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| CAESAR STINKS BECKFEST | |||
| {{about|the Roman dictator of the 1st century BC|his relatives named Julius Caesar|Julii Caesares|other uses}} | |||
| {{redirect|Caesar}} | |||
| {{Infobox officeholder | |||
| | name = Gaius Julius Caesar | |||
| | image = File:César (13667960455).jpg | |||
| | caption = The ], perhaps the only surviving statue created during Caesar's lifetime. | |||
| | office = ] of the ] | |||
| | term_start = October 49 BC | |||
| | term_end = 15 March 44 BC{{efn|Caesar ruled as undisputed master of the Roman Republic from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. During the time, he served as either ] or ], or both}} | |||
| | office1 = ] of the ] | |||
| | term_start1 = 1 January 44 BC | |||
| | term_end1 = 15 March 44 BC | |||
| | alongside1 = ] | |||
| | predecessor1 = ] (Suffect)<br>and ] (Suffect) | |||
| | successor1 = ] (Suffect)<br>and ] | |||
| | term_start2 = 1 January 46 BC | |||
| | term_end2 = September 45 BC | |||
| | alongside2 = ] <small>(46 BC)</small> | |||
| | predecessor2 = ]<br>and ] | |||
| | successor2 = ] (Suffect)<br>and ] (Suffect) | |||
| | term_start3 = 1 January 48 BC | |||
| | term_end3 = 1 January 47 BC | |||
| | alongside3 = ] | |||
| | predecessor3 = ]<br>and ] | |||
| | successor3 = ]<br>and ] | |||
| | term_start4 = 1 January 59 BC | |||
| | term_end4 = 1 January 58 BC | |||
| | alongside4 = ] | |||
| | predecessor4 = ]<br>and ] | |||
| | successor4 = ]<br>and ] | |||
| | birth_date = 13 July 100 BC | |||
| | birth_place = ] | |||
| | death_date = 15 March 44 BC (aged 55) | |||
| | death_place = Rome | |||
| | resting_place = ], Rome | |||
| | party = ] | |||
| | spouse = {{plainlist| | |||
| * ] <small>(84~69 BC; her death)</small> | |||
| * ] <small>(68~63 BC; divorced)</small> | |||
| * ] <small>(59~44 BC; his death)</small>}} | |||
| | children = {{plainlist| | |||
| * ] <small>c.76–54 BC</small> | |||
| * ] <small>(disputed) 47–30 BC</small> | |||
| * ] <small>(adoptive) 63 BC–14 AD</small> }} | |||
| | parents = ] and ] | |||
| | religion = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''Gaius Julius Caesar'''{{efn|Julius Caesar's full name was ''Imperator Gaius Iulius Gaii filius Gaii nepos Caesar Patris Patriae'' "Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius, Father of his Country", {{IPA-la|ɪm.pɛˈraː.tɔr ˈgaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈgaː.i.iː ˈfiː.li.ʊs ˈgaː.i.iː ˈnɛ.poːs ˈkae̯.sar ˈpa.trɪs ˈpa.tri.ae̯|pron}} (Suetonius, ''Divus Julius'' 76.1). Official name after ] in 42 BC: ''Divus Iulius'' ("The Divine Julius").}} ({{IPA-la|ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar|classical}}; 13 July 100 BC <ref>There is some dispute over the year of Caesar's birth. Some scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favors 100 BC. Goldsworthy, .</ref> – 15 March 44 BC)<ref>After Caesar's death the leap years were not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about when leap years were observed between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive; the dates in this article between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive are those observed in ] and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to where those dates would be on the ]. See Blackburn, B and Holford-Strevens, L. (1999 corrected 2003). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 978-0-19-214231-3</ref> was a ] ], general and notable author of ] prose. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the ] and the rise of the ]. In 60 BC, Caesar, ], and ] formed a ] that was to dominate ] for several years. Their attempts to amass power through ] tactics were opposed by the ] within the ], among them ] with the frequent support of ]. Caesar's victories in the ], completed by 51 BC, extended Rome's territory to the ] and the ]. Caesar became the first Roman general to cross both when he built a ] and conducted the first ]. | |||
| These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the ] in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. Caesar refused the order, and instead marked his defiance in 49 BC by crossing the ] with a ], leaving his province and illegally entering ] under arms.<ref>{{cite book|last=Keppie|first=Lawrence|title=The making of the Roman Army: from Republic to Empire|year=1998|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|isbn=978-0-8061-3014-9|page=102|chapter=The approach of civil war}}</ref> ], and Caesar's victory in the war put him in an unrivaled position of power and influence. | |||
| After assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reforms, including the creation of the ]. He centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "] in perpetuity", giving him additional authority. But the underlying political conflicts had not been resolved, and on the ] (15 March) 44 BC, ] by a group of rebellious senators led by ]. A new series of ] broke out, and the ] was never fully restored. Caesar's adopted heir Octavius, later known as ], rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the civil war. Octavius set about solidifying his power, and the era of the ] began. | |||
| Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and from other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of ]. The later biographies of Caesar by ] and ] are also major sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict|author=Tucker, Spencer|publisher= ABC-CLIO|year= 2010 |page=68}}</ref> | |||
| ==Early life and career== | |||
| {{Main|Early life and career of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| ], Caesar's uncle]] | |||
| Caesar was born into a ] family, the ''] ]'', which claimed descent from ], son of the legendary ] prince ], supposedly the son of the goddess ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Froude|first=James Anthony|authorlink=James Anthony Froude|title=Life of Caesar|publisher=Project Gutenberg e-text|year=1879|page=67|url=http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext05/8cesr10.txt}} See also: Suetonius, '']'': ''Julius'' ; ], ''Roman History'' ; ], '']''</ref> The '']'' "Caesar" originated, according to ], with an ancestor who was born by ] (from the Latin verb to cut, ''caedere'', ''caes-'').<ref>], ''Natural History'' . The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century ('']'' ). Julius wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, ], lived long after he was born.</ref> The '']'' suggests three ]: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin ''caesaries''); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin ''oculis caesiis''); or that he killed an elephant (''caesai'' in Moorish) in battle.<ref>'']'': ''Aelius'' .</ref> Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name. | |||
| Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC.<ref>Goldsworthy, .</ref> Caesar's father, also called ], governed the province of ],<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; ], ''Caesar'' , ''Marius'' ; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' ; ''Inscriptiones Italiae'', 13.3.51–52</ref> and his sister ], Caesar's aunt, married ], one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.<ref>Plutarch, Marius </ref> His mother, ], came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.<ref name="plutsuet1">Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly,<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Pliny the Elder, ''Natural History'' </ref> so at 16, Caesar was the head of the family. His coming of age coincided with a ] between his uncle, Gaius Marius, and his rival ]. Both sides, whenever they were in the ascendancy, carried out bloody purges of their political opponents. While Marius and his ally, ], were in control of the city, Caesar was nominated to be the new ],<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Florus, ''Epitome of Roman History'' ]</ref> and married to Cinna's daughter ].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/ancient_history/personalities/rome/caesar/caesar.html|title= Julius Caesar |author= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> Following Sulla's final victory, though, Caesar's connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding.<ref>Canfora, p. 3</ref> The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the ]. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.<ref name="plutsuet1" /> | |||
| Feeling it much safer to be far away from Sulla should the Dictator change his mind, Caesar quit Rome and joined the army, serving under ] in Asia and ] in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the ] for his part in the ]. On a mission to ] to secure the assistance of King ] fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumors of an affair with the king arose, which Caesar would vehemently deny for the rest of his life.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; ], ''Roman History'' </ref> Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.<ref>William Smith, ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'': ''''</ref> | |||
| Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in ], a lower-class neighborhood of Rome.<ref name="suet46">Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> He turned to legal advocacy, and became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption. | |||
| ] stripped Caesar of the priesthood.]] | |||
| On the way across the ],<ref>Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (''Julius'' ). Plutarch (''Caesar'' ) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (''Roman History'' ) says merely that it happened when he was a young man.</ref> Caesar was kidnapped by ] and held prisoner.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 1–2</ref><ref></ref> He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of 20 ] of silver, he insisted they ask for 50.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator |author=Thorne, James |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |year=2003 |page=15}}</ref><ref>Freeman, 39</ref> After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity<ref>Freeman, 40</ref>—a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of ] to repel an incursion from the east.<ref>Goldsworthy, 77-78</ref> | |||
| On his return to Rome, he was elected military ], a first step in a political career. He was elected '']'' for 69 BC,<ref>Freeman, 51</ref> and during that year he delivered the ], and included images of her husband Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His wife, Cornelia, also died that year.<ref>Freeman, 52</ref> After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in ].<ref>Goldsworthy, 100</ref> While there he is said to have encountered a statue of ], and realized with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC,<ref>Goldsworthy, 101</ref> he married ], a granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of '']'', chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. Accusations of bribery were made by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> When ], who was consul that year, exposed ]'s ], several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.<ref>], ''Catiline War'' </ref> | |||
| After serving as '']'' in 62 BC, Caesar was appointed to govern ] (modern south-eastern Spain) as '']'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=E.C. |year=1958 |title=Caesar de Bello Gallico |volume=III |series=Cambridge Elementary Classics |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=Fto8AAAAIAAJ |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |publisher=] |page=10 |isbn= |accessdate= 26 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hammond |first=Mason |year=1966 |title=City-state and World State in Greek and Roman Political Theory Until Augustus |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=ujHHZCYh2c0C |location= |publisher=Biblo & Tannen |page=114 |isbn=9780819601766 |accessdate=26 December 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Suetonius |authorlink=Suetonius |year=2004 |title=Lives of the Caesars |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=Gs4DPMV7si0C |location= |publisher=Barnes & Noble |page=258 |others=Translated by J. C. Rolfe |series=Barnes and Noble Library of Essential Reading Series |isbn=9780760757581 |accessdate=26 December 2014}}</ref> though some sources suggest he held proconsular powers.<ref>], ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic'' (American Philological Association, 1952), vol. 2, pp. 180 and 173.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Colegrove |first1=Michael |year=2007 |title=Distant Voices: Listening to the Leadership Lessons of the Past |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=ey3ItBmvw6wC |publisher=] |page=9 |isbn=9780595472062 |accessdate=26 December 2014}}</ref> He was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to ], one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of ], Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus be open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as '']'' by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| Caesar was acclaimed '']'' in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their commander ''imperator'', an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the ] for a ]. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand ''in absentia'', but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.<ref>Plutarch, ''Julius'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ==Consulship and military campaigns== | |||
| {{Main|Military campaigns of Julius Caesar|First Triumvirate}} | |||
| ] depicting Julius Caesar, dated February–March 44 BC; the goddess ] is shown on the reverse, holding ] and a scepter.]] | |||
| In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates. The election was sordid – even ], with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favor of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative ].<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' ; Suetonius </ref> | |||
