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| {{About|the medieval religious military campaigns}} | |||
| {{Redirect|Crusaders}} | |||
| {{Use British English|date=October 2015}} | |||
| ] in 1135, showing crusader-held and neighbouring territories]] | |||
| {{Campaignbox Crusades}} | |||
| The '''Crusades''' were a series of intermittent military campaigns in the years from 1096 to 1487, sanctioned by various ]s. In 1095 the Byzantine Emperor, ], sent an ambassador to ] requesting military support in the ]' conflict with the westward migrating ] in ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicholson|2004|p=6}}</ref> The Pope responded by calling Catholics to join what later became known as the ]. One of Urban's stated aims was to guarantee pilgrims access to the holy sites in the ] that were under Muslim control while his wider strategy was to reunite the Eastern and Western branches of Christendom, divided after ], and establish himself as head of the united Church. This initiated a complex 200-year struggle in the region. | |||
| Hundreds of thousands of people from many different classes and nations of Western Europe became crusaders by taking a public vow and receiving ] from the church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nelson|2007|p=40}}</ref><ref name="Davies 1997, p. 358">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=358}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|p=1}}</ref> Some crusaders were peasants hoping for ] at ].<ref name="Cohn 1970, p. 61,64">{{Harvnb|Cohn|1970|p=61,64}}</ref> Pope Urban II claimed that anyone who participated was forgiven of their sins. In addition to demonstrating devotion to ], as stated by him, participation satisfied feudal obligations and provided opportunities for economic and political gain. Crusaders often pillaged the countries through which they traveled, and contrary to their promises the leaders retained much of this territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines.<ref name="Davies 1997, p. 358"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Hillenbrand|1999|pp=64–66}}</ref> | |||
| The ] prompted the murder of thousands of Jews, known as the ]. Constantinople was ] during the ], rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible for that time. Due to the weakening that resulted from the siege, the remnants of the ] ] to the ] in 1453. Western European potentates mounted no coherent response when the last Catholic stronghold in the region, ], ] in 1291.<ref name="Davies 1997, pp. 358">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=358}}</ref> | |||
| Opinions concerning the conduct of crusaders ] from laudatory to highly critical. The impact of the crusades was profound; they reopened the ] to commerce and travel, enabling ] and ] to flourish. Crusader armies would trade with the local populations while traveling, and ] Roman emperors often organized markets for crusaders moving through their territory. The Crusades consolidated the collective identity of the Latin Church under papal leadership, and were a source of heroism, ], and piety. This consequently spawned medieval romance, philosophy, and literature. However, the crusades reinforced the connection between Western Catholicism, ], and ], which was counter to the ] that Urban had promoted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=359}}</ref> | |||
| ==Terminology== | |||
| ]'' illuminated manuscript depicting Byzantine Greeks punishing ninth-century ]]] | |||
| '']'' is a modern term derived from the French ''croisade'' and Spanish ''cruzada''; by 1750, forms of the word "crusade" had established themselves in English, French, and German.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=258}}</ref> The '']'' records its first use in English in 1757 by William Shenstone.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=2–3}}</ref> When a crusader swore a vow (''votus'') to reach Jerusalem, they received a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn on their clothing. This "taking of the cross" became associated with the entire journey, and crusaders saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'' (journey) or ''peregrinatio'' (armed ]). The inspiration for this "] of the poor" was an expected mass ] at Jerusalem.<ref name="Cohn 1970, p. 61,64" /> | |||
| The ''numbering of the Crusades'' is debated, with some historians counting seven major Crusades and a number of minor ones from 1096 to 1291.<ref name="Davies 1997, p. 358" /> Others consider the ] of ] as two crusades, making the crusade launched by ] in 1270 the ]. Sometimes the Eighth Crusade is considered two, the second of which is the ]. | |||
