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Revision as of 20:30, 2 July 2015 editGuccisamsclub (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,333 edits →Means: Added citation that shows that 172,000 is NOT executions.← Previous edit Revision as of 20:46, 2 July 2015 edit undoGuccisamsclub (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,333 edits 1/1000 is clearly the average, not the minimum according to the source. stop protecting misrepresentations of sources, please!Next edit →
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"The land reform was a massacre of innocent, honest people, and using contemporary terms we must say that it was a genocide triggered by class discrimination".<ref name= RFA>RFA. June 8, 2006.</ref> "The land reform was a massacre of innocent, honest people, and using contemporary terms we must say that it was a genocide triggered by class discrimination".<ref name= RFA>RFA. June 8, 2006.</ref>


Between 50,000 and 172,000 perceived "]" were executed.<ref>] (1967), ''The Two Vietnams: A Political and Military Analysis'' (London: Pall Mall Press, 2nd rev. ed.), p. 156.</ref>{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=142-143}}<ref name="History">''The History of the Vietnamese Economy'' (2005), Vol. 2, edited by Dang Phong of the Institute of Economy, Vietnamese Institute of Social Sciences.</ref> Testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time.{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=143}} Declassified Politburo documents confirm that 1 in 1,000 North Vietnamese (i.e., about 14,000 people) were the minimum quota targeted for execution during the earlier "rent reduction" campaign; the number killed during the multiple stages of the considerably more radical "land reform" was probably many times greater.<ref>Alec Holcombe, ''Journal of Vietnamese Studies'', Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 243-247, quoting a translated Politburo directive from May 4, 1953. This directive was published in (Van Kien Dang Toan Tap), a 54 volume work authorized by the Vietnamese Communist Party.</ref> Lam Thanh Liem, a major authority on land issues in Vietnam, conducted multiple interviews in which communist cadres gave estimates for land reform executions ranging from 120,000 to 200,000. Such figures match the "nearly 150,000 houses and huts which were allocated to new occupants".<ref>Lam Thanh Liem (1990), in Jean-Francois Revel et al., ''Ho Chi Minh'', Nam A, pp. 179-214.</ref> Landlords were arbitrarily classified as 5.68% of the population{{citation needed| this seems high and needs to be documented}}, but the majority were subject to less severe punishment than execution. Official records from the time suggest that 172,008 "landlords" were identified as such during the "land reform", of whom 123,266 (71.66%) were later found to be wrongly classified.<ref name="History"/><ref name=dang>{{cite web|last1=Dang Chi Hung|title=Nhung su that khong the choi bo|url=http://www.geocities.ws/xoathantuong/dch/dch_nhungsuthat6.htm|accessdate=2 July 2015}}</ref> Victims were reportedly shot, beheaded, and beaten to death; "some were tied up, thrown into open graves and covered with stones until they were crushed to death".<ref name="Reader's Digest">''Readers Digest,'' , November 1968.</ref> The full death toll was even greater because victims' families starved to death under the "policy of isolation."<ref>''Nhan Vhan,'' November 5, 1956: "In the agrarian reform, illegal arrests, imprisonments, investigations (with barbarous torture), executions, requisitions of property, and '''the quarantining of landowners’ houses''' (or houses of peasants wrongly classified as landowners), which left innocent children to die of starvation, are not exclusively due to the shortcomings of the leadership, but also due to the lack of a complete legal code. If the cadres had felt that they were closely observed by the god of justice... calamities might have been avoided for the masses." Nhan Vhan was one of the best-known opposition periodicals that was allowed during the three-month period of relative intellectual freedom in the fall of 1956, modeled on Mao's "Hundred Flowers" campaign.</ref> As communist defector Le Xuan Giao explained: "There was nothing worse than the starvation of the children in a family whose parents were under the control of a land reform team. They isolated the house, and the people who lived there would starve. The children were all innocent. There was nothing worse than that. They wanted to see the whole family dead."