| Caesar was already in ]' political debt, but he also made overtures to ]. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the ] ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter ].<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Crassus'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Caesar also married again, this time ], who was the daughter of another powerful senator.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavorable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His ] had their ] broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. ] ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar."<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ], ], ], ], ]; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Cato the Younger'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the ] of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> With the help of political allies, Caesar later overturned this, and was instead appointed to govern ] (northern Italy) and ] (southeastern Europe), with ] (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.<ref>Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Crassus'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Cato the Younger'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ===Conquest of Gaul=== | |||
| {{Main|Gallic Wars}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion<ref>See Cicero's speeches ] for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense.</ref> or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of ] were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the ], with the help of a contingent of ] tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to Atticus'' ]; Julius Caesar, '']'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite ].<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The ] renewed the ] and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' ; Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Crassus'' , ''Pompey'' </ref> The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain. | |||
| In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite book|title=A History of the British Isles |author=Black, Jeremy |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan |year=2003 |page=6}}</ref> His intelligence information was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Appian, ''Gallic Wars'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances. However, poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.<ref>Cicero, ''Letters to friends'' ], ], ], ], ]; ''Letters to his brother Quintus'' ], ], ]; ''Letters to Atticus'' ], ], ]; Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| ] throws down his arms at the feet of Julius Caesar. Painting by ].]] | |||
| While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed ] of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Plutarch, ''Caesar'' , ''Pompey'' , ''Crassus'' ; Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' </ref> | |||
| While militarily just as strong as the Romans, the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and ]'s attempt in 52 BC to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late.<ref name="EB_The_Roman_Conquest">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215768/France/41196/The-press |title=France: The Roman conquest |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |website=] |publisher=] |access-date=April 6, 2015 |quote="Because of chronic internal rivalries, Gallic resistance was easily broken, though Vercingetorix’s Great Rebellion of 52 bce had notable successes."}}</ref><ref name="The_first_triumvirate_and_the_conquest_of_Gaul">{{cite web |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/88114/Julius-Caesar/9735/The-first-triumvirate-and-the-conquest-of-Gaul |title=Julius Caesar: The first triumvirate and the conquest of Gaul |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |website=] |publisher=] |access-date=February 15, 2015 |quote="Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. Rome’s military superiority lay in its mastery of strategy, tactics, discipline, and military engineering. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late."}}</ref> Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the ] finally forced his surrender.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> Despite scattered outbreaks of ] the following year,<ref>], ''Commentaries on the Gallic War'' ]</ref> Gaul was effectively conquered. ] claimed that the army had fought against three million men during the ], of whom one million died, and another million were ]. The Romans subjugated 300 tribes and destroyed 800 cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/p/plutarch/lives/chapter48.html|title=Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans, by Plutarch (chapter48)}}</ref> However, in view of the difficulty in finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts,{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} the stated totals of enemy combatants are likely to be too high.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}. | |||
| ===Civil war=== | |||
| {{Main|Caesar's Civil War}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In 50 BC, the ], led by ], ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished.<ref name=Sue28>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. In January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the ] river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only ] and ignited ]. Upon ], Caesar, according to ] and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright ], in Greek, "]".<ref name=Plu65>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> ], however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek ] would be "''alea iacta esto''", '''let''' the die be cast.<ref name="FrijhoffSperna Weiland1988">{{cite book|last1=Thomson|first1=D. F. S.|last2=Sperna Weiland|first2=Jan|editor=Weiland, J. S.|title=Erasmus of Rotterdam: the man and the scholar|year=1988|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden, Netherlands|isbn=90-04-08920-9|page=161|chapter=Erasmus and textual scholarship: Suetonius}}</ref> Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in his newly raised troops. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture him before his legions could escape.<ref name=Plu35>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> | |||
| Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Heading for ], Caesar left Italy under the control of ]. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, in July 48 BC in the ], Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey ], in Greece.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> | |||
| ]'', 1866 painting by ]]] | |||
| In Rome, Caesar was appointed ],<ref name=Plu37>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> with Mark Antony as his ] (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship.<ref name=Plu37/><ref name="Dictator">Martin Jehne, ''Der Staat des Dicators Caesar'', Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38.</ref> Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, Caesar was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears.<ref>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' </ref> He then had Pompey's assassins put to death.<ref name=PluPom77>Plutarch, ''Pompey'' </ref> | |||
| Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, ]. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the ] and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the ] in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the ] in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.<ref name="Salisbury 2001 52">{{cite book|last=Salisbury|first=Joyce E|title=Women in the ancient world|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn=1-57607-092-1|page=52|chapter=Cleopatra VII}}</ref> | |||
| Caesar and Cleopatra were not married. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and probably fathered a son called ]. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the ].<ref name="Salisbury 2001 52"/> | |||
| Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year.<ref name="Dictator"/> After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of ]; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited from 27 to 29 May 47 BC, (25–27 May<sup>]</sup>) ], where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to ], ] was planning to kill him at this point.<ref>Caesar: a history of the art of war among the Romans down to the end of the Roman empire, with a detailed account of the campaigns of Caius Julius Caesar, page 791, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, Greenhill Books, 1995. ISBN 9781853672163</ref><ref>Paul: The Man and the Myth, page 15, Studies on personalities of the New Testament Personalities of the New Testament Series, Calvin J. Roetzel, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999. ISBN 9780567086983</ref><ref>Julius Caesar, page 311, Philip Freeman, Simon and Schuster, 2008. ISBN 9780743289535</ref> Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> | |||
| After this victory, he was appointed Dictator for 10 years.<ref>Martin Jehne, ''Der Staat des Dicators Caesar'', Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38. Technically, Caesar was not appointed Dictator with a term of 10 years, but he was appointed annual dictator for the next 10 years in advance.</ref> Pompey's sons escaped to Spain; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the ] in March 45 BC.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague). | |||
| ==Dictatorship and assassination== | |||
| While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honors on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honor Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew ] (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, ] would be the next heir in succession.<ref>Appian, ''The Civil Wars'' </ref> In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome. | |||
| During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of ], the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiraled out of control, and the ''status quo'' had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system that had made its members rich.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} | |||
| Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his ] in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref> First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the empire. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together the entire empire into a single cohesive unit.<ref name="Abbott, 133" /> | |||
| The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.<ref name="Abbott, 133" /> To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.<ref name=Sue40 /> | |||
| ===Dictatorship=== | |||
| When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him ] for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, ], and ], rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went Caesar's way. When ], Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' 43.19.2–3; ], ''Civil Wars'' 2.101.420</ref> ] were held, with ] involving 400 lions, and ]. A ] was held on a flooded basin at the ].<ref name="ReferenceA">J.F.C. Fuller, ''Julius Caesar, Man, Soldier, Tyrant", Chapter 13</ref> At the ], two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and that jurors could only come from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| The ], with its ], was then built, among many other public works.<ref name="Julius Caesar, Venus Genetrix, and the Forum Iulium ">{{cite AV media | url=https://class.coursera.org/romanarchitecture-001/lecture/97 | title=Julius Caesar, Venus Genetrix, and the Forum Iulium | publisher=Yale University | people=Diana E. E. Kleiner | medium=Multimedia presentation}}</ref> Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidized grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.<ref>{{Cite book| title = Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History | author=Mackay, Christopher S. | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year = 2004 | page = 254}}</ref> From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.<ref>{{Cite book| title = The Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 337 | author=Campbell, J. B. | publisher=Routledge | year = 1994 | page = 10}}</ref> | |||
| The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar was then regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had left it in a mess. Caesar replaced this calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an ] at the end of February every fourth year.<ref name=Sue40>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the ] opened on 1 January 45 BC.<ref name="Sue40"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/> This calendar is almost identical to ]. | |||
| Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of ] and ]. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theater, and a library on the scale of the ].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| He also wanted to convert ] to a major port, and cut a canal through the ]. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the ]ns and ]ns, and avenge the loss at ]. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilization. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of ] was renamed July in his honor.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| He was granted further honors, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semiofficial or popular ], with Mark Antony as his ].<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| ====Political reforms==== | |||
| {{Main|Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the ] and the ], but alternated between the ] and the ]ship.<ref name="Abbott, 134" /> His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies.<ref name="Abbott, 134" /> He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.<ref name="Abbott, 136">Abbott, 136</ref> | |||
| In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,<ref name="Abbott, 135">Abbott, 135</ref> which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,<ref name="Abbott, 135" /> although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office.<ref name="Abbott, 135" /> This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.<ref name="Abbott, 135" /> | |||