| In the pluralistic view of the Crusades developed during the 20th century, "Crusade" encompasses all papal-sanctioned military campaigns in ] or in Europe.<ref name="Lock 2006 270">{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=270}}</ref> A key distinction between the Crusades and other holy wars was that the authorization for the Crusades came directly from the pope, who claimed to be working on behalf of Christ.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2009|p=27}}</ref> This takes into account the view of the Roman Catholic Church and medieval contemporaries, such as Saint ], which gives equal precedence to military campaigns undertaken for political reasons and to combat ] and ]. This broad definition includes the ], the ], the ], ], and the ].<ref name="Davies 1997, pp. 362–364">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=362–364}}</ref> A narrower view is that the Crusades were a defensive war in the ] against Muslims to free the Holy Land from Muslim rule.<ref name="Madden 2005 xii, 4, 8">{{Harvnb| Madden |2005 |pp= xii, 4, 8}}</ref> | |||
| Popes periodically declared political crusades as a means of conflict resolution amongst Roman Catholics; the first of these was declared by Pope Innocent III against ] in 1202.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=255–256}}</ref> Others include a crusade against the ], several (declared by a number of popes) against Emperor ] and his sons,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=172–180}}</ref> and two crusades against opponents of King ] who received the same privileges as participants in the Fifth Crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=167}}</ref> | |||
| A common term for ] was '']''; before the 16th century, the words "Muslim" and "Islam" were rarely used by Europeans.<ref name="Tolan2002xv">{{Harvnb|Tolan|2002|p=xv}}</ref> In Greek and Latin, "Saracen" originated in the early first millennium to refer to non-]s inhabiting the desert areas around the ].<ref name="Daniel197953">{{Harvnb|Daniel|1979|p=53}}</ref><ref name="Retso505">{{Harvnb|Retso|2003|pp=505–506}}</ref> The term evolved to include ], and by the 12th century it was an ethnic and religious marker synonymous with "Muslim" in ] literature.<ref name="Kahf 81">{{Harvnb|Kahf|1999|p=81}}</ref><ref name="Retso">{{Harvnb|Retso|2003|p=96}}</ref> ''Frank'' and '']'' were used during the Crusades for Western Europeans, distinguishing them from ''Greeks''.<ref>{{OED|Frank}}</ref><ref>{{OED|Latin}}</ref> | |||
| ==Historiography== | |||
| During the 16th-century ] and ], historians saw the Crusades through the lens of their own religious beliefs. ] saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the ], and ] viewed them as forces for good.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=257}}</ref> ] historians tended to view the ] in general, and the Crusades in particular, as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=259}}</ref> By the early ] in the 19th century, that harsh view of the Crusades and their era had softened;<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=261}}</ref> scholarship later in the century emphasised specialisation and detail.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=266}}</ref> | |||
| Eighteenth-century Enlightenment scholars and modern Western historians have expressed moral outrage at the conduct of the crusaders. ] wrote during the 1950s, "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed ... the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".<ref name="Runciman 1951 480">{{Harvnb|Runciman|1951|p=480}}</ref> The 20th century produced three important histories of the Crusades: by Runciman, ] and a multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=269}}</ref> During that century, two definitions of the Crusades developed; one includes all papal-led efforts in Western Asia and Europe,<ref name="Lock 2006 270"/> but historian ] wrote: "The crusade, first and foremost, was a war against Muslims for the defense of the Christian faith .... They began as a result of a Muslim conquest of Christian territories." Madden wrote that the goal of Pope Urban was that "he Christians of the East must be free from the brutal and humiliating conditions of Muslim rule."<ref name="Madden 2005 xii, 4, 8"/> | |||
| After the 1291 fall of ], European support for the Crusades continued despite criticism by contemporaries (such as ], who believed them ineffective: "Those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith").<ref>{{Harvnb|Rose|2009|p=72}}</ref> According to historian Norman Davies, the Crusades contradicted the ] supported by Urban and reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, ], and ]. The formation of military religious orders scandalised the Orthodox Byzantines, and crusaders pillaged countries they crossed on their journey east. Violating their oath to restore land to the Byzantines, they often kept the land for themselves.<ref name="Davies 1997, p. 358" /><ref>{{Harvnb| Kolbaba |2000|p=49}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb| Vasilev |1952|p=408}}</ref> The early ] instigated a ] in the Rhineland and the massacre of thousands of Jews in Central Europe; during the late 19th century, this crusade was used by some Jewish historians to support ].<ref>{{Harvnb|AlthoffFriedGeary|2002|pp=305–308}}</ref> The Fourth Crusade resulted in the ], effectively ending any chance of reconciling the ] and leading to the fall of the ] to the Ottomans. Enlightenment historians criticized the Crusades' misdirection—that of the Fourth in particular, which attacked a Christian power (the Byzantine Empire) instead of Islam. David Nicolle called the Fourth Crusade controversial in its "betrayal" of Byzantium,<ref>{{Harvnb|Nicolle|2011|p=5}}</ref> and in '']'' ] wrote that the crusaders' efforts would have been more effective improving their own countries.<ref name="Davies 1997, p. 358" /> | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| {{main|Muslim conquests|Great Seljuk Empire|Byzantine–Seljuk wars|Arab–Byzantine wars| Council of Clermont| Reconquista}} | |||
