, including changes in ], ], and ] potential. Researchers in ] are also exploring ] and ] aspects of EDA that can be observed only with ].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Electrodermal Activity|last = Boucsein|first = Wolfram|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media|year = 2012|isbn = 9781461411260|location = |pages = 2|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=6N6rnOEZEEoC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>


Prolonged litigation ensued, with a subsequent jury trial finding that the E-meter had indeed been misrepresented. The church's contention that its literature was exempt from legal action because it was issued by a religious organization was rejected by the court as irrelevant. However, the Court of Appeals reversed the verdict on the basis that the government had done nothing to rebut the church's claim that Scientology was a religion. A new trial was ordered which upheld the findings and verdict of the first trial.
The E-Meter is similar in mechanism to a ] or ], measuring variations in galvanic skin response that can be highly sensitive to emotions. Fear, anger, startled response, orienting response and sexual feelings are among the reactions which may produce similar skin conductance responses, and these responses account for the changes picked up by E-Meter measuring.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} According to Scientology doctrine, the resistance corresponds to the "mental mass and energy" of the subject's mind, which are claimed to change when the subject thinks of particular mental images (]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientology.org/what-is-scientology/the-practice-of-scientology/the-e-meter.html |title=Official Scientology page on the E-meter |publisher=Scientology.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref> One account tells about L. Ron Hubbard using the E-meter to determine whether or not fruits can experience pain, as in his 1968 assertion that tomatoes "scream when sliced."<ref name="tomatoes">{{cite web |url=http://www.life.com/image/76796742/in-gallery/25371 |title=30 Dumb Inventions |publisher='']'' |date=1968-01-01 |accessdate=2009-10-28}}</ref><ref name="tomatoes2">{{cite web |url=http://tonyortega.org/2013/02/02/scientology-mythbusting-with-jon-atack-the-tomato-photo/ |title=Scientology Mythbusting with Jon Atack: The Tomato Photo! |publisher=tonyortega.org |date=2013-02-02 |accessdate=2013-02-10}}</ref>


Judge Gerhardt A. Gesell found that:
The ] for the movement of the needle is the operation of the ] on the ]. Because sweat contains ]s (salt, etc.), conductivity is increased when the sweat glands are activated. But some advocates argue that the meter responds more quickly than would be possible by the exudation and drying of sweat,<ref>]: "Lastly, galvanic skin responses are delayed 1-3 seconds."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hubbard|first1=Lafayette|title=The Book of E-meter Drills|page=27|url=http://e-meter-star.com/books.files/E-meter_drills.pdf#page=27|accessdate=8 April 2015|quote=An Instant Read. An instant read is defined as that reaction of the needle which occurs at
:''Hubbard and his fellow Scientologists developed the notion of using an E-Meter to aid auditing. Substantial fees were charged for the meter and for auditing sessions using the meter. They repeatedly and explicitly represented that such auditing effectuated cures of many physical and mental illnesses. An individual processed with the aid of the E-Meter was said to reach the intended goal of 'clear' and was led to believe that there was reliable scientific proof that once cleared many, indeed most, illnesses would successfully be cured. Auditing was guaranteed to be successful. All this was and is false.'' <ref name="the mind game"/>
the precise end of any major thought voiced by the auditor. (quoting HCO B May 25, 1962)}}</ref><ref name="trans4mind">{{Cite web|url = http://www.trans4mind.com/download-pdfs/metercourse.pdf#page=20|title = The GSR Meter Course|date = 18 July 2001|accessdate = 9 April 2015|website = Tools for Transformation|publisher = Trans4Mind Ltd.|last = Shepherd|first = Peter|page = 20|quote = The GSR Meter helps the Practitioner to discover these key items, since when one’s attention is drawn to an item, the charge on the item will cause an increase in brain arousal, which is visible on the GSR Meter as a sudden fall in body resistance, i.e. an instantaneous fall of the needle.}}</ref> They propose an additional mechanism termed the "Tarchanoff Response" through which the ] of the brain affects the current directly.<ref name="trans4mind">{{Cite web|url = http://www.trans4mind.com/download-pdfs/metercourse.pdf#page=4|title = The GSR Meter Course|date = 2001-07-18|accessdate = 9 April 2015|website = Tools for Transformation|publisher = Trans4Mind Ltd.|last = Shepherd|first = Peter|page=4}}</ref> Still others researchers confess that the phenomenon is not completely understood, despite more than 150 years of research.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|last1 = Brown|first1 = Barbara|title = Skin Talks -- And It May Not Be Saying What You Want To|url = http://www.newspapers.com/newspage/22744127/|accessdate = 8 April 2015|agency = Idaho State Journal|publisher = Field Enterprises, Inc.|date = November 9, 1977|location = Pocatello, Idaho|page = 32|quote = Carl Jung, possibly the most creative psychologist who ever lived, experimented with skin talk in 1900. Using a primitive instrument to record changes in skin electrical activity, he conducted psychological interviews with patients and found that the skin responded to hidden emotions. It is said he was so astounded by this phenomenon that he exclaimed, 'Aha, a looking glass into the unconscious!'}}</ref><ref name="Boucsein-7" />