| When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900.<ref name="Abbott, 137" /> All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him.<ref name="Abbott, 138">Abbott, 138</ref> To minimize the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits.<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> | |||
| In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the '']''.<ref name="Abbott, 135" /> Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honors upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "'']''".<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> | |||
| Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings.<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters.<ref name="Abbott, 137" /> | |||
| Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This addressed the underlying problem that had caused the ] decades earlier, where individuals outside Rome and Italy were not considered "Roman", thus were not given full citizenship rights. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the emperor Augustus. | |||
| In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator for life. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants,<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy.<ref name="Abbott, 136" /> In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul without a colleague.<ref name="Abbott, 137">Abbott, 137</ref> | |||
| ] (42 BC) issued by '''Cassius Longinus''' and ], depicting the crowned head of ] and on the reverse a sacrificial jug and '']'', from the military mint in ]]] | |||
| Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the ]. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC.<ref name="Abbott, 137" /> This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.<ref name="Abbott, 137" /> | |||
| ===Assassination=== | |||
| {{See also|Assassination of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| On the ] (15 March; see ]) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified ''liberator'' named ], and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for ] to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the ], where the session was to be held, and detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns this action to delay Antony to ].) When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huzar|first=Eleanor Goltz|title=Mark Antony, a biography By Eleanor Goltz Huzar|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|location=Minneapolis, MN|year=1978|pages=79–80|isbn=978-0-8166-0863-8}}</ref> | |||
| According to ], as Caesar arrived at the Senate, ] presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/m_brutus.html |title=Plutarch – Life of Brutus |publisher=Classics.mit.edu |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's ]. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("''Ista quidem vis est!''").<ref name = "suetonius">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html |title=Suetonius, ',Life of the Caesars, Julius', trans. J C Rolfe |publisher=Fordham.edu |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> | |||
| ] encircle Caesar, a 19th-century interpretation of the event by ]]] | |||
| At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Caesar'', ch. 66: "{{lang|grc|ὁ μεν πληγείς, Ῥωμαιστί· 'Μιαρώτατε Κάσκα, τί ποιεῖς;}}'"</ref> Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in ] ("{{lang|grc|ἀδελφέ, βοήθει}}", "''adelphe, boethei''"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to ], around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.<ref>Woolf Greg (2006), ''Et Tu Brute? – The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination'', 199 pages – ISBN 1-86197-741-7</ref> | |||
| According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'', c. 82.</ref> | |||
| The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "{{lang|grc|καὶ σύ, τέκνον;}}"<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> (transliterated as "''Kai su, teknon?''": "You too, child?" in English). However, for himself, Suetonius says Caesar said nothing.<ref>From the ] translation of 1914: "...he was stabbed with three and twenty wounds, uttering not a word, but merely a groan at the first stroke, though some have written that when ] rushed at him, he said in Greek, 'You too, my child?".</ref> | |||
| Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> The version best known in the English-speaking world is the ] phrase "'']''" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?");<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stone|first=Jon R.|title=The Routledge Dictionary of Latin Quotations|publisher=Routledge|location=London|year=2005|page=250|isbn=0-415-96909-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Morwood|first=James|title=The Pocket Oxford Latin Dictionary (Latin-English)|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|year=1994|chapter=|isbn=0-19-860283-9 }}</ref> this derives from Shakespeare's '']'', where it actually forms the first half of a ] line: "''Et tu, Brute?'' Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular when the play was written.<ref>It appears, for example, in ]'s Latin play ''Caesar Interfectus'' of 1582 and ''The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke &tc'' of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. {{Cite book|title=The Works of William Shakespeare |last=Dyce |first=Alexander |authorlink= Alexander Dyce|coauthors=(quoting ]) |year= 1866|publisher=Chapman and Hall |location= London|isbn= |page= 648|url= }}</ref> | |||
| <!-- Greek and Latin translation by J C Rolfe of ]. Et can also mean too, when it is used as an adverb. see Lewis & Short Latin dictionary--> | |||
| According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumor of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it. | |||
| Caesar's body was cremated, and on the site of his cremation, the ] was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the ]). Only its altar now remains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anamericaninrome.com/wp/2011/07/caesars-grave/ |title=Temple of Caesar |publisher=Anamericaninrome.com |accessdate=8 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7181 |title=Temple of Caesar |publisher=Findagrave.com |accessdate=8 January 2012}}</ref> | |||
| A lifesize wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighboring buildings. In the ensuing chaos, Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire. | |||
| ===Aftermath of the assassination=== | |||
| The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> The Roman ], with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the '']'', perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the ], fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_suetcaesar.htm |title=Suetonius, Life of Caesar, Chapters LXXXIII, LXXXIV, LXXXV |publisher=Ancienthistory.about.com |date=29 October 2009 |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref> Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with ] in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. | |||