| ] at its greatest extent (1092)]] | |||
| After Muslim forces defeated the Byzantines at the ] in 636, control of Palestine passed through the ] and ] and the ].<ref>{{Harvnb| Wickham|2009|p=280}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|p=14}}</ref> Tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed until 1072, when the Fatimids lost control of Palestine to the rapidly-expanding ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|p=15}}</ref> Although the ] caliph ] ordered the destruction of the ], his successor allowed the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.<ref>{{Harvnb| Pringle|1999|p=157}}</ref> The Muslim rulers allowed pilgrimages by Catholics to sacred sites. Resident Christians were considered ] and intermarriage was not uncommon.<ref name = Findley2005p73>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=73}}</ref> Cultures and creeds coexisted and competed, but the frontier conditions were inhospitable to Catholic pilgrims and merchants.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=15–16}}</ref> The disruption of ]s by the conquering ] prompted support for the Crusades in Western Europe.<ref name = TolanVeinsteinHenry>{{harvnb| TolanVeinsteinHenry |2013|p=37}}</ref> | |||
| ]'s '']'', showing ] emperor ] ritually humiliating ] in 1071 after Manzikert; Alp Arslan allowed Romanos to return to ], where he was killed by the Byzantines.]] | |||
| The Byzantine Empire expanded at the end of the 10th century, with ] spending most of his half-century reign in conquest. Although he left a growing treasury, he neglected domestic affairs and ignored the cost of incorporating his conquests into the Byzantine '']''. None of Basil’s successors were militarily or politically talented, and the task of governing the Empire increasingly devolved to the civil service. Their efforts to spend the Byzantine economy back into prosperity triggered ]. To balance an increasingly unstable budget, Basil’s standing army was dismissed and his '']'' troops replaced by '']''. After the 1071 defeat of the Byzantine army at the ], the Seljuk Turks held nearly all of ] and the empire descended into frequent civil wars.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|p=97}}</ref> | |||
| The reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims began during the 8th century, reaching its turning point with the 1085 recapture of Toledo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bull|1999|pp=18–19}}</ref> Although at the 1095 ]<ref>{{Harvnb|Barber|1992|pp=341–345}}</ref> Urban II compared the Iberian wars to his First Crusade, it was not until ]'s 1123 ] that they attained crusade status.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=205–209}}</ref> After the encyclical, the papacy declared Iberian crusades in 1147, 1193, 1197, 1210, 1212, 1221, and 1229. Crusader privileges were also given to those aiding the major military orders (the ] and ]) and the Iberian orders which eventually merged with the two main orders: the ] and the ]. From 1212 to 1265, the Iberian Christian kingdoms drove the Muslims to the ] in the far south of the peninsula. In 1492 the ] was conquered, and Muslims and Jews were expelled from the peninsula.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=211}}</ref> | |||
| An aggressive, reformist papacy clashed with the Eastern Empire and Western secular monarchs, leading to the 1054 ]<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayer |1988|pp=2–3}}</ref> and the ] (which began around 1075 and continued during the First Crusade). The papacy began to assert its independence from secular rulers, marshaling arguments for the proper use of armed force by Catholics. The result was intense piety, an interest in religious affairs, and religious propaganda advocating a ] to reclaim Palestine from the Muslims. The majority view was that non-Christians could not be forced to accept Christian baptism or be physically assaulted for having a different faith, although a minority believed that vengeance and forcible conversion were justified for the denial of Christian faith and government.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2009|pp=10–11}}</ref> Participation in such a war was seen as a form of ] which could counterbalance sin.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=8–10}}</ref> In Europe, the Germans were expanding at the expense of the ]<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|p=31}}</ref> and ] was conquered by ] adventurer ] in 1072.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayer|1988|pp=17–18}}</ref> | |||
| ])]] | |||