<ref name="Turner">Turner, Robert F. . ''],'' November 11, 1972.</ref> Former Viet Minh official ] wrote that as many as 500,000 North Vietnamese may have died as a result of the land reform.<ref>Hoang Van Chi (1962), ''From Colonialism to Communism: A Case Study of North Vietnam'', New York: Congress of Cultural Freedom.</ref> Between 50,000 and 172,000 perceived "]" were executed.<ref>] (1967), ''The Two Vietnams: A Political and Military Analysis'' (London: Pall Mall Press, 2nd rev. ed.), p. 156.</ref>{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=142-143}}<ref name="History">''The History of the Vietnamese Economy'' (2005), Vol. 2, edited by Dang Phong of the Institute of Economy, Vietnamese Institute of Social Sciences.</ref> Testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time.{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=143}} Declassified Politburo documents confirm that 1 in 1,000 North Vietnamese (i.e., about 14,000 people) were the average quota targeted for execution during the earlier "rent reduction" campaign; the number killed during the multiple stages of the considerably more radical "land reform" was probably many times greater.<ref>Alec Holcombe, ''Journal of Vietnamese Studies'', Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 243-247, quoting a translated Politburo directive from May 4, 1953. This directive was published in (Van Kien Dang Toan Tap), a 54 volume work authorized by the Vietnamese Communist Party.</ref> Lam Thanh Liem, a major authority on land issues in Vietnam, conducted multiple interviews in which communist cadres gave estimates for land reform executions ranging from 120,000 to 200,000. Such figures match the "nearly 150,000 houses and huts which were allocated to new occupants".<ref>Lam Thanh Liem (1990), in Jean-Francois Revel et al., ''Ho Chi Minh'', Nam A, pp. 179-214.</ref> Landlords were arbitrarily classified as 5.68% of the population{{citation needed| this seems high and needs to be documented}}, but the majority were subject to less severe punishment than execution. Official records from the time suggest that 172,008 "landlords" were identified as such during the "land reform", of whom 123,266 (71.66%) were later found to be wrongly classified.<ref name="History"/><ref name=dang>{{cite web|last1=Dang Chi Hung|title=Nhung su that khong the choi bo|url=http://www.geocities.ws/xoathantuong/dch/dch_nhungsuthat6.htm|accessdate=2 July 2015}}</ref> Victims were reportedly shot, beheaded, and beaten to death; "some were tied up, thrown into open graves and covered with stones until they were crushed to death".<ref name="Reader's Digest">''Readers Digest,'' , November 1968.</ref> The full death toll was even greater because victims' families starved to death under the "policy of isolation."<ref>''Nhan Vhan,'' November 5, 1956: "In the agrarian reform, illegal arrests, imprisonments, investigations (with barbarous torture), executions, requisitions of property, and '''the quarantining of landowners’ houses''' (or houses of peasants wrongly classified as landowners), which left innocent children to die of starvation, are not exclusively due to the shortcomings of the leadership, but also due to the lack of a complete legal code. If the cadres had felt that they were closely observed by the god of justice... calamities might have been avoided for the masses." Nhan Vhan was one of the best-known opposition periodicals that was allowed during the three-month period of relative intellectual freedom in the fall of 1956, modeled on Mao's "Hundred Flowers" campaign.</ref> As communist defector Le Xuan Giao explained: "There was nothing worse than the starvation of the children in a family whose parents were under the control of a land reform team. They isolated the house, and the people who lived there would starve. The children were all innocent. There was nothing worse than that. They wanted to see the whole family dead."<ref name="Turner">Turner, Robert F. . ''],'' November 11, 1972.</ref> Former Viet Minh official ] wrote that as many as 500,000 North Vietnamese may have died as a result of the land reform.<ref>Hoang Van Chi (1962), ''From Colonialism to Communism: A Case Study of North Vietnam'', New York: Congress of Cultural Freedom.</ref>