The judge ordered use of the E-meter be confined to "bona fide religious counseling" and the device be prominently labeled with a warning notice:
==E-meter and the law==
===United States===
{{Main|History of Dianetics}}
The medical establishment had been watching Hubbard's enterprises since 1951 when the ] (]) for teaching medicine without a licence.<ref>''Bulletin of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation'', Elizabeth, NJ. January 1951</ref> In 1958, the ] (FDA) seized and destroyed 21,000 ] tablets from Hubbard's Distribution Center, Inc., charging that they were falsely labeled as a treatment for radiation sickness.<ref name="Blue Sky">{{cite book | last = Atack | first = Jon | authorlink = Jon Atack | year = 1990 | title = A Piece of Blue Sky | publisher = Carol Publishing Group | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-8184-0499-X}}</ref><ref>Wallis, Roy. ''Sectarianism: Analyses of Religious and Non-Religious Sects'', Page 92, 1975, ISBN 0-470-91910-8</ref><ref name="barefaced">{{cite book|author=Miller, Russell| authorlink=Russell Miller|title=Bare-faced Messiah, The True Story of L. Ron Hubbard|publisher=Henry Holt & Co|location=New York|edition=First American Edition|year=1987|isbn=0-8050-0654-0|pages=227–228}}</ref>


:''The E-Meter is not medically or scientifically useful for the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease. It is not medically or scientifically capable of improving the health or bodily functions of anyone.'' <ref name="the mind game"/>
On January 4, 1963, in service of an FDA complaint, more than 100 ] and deputized ] with drawn guns<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title = Scientology|last = Lewis|first = James R.|publisher = Oxford University Press|year = 2009|isbn = 9780199887118|location = Oxford, United Kingdom|pages = Introduction: 5}}</ref> raided the ] in ] and confiscated more than three tons of property<ref name=robbers/>{{not in citation|date=June 2015}} including 5,000 books, 2,900 booklets, and several hundred E-meters.<ref>{{cite web|last1 = Wright|first1 = Skelley|title = Opinion|url = https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=18407779340802616532|publisher = United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia|accessdate = 10 April 2015|location = Washington, DC|date = February 5, 1969|page = 1151}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Battle Mounts - Those Who Oppose Scientology|url=http://opposing.scientology.org/31-battl.htm|website=Those Who Oppose Scientology|publisher=Church of Scientology International|accessdate=10 April 2015}}</ref> The FDA accused the Church of making false medical claims that the E-meters could treat physical and ]es. The FDA also charged that the meters did not bear adequate directions for treating the conditions for which they were recommended.<ref>{{cite book | author=Christopher Riche Evans | title=] | publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux | year=1974 | isbn=0-374-13324-7}} Chapter 6.</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Russell Miller | title=Bare-Faced Messiah: The true story of L. Ron Hubbard | chapter = 15. Visits To Heaven | publisher=] | year=1987 | isbn=1-55013-027-7}}</ref>