| ] ] requested military aid (probably mercenaries to reinforce his '']'') from ] at the 1095 ] to fight the Seljuks, exaggerating the danger facing the Eastern Empire to secure his required troops.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayer|1988|pp=6–7}}</ref> On 27 November 1095 at the ], attended by nearly 300 French clerics, Urban raised the issues of the problems in the Εast and the struggle of the ] against the ]. Five major sources of information exist on the council: the anonymous '']'' (''The Deeds of the Franks'', dated about 1100–1101; ], who attended the council; ], who may have been present, and ] and ] (who were not). The accounts, written retrospectively, differ greatly.<ref>{{Harvnb| Strack |2012|pp=30–45}}</ref> In his 1106–7 ''Historia Iherosolimitana'', Robert the Monk wrote that Urban asked western Christians to aid the Byzantine Empire because "'']''" ("God wills it") and promised ] to participants; according to other sources, the pope promised an ]. In the accounts, Urban emphasizes reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the emperor and lists gruesome offences allegedly committed by Muslims. The crusade was preached across France; Urban wrote to those "waiting in ]" that the Turks, in addition to ravaging the "churches of God in the eastern regions", seized "the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrection—and blasphemy to say it—have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery". Although the pope did not explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusalem, he called for military "liberation" of the ] and appointed ] to lead the crusade (which began on 15 August, commemorating the ]).<ref>{{Harvnb| Riley-SmithRiley-Smith |1981 |p=38 }}</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| ===First Crusade (1096–1099) and immediate aftermath=== | |||
| {{Main|First Crusade| People's Crusade| Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Crusade of 1101|Norwegian Crusade|Bohemond I of Antioch#Wars between Antioch and the Byzantine Empire}} {{see also| Persecution of Jews in the First Crusade}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Pope Urban II in Rome in 1095 received an ambassador from Byzantine Emperor Alexius I in Constantinople seeking urgent help against the Turkish threat. The pope acted promptly and called a crusade with the goals of securing access to the Holy Sites, saying "All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them this through the power of God with which I am invested", prompting mass support.<ref>Bongars, ''Gesta Dei per Francos'', 1, pp. 382 f., trans in Oliver J. Thatcher, and Edgar Holmes McNeal, eds., ''A Source Book for Medieval History'', (New York: Scribners, 1905), 513-17</ref> Historian Paul Everett Pierson says he also "hoped that if the crusaders aided the Eastern Church by defeating the Turks, the Church would be reunited under his leadership.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Everett Pierson|title=The Dynamics of Christian Mission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OSJIyW7q2MC&pg=PA103|date= 2009|publisher=WCIU Press|page=103}}</ref> | |||
| Inspired by ]'s preaching, ] led as many as 20,000 people, mostly peasants, to the Holy Land shortly after Easter 1096.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=20–21}}</ref> When they arrived in Germany in spring 1096, units of crusaders commenced the ] in the cities of Speyer, Worms, Mainz and Cologne, despite the efforts by Catholic bishops to protect the Jews. Major leaders included ] and Peter the Hermit. The range of anti-Jewish activity was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous violence to full-scale military attacks on the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Chazan|1996|p=60}}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of ] in Europe and was cited by 19th-century Zionists as showing the need for a Jewish state.<ref>{{Harvnb|Slack|2013|pp=108–109}}</ref> When the group finally reached the Byzantine Empire, Emperor Alexios urged them to wait for the western nobles, but they insisted upon proceeding and fell to a Turkish ambush outside ], from which only about 3,000 people escaped.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|p=23}}</ref> | |||
| The official crusader armies departed from France and Italy in August and September 1096. The bulk of the army divided into four parts, which travelled separately to Constantinople.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=27–30}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=20–21}}</ref> With non-combatants included, the western forces may have contained as many as 100,000 people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=30–31}}</ref> The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=106–110}}</ref> The main army, mostly comprising French and Norman knights under baronial leadership, pledged to restore lost territories to the empire and marched south through ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=50–52}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|p=46}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=32–36}}</ref> The leaders of the First Crusade included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. The king of France and ], were in conflict with the Pope and did not participate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=25–26}}</ref> | |||