] wrote ''The Myth of the Bloodbath'', claiming that the death toll was only in the thousands<ref>Porter, Gareth (1973). . "Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars", September 1973, pp. 2-15</ref> but was criticized by historian Robert F. Turner for relying on official communist sources. Turner argued that the death toll "was certainly in six digits."<ref name="Turner">Turner, Robert F. . ''],'' November 11, 1972. See also Turner, "Myths of the Vietnam War: The Pentagon Papers Reconsidered", ''Southeast Asian Perspectives'', No. 7 (Sep., 1972), pp. i-iv, 1-55: "Although no official figures were made public, the best estimates are that about fifty thousand people were executed, and several hundred thousands more died as a result of the "policy of isolation.""</ref> Historian Edwin Moise, who estimated that over 8,000 people were executed during the land reform,<ref>Moise, Edwin E. (1983), ''Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. See also ''Triumph Revisited: Historians Battle for the Vietnam War'' (2010), Routledge, pg. 97.</ref> has defended this practice; asserting that the official communist newspapers of North Vietnam were "extremely informative" and "showed a fairly high level of honesty" when compared to those of other communist states.<ref>Edwin E. Moise, "Land Reform and Land Reform Errors in North Vietnam," Pacific Affairs, Spring 1976, pp70-92; also ''Land Reform in China and North Vietnam'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1983).</ref> Moise's denial that China played an important role in the reform is no longer accepted by modern scholarship.<ref>Qiang Zhai, ''China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), pp39ff, 75ff.</ref> Porter and ] argued that Hoang Van Chi used to be "employed and subsidized" by ] and the US, and challenged the reliability of translated North Vietnamese documents on which Chi's view was based on.<ref name="Chomsky"/> Turner defended Chi, noting that while he received a grant from the ] (which was later revealed to have been funded by the ]), there was no evidence this affected his conclusions.<ref name="Turner"/> Chi opined that "Mr. Porter studies....a few propaganda booklets published by ]....I lived through the whole process, and I described what I saw with my own eyes."<ref name="Hoang">Teodoru, Daniel and Hoang Van Chi, , "National Student Coordinating Committee", December 20, 1972.</ref> Both Chi and Turner noted that Porter barely could not speak Vietnamese (despite his claim that sources about the land reform were mistranslated), and that he relied on sometimes inaccurate English translations of ''Nhan Dan'' done by the ] (as well as English-language propaganda meant to encourage anti-war groups).<ref name="Hoang"/><ref name="Turner"/> Chomsky cited Colonel Nguyen Van Chau, head of the Central Psychological War Service for the ] from 1956 to 1962, who claimed that early figures for the land reform were "100% fabricated" by the intelligence services of Saigon.<ref name="Chomsky">Chomsky, A. Noam (1979), ''The Political Economy of Human Rights'', Vol. I, South End Press, Boston, pg. 342-343.</ref> Chau was one of dozens of officers dismissed from their positions while under investigation in South Vietnam;<ref>''New York Times'', ''Los Angeles Times'', November 23, 1963.</ref> he later made public appearances alongside North Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and French Communist Party representatives.<ref>''Vietnam News Agency'', Paris, December 21, 1972.</ref> Recent scholarship from Vietnam also suggests that a larger number of landlords were persecuted than previously believed.<ref name="History"/> According to Balazs Szalontai, official statistics provided by the North Vietnamese government to Hungarian officials generally support Moise's lower estimates.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Szalontai|first=Balazs|title=Political and Economic Crisis in North Vietnam, 1955–56|journal=Cold War History|volume=5|number=4|date=November 2005|pages=395–426}}</ref> Janos Radvanyi, who visited Hanoi in 1959 as a member of the Hungarian Party-State delegation, was told that 60,000 people had been executed during the campaign.{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=143}} ] wrote ''The Myth of the Bloodbath'', claiming that the death toll was only in the thousands<ref>Porter, Gareth (1973). . "Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars", September 1973, pp. 2-15</ref> but was criticized by historian Robert F. Turner for relying on official communist sources. Turner argued that the death toll "was certainly in six digits."<ref name="Turner">Turner, Robert F. . ''],'' November 11, 1972. See also Turner, "Myths of the Vietnam War: The Pentagon Papers Reconsidered", ''Southeast Asian Perspectives'', No. 7 (Sep., 1972), pp. i-iv, 1-55: "Although no official figures were made public, the best estimates are that about fifty thousand people were executed, and several hundred thousands more died as a result of the "policy of isolation.""</ref> Historian Edwin Moise, who estimated that over 8,000 people were executed during the land reform,<ref>Moise, Edwin E. (1983), ''Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level'', Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. See also ''Triumph Revisited: Historians Battle for the Vietnam War'' (2010), Routledge, pg. 97.</ref> has defended this practice; asserting that the official communist newspapers of North Vietnam were "extremely informative" and "showed a fairly high level of honesty" when compared to those of other communist states.<ref>Edwin E. Moise, "Land Reform and Land Reform Errors in North Vietnam," Pacific Affairs, Spring 1976, pp70-92; also ''Land Reform in China and North Vietnam'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1983).</ref> Moise's denial that China played an important role in the reform is no longer accepted by modern scholarship.<ref>Qiang Zhai, ''China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), pp39ff, 75ff.</ref> Porter and ] argued that Hoang Van Chi used to be "employed and subsidized" by ] and the US, and challenged the reliability of translated North Vietnamese documents on which Chi's view was based on.<ref name="Chomsky"/> Turner defended Chi, noting that while he received a grant from the ] (which was later revealed to have been funded by the ]), there was no evidence this affected his conclusions.<ref name="Turner"/> Chi opined that "Mr. Porter studies....a few propaganda booklets published by ]....I lived through the whole process, and I described what I saw with my own eyes."<ref name="Hoang">Teodoru, Daniel and Hoang Van Chi, , "National Student Coordinating Committee", December 20, 1972.</ref> Both Chi and Turner noted that Porter barely could not speak Vietnamese (despite his claim that sources about the land reform were mistranslated), and that he relied on sometimes inaccurate English translations of ''Nhan Dan'' done by the ] (as well as English-language propaganda meant to encourage anti-war groups).<ref name="Hoang"/><ref name="Turner"/> Chomsky cited Colonel Nguyen Van Chau, head of the Central Psychological War Service for the ] from 1956 to 1962, who claimed that early figures for the land reform were "100% fabricated" by the intelligence services of Saigon.<ref name="Chomsky">Chomsky, A. Noam (1979), ''The Political Economy of Human Rights'', Vol. I, South End Press, Boston, pg. 342-343.</ref> Chau was one of dozens of officers dismissed from their positions while under investigation in South Vietnam;<ref>''New York Times'', ''Los Angeles Times'', November 23, 1963.</ref> he later made public appearances alongside North Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and French Communist Party representatives.<ref>''Vietnam News Agency'', Paris, December 21, 1972.</ref> Recent scholarship from Vietnam also suggests that a larger number of landlords were persecuted than previously believed.<ref name="History"/> According to Balazs Szalontai, official statistics provided by the North Vietnamese government to Hungarian officials generally support Moise's lower estimates.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Szalontai|first=Balazs|title=Political and Economic Crisis in North Vietnam, 1955–56|journal=Cold War History|volume=5|number=4|date=November 2005|pages=395–426}}</ref> Janos Radvanyi, who visited Hanoi in 1959 as a member of the Hungarian Party-State delegation, was told that 60,000 people had been executed during the campaign.{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=143}}