The church has adopted a modified version of this statement, which it still invokes in connection with the E-meter. The current statement reads:
The Church sued to get the property back, and years of litigation ensued. In the first trial beginning on April 3, 1967, the jury found that the Church misrepresented the E-meter and the judge ordered the confiscated materials destroyed.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.hastingsconlawquarterly.org/archives/V9/I1/Heins.pdf#PAGE=18|title = Other People's Faiths: The Scientology Litigation and the Justiciability of Religious Fraud|last = Heins|first = Marjorie|date = 1982|journal = Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly|access-date = 9 April 2015|page = 170|volume = 9|issue = 1}}</ref><ref name="Garrison"/> But in 1969, the ] reversed the verdict; the Church, it said, had made substantial showing that Scientology is a religion and the government had done nothing to rebut the claim.<ref name=":2" /> The US Court of Appeals wrote: <blockquote> made no attempt to contradict the expert testimony introduced by the Government. They have conceded that the E-meter is of no use in the diagnosis or treatment of disease as such, and have argued that it was never put forward as having such use. Auditing or processing, in their view, treats the spirit of man, not his body, though through the healing of the spirit the body can be affected. They have culled from their literature numerous statements disclaiming any intent to treat disease and recommending that Scientology practitioners send those under their care to doctors when organic defects may be found. They have introduced through testimony a document which they assert all those who undergo auditing or processing must sign which states that Scientology is "a spiritual and religious guide intended to make persons more aware of themselves as spiritual beings, and not treating or diagnosing human ailments of body or mind, and not engaged in the teaching of medical arts or sciences * * *."<br/>Finally, with respect to their claim to be a religion and hence within the protection of the First Amendment, they have shown that the Founding Church of Scientology is incorporated as a church in the District of Columbia, and that its ministers are qualified to perform marriages and burials. They have introduced their Creed into evidence. The Government has made no claim that the Founding Church is not a ''bona fide'' religion, that auditing is not part of the exercise of that religion, or that the theory of auditing is not a doctrine of that religion.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|last1 = Wright|first1 = Skelley|title = Opinion|url = https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=18407779340802616532|publisher = United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia|accessdate = 10 April 2015|location = Washington, DC|date = February 5, 1969|page = 1154}}</ref></blockquote>Having conceded that Scientology is a religion, wrote the Court, the government was forbidden by the ] of the ] to rule on the truth or falsity of the Church's doctrines and interfere with its practices, provided the claims are not manifestly insincere and the practices are reasonably harmless.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|last1 = Wright|first1 = Skelley|title = Opinion|url = https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=18407779340802616532|publisher = United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia|accessdate = 10 April 2015|location = Washington, DC|date = February 5, 1969|page = 1154}}</ref> The Court ordered a new trial with the mandate that the trial court could not forbid auditing, use of the E-meter, or purveyance of the literature within a religious context.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.hastingsconlawquarterly.org/archives/V9/I1/Heins.pdf#PAGE=19|title = "Other People's Faiths": The Scientology Litigation and the Justiciability of Religious Fraud|last = Heins|first = Marjorie|date = 1982|journal = Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly|access-date = 9 April 2015|volume = 9|issue = 1|page = 171}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Malko|first1=George|title=Scientology: The Now Religion|date=1970|publisher=Dell/Delacorte Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1112963735|pages=Chapter 4|url=http://www.solitarytrees.net/pubs/now/4.htm|quote=... the U.S. Court of Appeals ... reversed the decision of the federal jury and stated that until the government can offer proof that Scientology is not a religion, the E-Meters and the literature seized are protected by our rights of freedom of worship.}}</ref> The FDA appealed the decision, but in 1969, the ]<nowiki/> declined to review the case, commenting only that "Scientology meets the ''prima facie'' test of religion."<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.hastingsconlawquarterly.org/archives/V9/I1/Heins.pdf#PAGE=23|title = Other People's Faiths: The Scientology Litigation and the Justiciability of Religious Fraud|last = Heins|first = Marjorie|date = 1982|journal = Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly|access-date = 9 April 2015|page = 175, fn. 116|volume = 9|issue = 1}}</ref> In his 1973 judgment, District Court Judge Gerhardt A. Gesell (presiding over the trial) expressed his own opinion of Scientology in strong words:<blockquote>Hubbard and his fellow Scientologists developed the notion of using an E-Meter to aid auditing. Substantial fees were charged for the meter and for auditing sessions using the meter. They repeatedly and explicitly represented that such auditing effectuated cures of many physical and mental illnesses. An individual processed with the aid of the E-Meter was said to reach the intended goal of 'clear' and was led to believe that there was reliable scientific proof that once cleared many, indeed most, illnesses would successfully be cured. Auditing was guaranteed to be successful.<ref name=robbers/></blockquote>Unable to do more under the mandate from the Court of Appeals, Judge Gesell ordered all the property to be returned to the Church, and thereafter, the E-meter may be used only in "''bona fide'' religious counseling." All meters and referring literature must include a label disclaiming any medical benefits, thus:


{{quote|The E-Meter is not medically or scientifically useful for the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease. It is not medically or scientifically capable of improving the health or bodily functions of anyone.<ref name="scribd.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/5024758/Court-Order-FDA-Scientology-Dianetics-Hubbard-Emeter |title=Court Order - FDA - Scientology Dianetics Hubbard E-meter |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2008-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-03}}</ref>}} :''By itself, this meter does nothing. It is solely for the guide of Ministers of the Church in Confessionals and pastoral counseling. The Electrometer is not medically or scientifically capable of improving the health or bodily function of anyone and is for religious use by students and Ministers of the Church of Scientology only.'' <ref name="the mind game"/>


Critics point to a lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and associated practices. They claim that at the time Hubbard began claiming the E-meter to be an ] instrument for detecting mental tension, no attempt had been made to scientifically validate this hypothesis by comparing the E-meter readings of individuals under tension to the readings of a ].<ref> by Perry Scott, 2015, published by Carnegie Mellon University, accessed 6/6/2015.
The church adopted a modified version of that statement, which it still invokes in connection with the E-meter. The current statement reads:
</ref>


A Californian student of American Studies, Laura Kay Fuller, claimed in a 1999 thesis that the E-meter furthers totalitarian tendencies in Scientology: :''"Scientology insists that the E-meter is the final indicator of the truth, consistently relying on the "scientific proof" of this machine to further its ideology. ... In addition to this, Scientology uses the E-meter as a lie detector, gradually building a state of fear and paranoia for its members."'' <ref> by Laura Kay Fuller, 1999, accessed 6/6/2015.</ref>
{{quote|The Hubbard Electrometer is a religious artifact. By itself, this meter does nothing. It is for religious use by students and Ministers of the church in Confessionals and pastoral counseling only.<ref>, Bridge Publications, 2002.</ref>}}


==See also==
Since the FDA's legal objective was to outlaw and condemn the E-meters and literature (as had been ordered in the first trial), this was a substantial and embarrassing<ref>{{Cite book|title = Cults of Unreason|last = Evans|first = Christopher Riche|publisher = Harrap, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Delacorte Press|year = 1973|isbn = 978-0-374-13324-5|location = United States|pages = |url = http://www.xenu-directory.net/mirrors/www.whyaretheydead.net/krasel/books/evans/pioneers.html|quote = They are not - as the Food and Drug Administration found to its embarrassment in the case of the E-meter - sold or promoted as therapeutic devices.}}</ref> defeat for the FDA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Appeals: Victory for the Scientologists|url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900653,00.html|website=Time Magazine|publisher=Time, Inc.|accessdate=15 April 2015|date=14 February 1969}}</ref> For the Church of Scientology, it was not a significant change. The Church had not stated in any publication that the E-meter could or would heal anything.<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book|last1=Garrison|first1=Omar V.|title=The Hidden Story of Scientology|date=1974|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, NJ|isbn=0-8065-0440-4|page=136|edition=1|url=http://www.freezone.org/timetrack/data/Hidden_Story/chapter6.htm}}</ref>


*]
Judge Gesell also ordered the Church to pay all the government's legal fees and warehousing costs for the confiscated property for the nine years of litigation. He also required the church to pay the salaries and travel expenses of FDA agents who might, from time to time, inspect for compliance with the court's order.<ref name="Garrison">{{cite book|last1=Garrison|first1=Omar V.|title=The Hidden Story of Scientology|date=1974|publisher=Citadel Press|location=Secaucus, NJ|isbn=0-8065-0440-4|page=143|edition=1|url=http://www.freezone.org/timetrack/data/Hidden_Story/chapter6.htm}}</ref> The raid had been ruled illegal, but the government retained copies of the documents.<ref name=":4" />
*]
*]
*]
*]


== In line references ==
===Europe===
<references/>
In 1979 in Sweden, a court forbade calling the E-meter ''an invaluable aid to measuring man's mental state and changes in it'' in an advertisement. The prohibition was upheld by the ] in case ].