| The crusader armies initially fought the Turks at the ], which resulted in a crusader victory.<ref>Harpur, James The Crusades The Two Hundred Years War: The Clash Between the Cross and the Crescent in the Middle East 1096-1291 New York: Rosen, 2008. Print. p. 28-35</ref> A few months later, the crusaders re-engaged the Turks at the lengthy ], which began in October 1097 and lasted until June 1098. When they entered Antioch, the crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants and pillaged the city. However, a large Muslim army led by ] immediately besieged the victorious crusaders, who were now inside Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto successfully rallied the crusader army and defeated Kerbogha on 28 June.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=143–146}}</ref> Bohemond and his men retained control of the city, despite his pledge to Alexios.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mayer|1988|pp=60–61}}</ref> Most of the remaining crusader army marched south, moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=146–153}}</ref> | |||
| Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks, but the crusaders entered the city on 15 July 1099. They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians and also pillaged or destroyed mosques or the city itself.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=156–158}}</ref> In his ''Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem'', ] exalted actions which would be considered atrocities from a modern viewpoint.<ref name="Sinclair">{{Harvnb|Sinclair|1995|pp=55–56}}</ref> As a result of the First Crusade, four primary crusader states were created: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=50–51}}</ref> On a popular level, the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned, pious Catholic fury which was expressed in the ] that accompanied the crusades<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=23–24}}</ref> and the violent treatment of the "]" Orthodox Christians of the east.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=192–194}}</ref> | |||
| Following the First Crusade was a second, less successful crusade known as the ], in which Turks led by ] defeated the crusaders in three separate battles.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|p=42}}</ref> | |||
| ===12th century=== | |||
| {{Main|Second Crusade| Wendish Crusade| Third Crusade }} | |||
| In the early 12th-century, smaller scale crusading continued. ] promoted the ] of 1122–1124;<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=144–145}}</ref> Count ] visited in 1120 and 1129 and ] in 1124, leading to recognition of the ] by ]. In 1135 ]'s grant of crusading indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies is seen by some historians as the beginning of politically motivated crusades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=146–147}}</ref> The crusader states were initially secure, but ], who was appointed governor of ] in 1127, captured Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa (]) in 1144.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=104–105}}</ref> These defeats led ] to call for another crusade on 1 March 1145.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=144}}</ref> The new crusade was supported by various preachers, most notably by ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=71–74}}</ref> Armies from France and Germany, under ] and Conrad III, respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 and also besieged Damascus, but failed to win any major victories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=77–85}}</ref> Meanwhile, a group of crusaders from northern Europe stopped in Portugal and allied with the ], ], ] from the Muslims in 1147.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=75–77}}</ref> A detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count ] conquer the city of ] the following year.<ref>{{Harvnb| Villegas-Aristizabal |2009|pp=63–129}}</ref> | |||
| In the Holy Land, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to their countries by 1150 without any changes. Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged the Second Crusade in his preachings, was upset with the violence and slaughter directed toward the Jewish population of the Rhineland.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|p=77}}</ref> In 1172, ], ], made a pilgrimage that is sometimes considered a crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=151}}</ref> At the same time, ] and ] fought against ] in the ]. The Wends defeated the Danes; the Saxons did not make any considerable contributions to the crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=148}}</ref> The crusades continued, although no official papal bulls were issued authorizing new crusades.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=213}}</ref> Henry restarted efforts to conquer the Wends in 1160, and they were defeated in 1162.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=55–56}}</ref> | |||
| ] arriving in the Holy Land]] | |||