Revision as of 20:46, 2 July 2015

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2015)

Land reform in North Vietnam was done between 1953 to 1956. It followed the program of land reform in China from 1946 to 1953.

Goal

The aim of the land reform program was to break the power of the traditional village elite, to form a new class of leaders, and redistribute the wealth (mostly land) to create a new class that has no ownership. It was an element of the Communist revolution.

Means

The reform led to allegations of many villagers being executed, land being taken away even from poor peasants, and of paranoia among neighbors. Several foreign witnesses testified to mass executions. A number of sources have suggested that about 30% of the "landlords" executed were actually communist party members. Former North Vietnamese government official Nguyen Minh Can, told RFA’s Vietnamese service: "The land reform was a massacre of innocent, honest people, and using contemporary terms we must say that it was a genocide triggered by class discrimination".

Between 50,000 and 172,000 perceived "class enemies" were executed. Testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. Declassified Politburo documents confirm that 1 in 1,000 North Vietnamese (i.e., about 14,000 people) were the average quota targeted for execution during the earlier "rent reduction" campaign; the number killed during the multiple stages of the considerably more radical "land reform" was probably many times greater. Lam Thanh Liem, a major authority on land issues in Vietnam, conducted multiple interviews in which communist cadres gave estimates for land reform executions ranging from 120,000 to 200,000. Such figures match the "nearly 150,000 houses and huts which were allocated to new occupants". Landlords were arbitrarily classified as 5.68% of the population, but the majority were subject to less severe punishment than execution. Official records from the time suggest that 172,008 "landlords" were identified as such during the "land reform", of whom 123,266 (71.66%) were later found to be wrongly classified. Victims were reportedly shot, beheaded, and beaten to death; "some were tied up, thrown into open graves and covered with stones until they were crushed to death". The full death toll was even greater because victims' families starved to death under the "policy of isolation." As communist defector Le Xuan Giao explained: "There was nothing worse than the starvation of the children in a family whose parents were under the control of a land reform team. They isolated the house, and the people who lived there would starve. The children were all innocent. There was nothing worse than that. They wanted to see the whole family dead." Former Viet Minh official Hoang Van Chi wrote that as many as 500,000 North Vietnamese may have died as a result of the land reform.