In October 2009, a three-judge panel at the Correctional Court in Paris, France convicted the church and six of its members of organized fraud.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/europe/10/27/france.scientology.fraud/index.html?eref=igoogle_cnn</ref> The Court's decision followed a three-week trial, where two plaintiffs alleged they were defrauded by the organization. One plaintiff's complaint involved the use of an E-Meter by Scientologists with medical implications. This plaintiff claimed that, after being audited with the device, she was encouraged to pay tens of thousands of euros for vitamins, books, and courses to improve her condition. She argued that amounted to fraud. The Court agreed, and the ruling was upheld on appeal in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last=AFP|title=Scientology's fraud conviction upheld in France|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/10384877/Scientologys-fraud-conviction-upheld-in-France.html|accessdate=29 March 2014|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=17 October 2013}}</ref> See ].

===Australia===
In 1964, the government of ] held a Board of Inquiry into Scientology which returned its findings in a document colloquially known as the ]. Psychiatrist Dr. Ian Holland Martin, honorary federal secretary of the ], gave evidence that the E-Meter 'used for Scientology' was a 'psycho-galvano-meter' and was 'dangerous in unqualified hands'.<ref name="CanTimesJun1964">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article105764102 |title=SCIENTOLOGY VENUS TRIP 'A DELUSION'. |newspaper=] |location=ACT |date=2 June 1964 |accessdate=13 August 2013 |page=27 |publisher=National Library of Australia}}</ref> He said that if the E-meter 'was suggested to possess mysterious powers' to someone who did not understand that it had 'been thoroughly discredited as a lie detector' then 'that person would be suggestible to ideas foisted on him by the operator'.<ref name="CanTimesJun1964"/> The final report of the inquiry stated that the E-meter enabled Scientology:

<blockquote>"...to assume, intensify and retain control over the minds and wills of preclears. Fears of its abilities keep them in constant subjection. Its use can be so manipulated by cunningly phrased questions that almost any desired result can be obtained, and it is used unscrupulously to dominate students and staff alike. All the evil features of scientology are intensified where the E-meter is involved. When used in conjunction with hypnotic techniques, its evil impact is greatly increased.

This simple electrical device is not, of course, the sole basis for the condemnation of scientology, but without the E-meter scientology would be partly disarmed."<ref>State of Victoria (1965) ''Report of the Board of Inquiry into Scientology'' p.96 http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/Cowen/audit/ar14.html</ref></blockquote>

Other states echoed the ban. But then in 1969, the High Court of Western Australia ruled the ban illegal, and South Australia repealed its law in 1973. Victoria repealed its law in 1982. And in 1983, the High Court of Australia granted Scientology full rights as a religion in all respects.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=James R.|title=Scientology|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, United Kingdom|isbn=9780199887118|pages=Introduction: 5, 6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WEy-BgAAQBAJ&lpg=PT18&ots=NDcE7oGwyn&dq=%22founding%20church%20of%20scientology%20v.%20united%20states%22&pg=PT36#v=onepage&q=victoria&f=false|accessdate=14 April 2015}}</ref>

===Present status===
{{outdated section|date=June 2015}}
] in ]]]
As of January 2005, the cost of the Mark V was $900 and the Mark VII Super Quantum E-meter was US $4,650 (up from US $3,850 in 1995).{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} Scientologists of the ] have developed their own E-meter models which are available at much lower prices. They also offer circuit diagrams and instructions for building a meter.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

==Scientology beliefs and theories==
] sets out his ] of how the E-meter works in his book ''Understanding the E-Meter'':

{{quote|For the meter to be read, the tiny flow of electrical energy through the preclear (person) has to remain steady. When this tiny flow is changed the needle of the E-Meter moves. This will happen if the preclear pulls in or releases mental mass. This mental mass (condensed energy), acts as an additional resistance or lack of resistance to the flow of electrical energy from the E-Meter.}}

Hubbard claimed that this "mental mass" has the same physical characteristics, including weight, as ] as commonly understood by lay persons:

{{quote|In Scientology it has been discovered that mental energy is simply a finer, higher level of physical energy. The test of this is conclusive in that a thetan "mocking up" (creating) mental image pictures and thrusting them into the body can increase the body mass and by casting them away again can decrease the body mass. This test has actually been made and an increase of as much as thirty pounds, actually measured on scales, has been added to, and subtracted from, a body by creating "mental energy." Energy is energy. Matter is condensed energy.}}

This text in ''Understanding the E-Meter'' is accompanied by three drawings. The first shows a man standing on a weighing scale, which reflects a weight of "150" (the units are not given). The next shows the man on the same scale, weighed down under a burden of "Mental Image Pictures", and the scale indicates a weight of "180". The last picture shows the man standing upright on the scale, now unburdened by "Mental Image Pictures" and with a smile on his face, while the scale again indicates a weight of "148".