| To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the ''lex Titia'' on 27 November 43 BC,<ref>{{Cite book| title = Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire | author=Osgood, Josiah | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 60}}</ref> the ] was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander ].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' ; Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> It formally ] Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became ''Divi filius'' ("Son of a god").<ref>{{Cite book| title = Roman Religion | author=Warrior, Valerie M. | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | page = 110 | isbn = 0-521-82511-3}}</ref> | |||
| Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of ], abandoned since Sulla.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.<ref>{{Cite book| title = Ancient Rome: An Introductory History | author=Zoch, Paul A. | publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | year = 200 | pages = 217–218| isbn = 0-8061-3287-6}}</ref> Antony and Octavius defeated them at ].<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' ; Appian, ''The Civil Wars'' </ref> | |||
| ], Caesar's adopted heir]] | |||
| Afterward, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at ], resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to the status of a deity.<ref>Florus, ''Epitome'' </ref> | |||
| Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade ], the ], and ], and then march back to ] through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' </ref> His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. | |||
| ===Deification=== | |||
| {{see also|Divus Julius|Caesar's Comet}} | |||
| Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title ''Divus Iulius'' or ''Divus Julius'' (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The ] during ] was taken as confirmation of his divinity. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honors during his lifetime:<ref>Cicero, ''Phillipic'' ii.110: Cicero refers to the divine honours of : "...couch, image, pediment, priest" given to Caesar in the months before his assassination.</ref> and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his '']'' (priest).<ref>According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4.</ref> Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of'' Divus Iulius''. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of ''Divi Filius'' (son of a god). | |||
| ==Personal life== | |||
| ===Health and physical appearance=== | |||
| Based on remarks by Plutarch,<ref>Plutarch, ''Caesar'' 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, ''Julius'' 45.</ref> Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from ]. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.<ref>Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," ''Historia'' 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," ''Glasgow Medical Journal'' 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,” ''Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine'' 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers ]; and O. Temkin, ''The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology'' (Baltimore 1971), p 162.</ref> Several specialists in headache medicine believe that instead of epilepsy, a more accurate diagnosis would be migraine headache.<ref>Seymour Diamond and Mary Franklin, ''Conquering Your Migraine: The Essential Guide to Understanding and Treating Migraines for all Sufferers and Their Families'', (New York: Fireside, 2001), 19.</ref> Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a ] by a tapeworm.<ref name="bruschi">{{cite journal | |||
| | last =Bruschi | |||
| | first =Fabrizio | |||
| | title = Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis? | |||
| | journal =Trends in Parasitology | |||
| | volume =27 | |||
| | issue =9 | |||
| | pages =373–374 | |||
| | publisher =Cell Press | |||
| | year =2011 | |||
| | url =http://www.researchgate.net/publication/51493212_Was_Julius_Caesar's_epilepsy_due_to_neurocysticercosis?ev=prf_pub | |||
| | accessdate =2 May 2013 | |||
| | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.001}}</ref><ref name="mclachlan">{{cite journal | |||
| | last =McLachlan | |||
| | first =Richard S. | |||
| | title = Julius Caesar's Late Onset Epilepsy: A Case of Historic Proportions | |||
| | journal =Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences | |||
| | volume =37 | |||
| | issue =5 | |||
| | pages =557–561 | |||
| | publisher =Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences Inc. | |||
| | year =2010 | |||
| | url =http://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=P2Ajl5d3oe6ha3MO8EF&page=1&doc=2 | |||
| | accessdate =11 May 2013 }}</ref> | |||
| Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had ]s in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of ], which can cause epileptoid seizures.<ref name="Hughes2004Caesar">{{Cite journal|author=Hughes J|title=Dictator Perpetuus: Julius Caesar—did he have seizures? If so, what was the etiology?|journal=Epilepsy Behav|volume=5|issue=5|pages=756–64|year=2004|pmid=15380131 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.05.006|last2=Atanassova|first2=E|last3=Boev|first3=K}}</ref><ref name="Gomez1995">{{Cite journal|author=Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J|title=Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?|journal=The Journal of the Florida Medical Association|volume=82|issue=3|pages=199–201|year=1995| pmid = 7738524}}</ref><ref name="epilepsiemuseumCaesar">{{cite web|url=http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/alt/caesaren.html|title=Gaius Julius Caesar|accessdate=28 August 2008|author=H. Schneble|date=1 January 2003|publisher=German Epilepsy Museum}}</ref> | |||
| In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of ] and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hodder|first=Harbour Fraser|date=September 2003|title=Epilepsy and Empire, Caveat Caesar|journal=Accredited Psychiatry & Medicine|publisher=Harvard University|location=Harvard, Boston|volume=106|issue=1|page=19|url=http://www.forensic-psych.com/articles/artHarvardMagCaesar.php}}</ref> | |||
| A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: ''Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf''.<ref>William Shakespeare, ''Julius Caesar'' I.ii.209.</ref> No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defense.<ref>Plutarch, ''Alexander'' 42; Jeremy Paterson discussing Caesar's health in general in "Caesar the Man," ''A Companion to Julius Caesar'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), p. 130 </ref> | |||
| The Roman historian ] describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes."<ref>], ''Life of Caesar'' : ''excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis.''</ref> | |||
| ===Name and family=== | |||
| {{Main|Etymology of the name of Julius Caesar|Julio-Claudian family tree}} | |||