Gareth Porter wrote The Myth of the Bloodbath, claiming that the death toll was only in the thousands but was criticized by historian Robert F. Turner for relying on official communist sources. Turner argued that the death toll "was certainly in six digits." Historian Edwin Moise, who estimated that over 8,000 people were executed during the land reform, has defended this practice; asserting that the official communist newspapers of North Vietnam were "extremely informative" and "showed a fairly high level of honesty" when compared to those of other communist states. Moise's denial that China played an important role in the reform is no longer accepted by modern scholarship. Porter and Noam Chomsky argued that Hoang Van Chi used to be "employed and subsidized" by South Vietnam and the US, and challenged the reliability of translated North Vietnamese documents on which Chi's view was based on. Turner defended Chi, noting that while he received a grant from the Congress for Cultural Freedom (which was later revealed to have been funded by the Central Intelligence Agency), there was no evidence this affected his conclusions. Chi opined that "Mr. Porter studies....a few propaganda booklets published by Hanoi....I lived through the whole process, and I described what I saw with my own eyes." Both Chi and Turner noted that Porter barely could not speak Vietnamese (despite his claim that sources about the land reform were mistranslated), and that he relied on sometimes inaccurate English translations of Nhan Dan done by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (as well as English-language propaganda meant to encourage anti-war groups). Chomsky cited Colonel Nguyen Van Chau, head of the Central Psychological War Service for the South Vietnamese army from 1956 to 1962, who claimed that early figures for the land reform were "100% fabricated" by the intelligence services of Saigon. Chau was one of dozens of officers dismissed from their positions while under investigation in South Vietnam; he later made public appearances alongside North Vietnamese, Viet Cong, and French Communist Party representatives. Recent scholarship from Vietnam also suggests that a larger number of landlords were persecuted than previously believed. According to Balazs Szalontai, official statistics provided by the North Vietnamese government to Hungarian officials generally support Moise's lower estimates. Janos Radvanyi, who visited Hanoi in 1959 as a member of the Hungarian Party-State delegation, was told that 60,000 people had been executed during the campaign.

Outcomes

This land reform (1953–1956) redistributed land to more than 2 million poor peasants, but at a very high cost. More than 1 million North Vietnamese people fled to the South, due in part to the land reform. Western sources reported that between a few hundred thousand to several million North Vietnamese were prevented from leaving by Viet Minh soldiers, while Ho Chi Minh's regime maintained that "French colonialists" had "coerced or bribed" many of the refugees.