Bob Thomas, senior executive of the church in the early 1970s, gave a prosaic description.<blockquote>The immediate goal of the E-meter is to enhance communication. In other words, just to take a parallel: if an analyst were allowing his patient to free-associate, and the patient were connected in some way with a galvanometer which showed the analyst what things the patient mentioned were emotionally charged and what things were not emotionally charged, a lot of time would be saved. So it's simply an assist for the practitioner to direct the individual to areas which he himself may not realize are troubled or charged with emotion or are repressed; and to better direct his attention into those areas ...</blockquote><blockquote>The E-meter is a simple psycho-galvanometer. It's got some increased sensitivity built into it and the myological reactions that you sometimes get in the galvanometer have been damped out by the circuitry, so that the mental reactions, the reactions of the spirit, on the body are emphasized and can be read more clearly. But that's simply the design of the circuitry; it doesn't basically affect the kind of device. It registers what is called, commonly, the psychogalvanomic reflex, which is a reflex that is a poorly understood mechanism of the psyche. The body resistance seems to vary when the individual thinks of a painful or pain-associated or traumatic-associated concept, or word or idea. ... Some very early work was done on this by Jung ..."<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Hidden Story of Scientology|last = Garrison|first = Omar V.|publisher = The Citadel Press, Lyle Stuart, Inc.|year = 1974|isbn = 0-8065-0440-4|location = Secaucus, NJ|pages = 62–4}}</ref></blockquote>

==See also==
{{Portal|Scientology}}
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== General refences ==
==References==
* by ], 1969, accessed 6/6/2015.
{{Reflist|30em}}
* by Mark Pilkington, 2005, accessed 6/6/2015.


==External links== ==External links==
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Revision as of 06:50, 7 June 2015

Mark Super VII Quantum E-meter.

An E-meter is an electronic device manufactured by the Church of Scientology at their Gold Base production facility. It is a modified form of one of the three most typical components of the modern polygraph lie detector, and is designed to measure galvanic skin response. The pre-modified device used in typical lie detectors is known as an "electrodermal-activity-meter". The e-meter operates under the same electronic principles as the electrodermal-activity-meter. While electronically the two devices are quite similar, the aims and methodologies of the primary users of the two different instruments are quite different. While the primary aim of users of the typical electrodermal-activity-meter is to determine the honesty (or lack thereof) of a given interviewee, the Church of Scientology's intended use of its e-meters is to supposedly measure the "psyche, the human soul, spirit or mind."

Dianetics and Scientology counselors and counselors-in-training perform such "measurements" in a therapeutic format, which the Church of Scientology refers to as auditing. These Scientology auditing sessions incorporate the many unique theories, teachings and spiritual beliefs as found in Scientology Dianetics and auditing literature. The device is formally known as the Hubbard Electrometer.

A 1971 ruling of the United States District Court, District of Columbia (333 F. Supp. 357), specifically stated, "The E-meter has no proven usefulness in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease, nor is it medically or scientifically capable of improving any bodily function."

Description and use

Main article: Auditing (Scientology)
A visitor to a Church of Scientology public information tent receives a demonstration of an E-meter as part of a free "stress test".

The E-meter measures changes in the electrical resistance of the human body by inducing a tiny electrical current through the body. The device's primary component is an electrical measuring instrument called a Wheatstone bridge, functioning much like a galvanometer, that indicates changes in the subject's resistance. According to Scientology doctrine, the resistance corresponds to the "mental mass and energy" of the subject's mind, which change when the subject thinks of particular mental images (engrams). These concepts have no recognition among scientists outside of Scientology; the action of the E-meter is more commonly attributed to galvanic skin response, an effect used in polygraph tests.

E-meter sessions are conducted by church employees known as auditors. Scientology materials traditionally refer to the subject as the "preclear", although auditors continue to use the meter well beyond the clear level. The preclear holds a pair of cylindrical electrodes ("cans") connected to the meter while the auditor asks the preclear a series of questions and notes both the verbal response and the activity of the meter. Auditor training describes many types of needle movements, with each having their own special significance.