| Using the ] of the period, which lacked the letters ''J'' and ''U'', Caesar's name would be rendered ''GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR''; the form ''CAIVS'' is also attested, using the older Roman representation of ''G'' by ''C''. The standard abbreviation was ''C. IVLIVS CÆSAR'', reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform ''Æ'' is a ] of the letters ''A'' and ''E'', and is often used in Latin ]s to save space.) | |||
| In Classical Latin, it was ] {{IPA-la|ˈɡaːjus ˈjuːljus ˈkajsar|}}. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to ] for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, ]. In ], during Caesar's time, his family name was written ''Καίσαρ'', reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German ]. | |||
| In ], the ] /k/ before ]s began, due to ], to be pronounced as an ], hence renderings like {{IPA|}} in ] and {{IPA|}} in ] ], as well as the title of ]. With the evolution of the ], the affricate became a ] (thus, {{IPA|}}) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. The original /k/ is preserved in ], where he is manifested as the legendary king ].<ref name="carlaz">Anderson, Carl Edlund. (1999). {{PDFlink|. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic, p. 44.|308 KB}}</ref> | |||
| Caesar's ] itself became a title; it was promulgated by the ], which contains the famous verse "] the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became ] in ] and ] or Czar in the ]. The last tsar in nominal power was ], whose reign ended in 1946. This means that for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. | |||
| {{Wide image|Roman families 4 Nov 08.png|1000px|Julio-Claudian family tree}} | |||
| ;Parents | |||
| * Father ] (proconsul of ] in 90s BC) | |||
| * Mother ] (related to the ]) | |||
| ;Sisters | |||
| * ] (the elder) | |||
| * ] (the younger) | |||
| ;Wives | |||
| * First marriage to ], from 83 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC | |||
| * Second marriage to ], from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC | |||
| * Third marriage to ], from 59 BC until Caesar's death | |||
| ;Children | |||
| ]]] | |||
| * ], with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC | |||
| * ], with ], born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus. | |||
| * ''adopted'': ], his great-nephew by blood (grandson of ]), who later became Emperor Augustus. | |||
| * ]: The historian ] notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother ] had been Caesar's lover during their youth.<ref>], ''Brutus'' </ref> | |||
| * ], the daughter of Caesar's lover ] was believed by ] among other contemporaries, to be Caesar's natural daughter. | |||
| ;Grandchildren | |||
| * Grandson from ] and ], dead at several days, unnamed. | |||
| ;Lovers | |||
| * ], mother of ] | |||
| * ], mother of Brutus | |||
| * ], queen of ] and wife of ]es | |||
| ;Notable relatives | |||
| * ] (married to his paternal aunt ]) | |||
| * ] (his relative through Antony's mother ]) | |||
| * ] (his third-cousin) | |||
| * ], a ] of the ] at the time of the ] of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the ].<ref>], '']'' ]</ref> | |||
| ===Rumors of homosexual practices=== | |||
| Roman society viewed the passive role during ], regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."<ref name="Suet.1.49">Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> According to Cicero, ], ], and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with ] early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to ], even under oath on one occasion.<ref name="Suet.1.2">Suetonius, ''Julius'' ; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' </ref> This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} | |||
| ] wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer ] were lovers,<ref>], ''Carmina'' , </ref> but later apologised.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' </ref> | |||
| ] charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political ]. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor.<ref name="Suet.2.68">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' , </ref> | |||
| ==Literary works== | |||
| During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin — even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.<ref>Cicero, ''Brutus'', 252.</ref> Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are ] for his paternal aunt ] and his '']'', a document written to defame ] in response to Cicero's published praise. ] are also mentioned in ancient sources.<ref>Edward Courtney, ''The Fragmentary Latin Poets'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 153–155 and 187–188. See also ].</ref> | |||
| ===Memoirs=== | |||
| ] | |||
| * The '']'', usually known in English as ''The Gallic Wars,'' seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by ] on the last two years. | |||
| * The '']'' (''The Civil War''), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. | |||
| Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: | |||
| * '']'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria; | |||
| * '']'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa; and | |||
| * '']'' (''On the Hispanic War''), campaigns in the ]. | |||
| These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front." They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.<ref>T.P. Wiseman, “The Publication of ''De Bello Gallico'',” ''Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter'' (Classical Press of Wales, 1998).</ref> As a model of clear and direct Latin style, ''The Gallic Wars'' traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. | |||
| == Chronology of his life == | |||
| {{Timeline Julius Caesar}} | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| ===Historiography=== | |||
| The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete ] for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must struggle to filter the exaggerations and bias contained in it.<ref>Canfora, p. 10-11</ref> The Roman emperor ] began a ] of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when Caesar's epoch is considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias.<ref>Canfora, p. 10</ref> | |||
| Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. ] wrote the scholary work '']'', which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. ] ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the ''Gallic Wars'' in 1480. ] ordered a topographic study in France, to place in Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan ] catalogued the surviving editions of the ''Commentaries'', and translated them to Turkish language. ] and ] of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; ] retranslated the first one afterwards.<ref>Canfora, pp. 11-12</ref> | |||
| ===Politics=== | |||
| {{Main|Caesarism}} | |||
| Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of '']'', a form of political rule led by a ]tic ] whose rule is based upon a ], whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent ], and being a regime involving prominence of the ] in the government.<ref name="Weber, 34" >{{Cite book | |||