See also

References

  1. Tongas, Gérard. J'ai vécu dans l'enfer communiste au Nord Viet-Nam. Paris, Nouvelles Éditions Debresse, (1960).
  2. Boudarel, Georges. Cent fleurs écloses dans la nuit du Vietnam: communisme et dissidence, 1954-1956. Paris: J. Bertoin, (1991).
  3. Nhan Dan, August 13, 1957.
  4. Time, July 1, 1957, p. 13, says they were given a proper burial.
  5. Gittinger, J. Price, "Communist Land Policy in Viet Nam", Far Eastern Survey, Vol. 29, No. 8, 1957, p. 118.
  6. Lam Thanh Liem (1990), "Chinh sach cai cach ruong dat cua Ho Chi Minh: sai lam hay toi ac?" in Jean-Francois Revel et al., Ho Chi Minh, Nam A, pp. 179-214.
  7. Dommen, Arthur J. (2001), The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans, Indiana University Press, p. 340.
  8. RFA. "Vietnamese Remember Land Reform Terror" June 8, 2006.
  9. Bernard B. Fall (1967), The Two Vietnams: A Political and Military Analysis (London: Pall Mall Press, 2nd rev. ed.), p. 156.
  10. Turner 1975, p. 142-143.
  11. ^ The History of the Vietnamese Economy (2005), Vol. 2, edited by Dang Phong of the Institute of Economy, Vietnamese Institute of Social Sciences.
  12. ^ Turner 1975, p. 143.
  13. Alec Holcombe, Politburo's Directive Issued on May 4, 1953, on Some Special Issues regarding Mass Mobilization Journal of Vietnamese Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 243-247, quoting a translated Politburo directive from May 4, 1953. This directive was published in Complete Collection of Party Documents (Van Kien Dang Toan Tap), a 54 volume work authorized by the Vietnamese Communist Party.
  14. Lam Thanh Liem (1990), "Chinh sach cai cach ruong dat cua Ho Chi Minh: sai lam hay toi ac?" in Jean-Francois Revel et al., Ho Chi Minh, Nam A, pp. 179-214.
  15. Dang Chi Hung. "Nhung su that khong the choi bo". Retrieved 2 July 2015.
  16. Readers Digest, The Blood-Red Hands of Ho Chi Minh, November 1968.
  17. Nhan Vhan, November 5, 1956: "In the agrarian reform, illegal arrests, imprisonments, investigations (with barbarous torture), executions, requisitions of property, and the quarantining of landowners’ houses (or houses of peasants wrongly classified as landowners), which left innocent children to die of starvation, are not exclusively due to the shortcomings of the leadership, but also due to the lack of a complete legal code. If the cadres had felt that they were closely observed by the god of justice... calamities might have been avoided for the masses." Nhan Vhan was one of the best-known opposition periodicals that was allowed during the three-month period of relative intellectual freedom in the fall of 1956, modeled on Mao's "Hundred Flowers" campaign.
  18. ^ Turner, Robert F. "Expert Punctures 'No Bloodbath' Myth". Human Events, November 11, 1972. Cite error: The named reference "Turner" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. Hoang Van Chi (1962), From Colonialism to Communism: A Case Study of North Vietnam, New York: Congress of Cultural Freedom.
  20. Porter, Gareth (1973). The Myth of the Bloodbath: North Vietnam's Land Reform Reconsidered. "Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars", September 1973, pp. 2-15
  21. Moise, Edwin E. (1983), Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. See also Triumph Revisited: Historians Battle for the Vietnam War (2010), Routledge, pg. 97.
  22. Edwin E. Moise, "Land Reform and Land Reform Errors in North Vietnam," Pacific Affairs, Spring 1976, pp70-92; also Land Reform in China and North Vietnam (University of North Carolina Press, 1983).
  23. Qiang Zhai, China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950-1975 (University of North Carolina Press, 2000), pp39ff, 75ff.
  24. ^ Chomsky, A. Noam (1979), The Political Economy of Human Rights, Vol. I, South End Press, Boston, pg. 342-343.
  25. ^ Teodoru, Daniel and Hoang Van Chi, Response to Gareth Porter, "National Student Coordinating Committee", December 20, 1972.
  26. New York Times, Los Angeles Times, November 23, 1963.
  27. Vietnam News Agency, Paris, December 21, 1972.
  28. Szalontai, Balazs (November 2005). "Political and Economic Crisis in North Vietnam, 1955–56". Cold War History. 5 (4): 395–426.
  29. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "The State of The World's Refugees 2000 – Chapter 4: Flight from Indochina" (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2007..
  30. Turner 1975, p. 102-103.

Bibliography

  • Turner, Robert F. (1975). Vietnamese Communism: It's Origins and Development. Hoover Institution Publications. ISBN 0-8179-1431-6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |ignore-isbn-error= ignored (|isbn= suggested) (help)

Further reading

The land reform in North Vietnam was documented by Hoang Van Chi in From Colonialism to Communism, first published in 1962 by the Congress of Cultural Freedom, in New York, London, and New Delhi. P. J. Honey wrote the Introduction for this work.

  • Bernard B. Fall, The Two Vietnams: A Political and Military Analysis (London: Pall Mall Press, 2nd rev. ed., 1967)

See also: Land reform in South Vietnam.

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