The meter has two control dials. The larger dial, known as the "tone arm", adjusts the meter bias, while the smaller one controls the gain. Auditors manipulate the tone arm during an auditing session to keep the E-meter needle on a marked reference point.

History

The E-meter has undergone many changes since it was invented in the 1940s by Volney Mathison, an early collaborator with Hubbard. The Mathison Electropsychometer (as it was then called) was produced for use by psychotherapists and chiropractors. It was adopted for use in Dianetics by Hubbard in the early 1950s, before being temporarily dropped in 1954 during a dispute with Mathison.

In a quote from Bent Corydon's "Messiah or Madman?",

It was the Mathison E-Meter, and Mathison was determined to keep it that way. So in late 1954 the use of the E-meter was discontinued by Hubbard. Wrote Hubbard: "Yesterday, we used an instrument called an E-Meter to register whether or not the process was still getting results so that the auditor would know how long to continue it. While the E-Meter is an interesting investigation instrument and has played its part in research, it is not today used by the auditor... As we long ago suspected, the intervention of a mechanical gadget between the auditor and the preclear had a tendency to depersonalize the session..."

In 1958 when Scientologists Don Breeding and Joe Wallis developed a modified, smaller battery-operated version, which they presented to Hubbard, he again used it. This was christened the Hubbard electrometer. Hubbard patented it on December 6, 1966, as a "Device for Measuring and Indicating Changes in the Resistance of a Human Body" (U.S. patent 3,290,589). The patent is now expired and in the public domain. The Church of Scientology continues to make, sell, and teach its use in auditing.

Mathison never litigated the appropriation of his invention, but was bitter and disillusioned about Hubbard. In 1964 Mathison stated: "I decry the doings of trivial fakers, such as scientologists and the like, who glibly denounce hypnosis and then try covertly to use it in their phony systems."

Today, models of the E-meter include the Mark V, the Mark VI and the Mark VII. As of 2015, the newest model E-meter, the Hubbard Mark Super VII Quantum- Planetary Dissemination Edition E-meter was listed on the Scientology website, Jezebel.com as a "bargain" at US $5,500.00 The 1995 price for the same item was US $3,850.00. Scientologists of the Free Zone have developed their own E-meter models which are available at much lower prices. They offer also circuit diagrams and instructions for building a meter. (Hilton, 2001)

Proposed mechanism of operation

L. Ron Hubbard's teachings propose a commonly held humanistic philosophical duality: that a human being consists of a physical body and an aware spiritual entity. He set out his theory of how the E-meter works in his book Understanding the E-Meter:

For the meter to be read, the tiny flow of electrical energy through the preclear (person) has to remain steady. When this tiny flow is changed the needle of the E-Meter moves. This will happen if the preclear pulls in or releases mental mass. This mental mass (condensed energy), acts as an additional resistance or lack of resistance to the flow of electrical energy from the E-Meter.

Hubbard claimed that this "mental mass" has the same physical characteristics, including weight, as mass as commonly understood by lay persons:

"In Scientology it has been discovered that mental energy is simply a finer, higher level of physical energy. The test of this is conclusive in that a thetan "mocking up" (creating) mental image pictures and thrusting them into the body can increase the body mass and by casting them away again can decrease the body mass. This test has actually been made and an increase of as much as thirty pounds, actually measured on scales, has been added to, and subtracted from, a body by creating "mental energy." Energy is energy. Matter is condensed energy."

This text in Understanding the E-Meter is accompanied by three pictures. The first shows a man standing on a weighing scale, which reflects a weight of "150" (the units are not given but are presumably pounds). The next shows the man on the same scale, weighed down under a burden of "Mental Image Pictures", and the scale indicates a weight of "180". The last picture shows the man standing upright on the scale, now unburdened by "Mental Image Pictures" and with a smile on his face, while the scale again indicates a weight of "150".

Controversy

The E-meter became the subject of a major controversy with the US Food and Drug Administration in the early 1960s, when the FDA became concerned that the church was using the E-meter to practice medicine without a license.

On January 4, 1963, more than one hundred E-meters were seized by US marshals at the "Founding Church of Scientology" building in Washington, D.C. The church was accused of making false claims that the devices effectively treated some 70 percent of all physical and mental illness. The FDA also charged that the devices did not bear adequate directions for treating the conditions for which they were recommended.