| |title=Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber | |||
| |publisher=Transaction Publishers | |||
| |year=2008 | |||
| |ref={{harvid|Weber}} | |||
| |page=34 | |||
| }}</ref> Other people in history, such as the French ] and the Italian ], have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to ].<ref>Canfora, pp. 12-13</ref> The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. | |||
| ===Depictions=== | |||
| {{Main|Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar}} | |||
| <gallery> | |||
| File:César (13667960455).jpg|The ] | |||
| File:Jules cesar.jpg|The ] | |||
| File:Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC).JPG|Bust in ], photograph published in 1902 | |||
| Giulio-cesare-enhanced 1-800x1450.jpg|Bust in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples | |||
| File:C. Julius-Caesar (British Museum).gif|Bust of Julius Caesar from the ] | |||
| File:Rimini083.jpg|Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, ], Italy | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Notelist}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ===Primary sources=== | |||
| ====Own writings==== | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * in Latin and translation | |||
| * {{gutenberg author|id=Julius+Caesar | name=Julius Caesar}} | |||
| * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Julius Caesar}} | |||
| * {{Librivox author |id=2012}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ====Ancient historians' writings==== | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation, Dryden edition) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * (English translation) | |||
| * . (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe) | |||
| * (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ===Secondary sources=== | |||
| {{Spoken Misplaced Pages-3|10 January 2007|Jcaesar-pt1.ogg|Jcaesar-pt2.ogg|Jcaesar-pt3.ogg}} | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Abbott, Frank Frost|title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions|publisher=Elibron Classics|year=1901|isbn=0-543-92749-0}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Canfora, Luciano|title=Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator|publisher=]|year=2006|isbn=0-7486-1936-4|url=https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=ZeTEULUngZIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Julius+Caesar:+The+People%27s+Dictator&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAGoVChMIzq2809HyxgIVAoyQCh1zRgfJ#v=onepage&q&f=false}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|title=Julius Caesar |author=Freeman, Philip |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2008|isbn=0-7432-8953-6}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Fuller|first=J. F. C.|title=Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant|year=1965|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=]|title=Caesar: Life of a Colossus|publisher=]|year=2006|isbn=0-300-12048-6}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael_Grant_(author)|title=Julius Caesar|year=1969|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|title=The Twelve Caesars|year=1979|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|isbn=0-14-044072-0}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=] |title=]|publisher=Anchor Books|year=2003|isbn=1-4000-7897-0}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Jiménez, Ramon L.|title=Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War|publisher=Praeger|year=2000|isbn=0-275-96620-8}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Kleiner, Diana E. E.|title=Cleopatra and Rome|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=0-674-01905-9}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Meier, Christian|title=Caesar: A Biography|publisher=Fontana Press|year=1996|isbn=0-00-686349-3}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|author=Weinstock, Stefan|title=Divus Julius|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1971|isbn=978-0-19-814287-4}} | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|s=Author:Julius Caesar}} | |||
| * Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org) | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * at | |||
| * Grey, D. , Clio History Journal, 2009. | |||
| {{Clear}} | |||
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| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 59 BC | with = ] }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = ] | after2 = ] }} | |||
| {{S-vac | last = ] <br /><small>in 81 BC</small> | abeyance }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 49 BC }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = Himself <br /><small>in 48 BC</small> }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = ] | before2 = ] }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 48 BC | with = ] }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = ] | after2 = ] }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = Himself <br /><small>in 49 BC</small> }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 48–47 BC }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = Himself <br /><small>in 46 BC</small> }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = ] | before2 = ] }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 46 BC | with = ] }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = Himself <br /><small>''without colleague''</small> }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = Himself <br /><small>in 47 BC</small> }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 46–44 BC }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = Himself | as = ] (in 44 BC) }} | |||
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| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 45 BC }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = Himself | after2 = ] }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = Himself <br /><small>''without colleague''</small> }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 44 BC | with = ] }} | |||
| {{s-aft | after = ] | after2 = ] }} | |||
| {{S-bef | before = Himself | as = ] (in 44 BC) }} | |||
| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 44 BC }} | |||
| {{s-non | reason = Title abolished }} | |||
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| {{s-ttl | title = ] of the ] | years = 63–44 BC }} | |||
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| {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| <!--sorting using Roman naming conventions would give Julius, Gaius Caesar using gens name as most important naming element; (admittedly, this pattern would not actually have occurred during the period, since it is really a means of sorting a list for the modern era in English); however, since he is commonly known as Julius Caesar in English; this should be maintained--> | |||
| <!--He had documented seizures--> | |||
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Revision as of 18:21, 4 January 2016
CAESAR STINKS BECKFEST