Prolonged litigation ensued, with a subsequent jury trial finding that the E-meter had indeed been misrepresented. The church's contention that its literature was exempt from legal action because it was issued by a religious organization was rejected by the court as irrelevant. However, the Court of Appeals reversed the verdict on the basis that the government had done nothing to rebut the church's claim that Scientology was a religion. A new trial was ordered which upheld the findings and verdict of the first trial.

Judge Gerhardt A. Gesell found that:

Hubbard and his fellow Scientologists developed the notion of using an E-Meter to aid auditing. Substantial fees were charged for the meter and for auditing sessions using the meter. They repeatedly and explicitly represented that such auditing effectuated cures of many physical and mental illnesses. An individual processed with the aid of the E-Meter was said to reach the intended goal of 'clear' and was led to believe that there was reliable scientific proof that once cleared many, indeed most, illnesses would successfully be cured. Auditing was guaranteed to be successful. All this was and is false.

The judge ordered use of the E-meter be confined to "bona fide religious counseling" and the device be prominently labeled with a warning notice:

The E-Meter is not medically or scientifically useful for the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease. It is not medically or scientifically capable of improving the health or bodily functions of anyone.

The church has adopted a modified version of this statement, which it still invokes in connection with the E-meter. The current statement reads:

By itself, this meter does nothing. It is solely for the guide of Ministers of the Church in Confessionals and pastoral counseling. The Electrometer is not medically or scientifically capable of improving the health or bodily function of anyone and is for religious use by students and Ministers of the Church of Scientology only.

Critics point to a lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and associated practices. They claim that at the time Hubbard began claiming the E-meter to be an accurate and precise instrument for detecting mental tension, no attempt had been made to scientifically validate this hypothesis by comparing the E-meter readings of individuals under tension to the readings of a control group.

A Californian student of American Studies, Laura Kay Fuller, claimed in a 1999 thesis that the E-meter furthers totalitarian tendencies in Scientology: :"Scientology insists that the E-meter is the final indicator of the truth, consistently relying on the "scientific proof" of this machine to further its ideology. ... In addition to this, Scientology uses the E-meter as a lie detector, gradually building a state of fear and paranoia for its members."

See also

In line references

  1. Bonafidescientology.org: The Electropsychrometer – An Aid to Auditing Published by the Church of Scientology, 2014, accessed 6/6/2015.
  2. Skeptic's Dictioary: E-meter (electro-psychometer) by Robert Todd Carroll, 2014, access date: 6/6/2015.
  3. ^ The Mind Game, by Norman Spinrad, 1980, published by Bantam Books, ISBN: 0553250612.
  4. ^ Understanding the E-Meter by L. Ron Hubbard, Publisher: Bridge Publications, 1982, ISBN: 0-88404-078-X.
  5. Scientology.org: What is the e-meter and how does it work? An explanation of te e-meter as presented on the Scientology.org website, accessed 6/6/2015.
  6. Livescience.com: How Much Does the Soul Weigh? by Benjamin Radford, 2012, accessed 6/6/2015.
  7. Scientology, by James R. Lewis, published by Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN: 0195331494, see page 45.
  8. ^ Skeptic History: Scientology's Summer of Hell? by Tim Farley, 2012, published by Randi.org, access date: 6/6/2015.
  9. Messiah or Madman By Bent Croydon, and L. Ron Hubbard Jr., 1998, see page 313.
  10. Dianetik und Scientology in ihrem Anspruch als Wissenschaft, by Tilo Müller, published by GRIN Verlag, 2010, ISBN: 978-3-640-58010-1.
  11. Jezebel.com: Scientology e-meter catalog sales listing, 2015, accessed 6/6/2015.
  12. The Health Robbers, A Close Look at Quakery in America, by Wallace Janssen, 1993, published by Prometheus Boooks, Buffalo NY, ISBN: 0-87975-855-4, see pages 321 - 335.
  13. Cults of Unreason, by Christopher Riche Evans, publihed by Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1974, ISBN: 0-374-13324-7, see chapter 6.
  14. Bare-faced Messiah: The true story of L. Ron Hubbard, by Russell Miller, published by Key Porter Books, 1987, ISBN: 1-55013-027-7, see chapter 15.
  15. A Study of E-meter Frequency Response by Perry Scott, 2015, published by Carnegie Mellon University, accessed 6/6/2015.
  16. Scientology and Totalitarianism, Chapter 4: Technology by Laura Kay Fuller, 1999, accessed 6/6/2015.

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