| ] created a united opposition force and presented a new threat to the Latin states.<ref>{{Harvnb|Holt|1983|pp=235–239}}</ref> Following his victory at the ], he easily overwhelmed the disunited crusaders in 1187 and ] on 29 September of that year. Terms were arranged and the city surrendered; Saladin entered the city on 2 October.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=343–357}}</ref> According to ], ] died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 upon hearing news of the defeat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|p=367}}</ref> On 29 October ] issued a ], '']'', proposing the ]. Planning to recapture Jerusalem, ], ], and ] organized their forces. Frederick died en route to Jerusalem, drowning in the Saleph River, and few of his men reached the Holy Land.<ref>Tyerman, Christopher The Crusades. New York: Sterling, 2007 Print. p.35-36</ref> The other two armies arrived successfully but were beset by political quarrels. Philip returned to France, leaving most of his forces behind. Richard conquered the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191 because the shipwreck survivors including his sister was taken prisoner by the island's ruler, ].<ref>{{harvnb|Flori|1999|p=132}}</ref> He then recaptured the city of ] after ]. The crusader army travelled south along the Mediterranean coast, defeated the Muslims near ], and recaptured the port city of ]. They were near Jerusalem, but supply shortages forced them to end the crusade without taking Jerusalem.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=151–154}}</ref> Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The terms allowed unarmed Catholics to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem and permitted merchants to trade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=512–513}}</ref> ], initiated the ] in 1197 to fulfil the promises made by his father, Frederick. Led by ], ], the army landed at Acre and captured the cities of ] and ]. However, most of the crusaders returned to Germany after Henry died.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=155}}</ref> | |||
| ===13th century=== | |||
| {{Main|Northern Crusades|Livonian Crusade|Prussian Crusade| Latin Empire|Frankokratia|Siege of Constantinople (1203)|Siege of Constantinople (1204)| Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Siege of Zara| Albigensian Crusade| Fourth Crusade| Fifth Crusade| Sixth Crusade| Bosnian Crusade| Barons' Crusade| Seventh Crusade| War of Saint Sabas| Eighth Crusade|Ninth Crusade| Sicilian Vespers}} | |||
| ] | |||
| When ] called for a crusade against ]an ] in 1193, Bishop ] led a large army to defeat and his death in 1198. In response to the defeat, ] issued a ] declaring a crusade against the mostly-pagan ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=82}}</ref> ], who was consecrated as bishop in 1199, arrived the following year with a large force and established Riga as the seat of his ] in 1201. In 1202 he formed the ] to help convert the pagans to Catholicism and, more importantly, to protect German commerce. The ] were conquered and converted between 1202 and 1209.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=84}}</ref> In 1217 ] declared a crusade against the Prussians,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=92}}</ref> and ] gave ] to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for the crusade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=96}}</ref> In 1236 the Livonian Knights were defeated by the Lithuanians at Saule, and in 1237 ] merged the remainder of the military order into the ] as the ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=103}}</ref> | |||
| By 1249 the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the ], whom they ruled as ]s of the German emperor. They then conquered and converted the Lithuanians, a process which lasted into the 1380s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=221–222}}</ref> The order tried unsuccessfully to conquer ] Russia, particularly the Republics of ] and ] (with the support of ]), as part of the Northern Crusades. In 1240 the Novgorod army defeated the Swedes in the ],<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=104}}</ref> and two years later they defeated the Livonian Order in the ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=221}}</ref> | |||
| Innocent III began preaching what became the Fourth Crusade in 1200 in France, England, and Germany, primarily in France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=502–508}}</ref> It was a vehicle for the political ambitions of Doge ] of Venice (a ] of Byzantium at the time) and German King ], who was married to Irene of Byzantium. Dandolo saw an opportunity to expand Venice's possessions in the Near East and break loose from Byzantine vassalage; Philip saw the crusade as a chance to restore his exiled nephew, ], to the throne of Byzantium.<ref name="Davies1997359">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=359–360}}</ref> Although the crusaders contracted with the Venetians for a fleet and provisions to transport them to the Holy Land, they were unable to pay when too few knights arrived in Venice. They agreed, therefore, to divert the crusade to Constantinople and share what could be looted as payment. As collateral, the crusaders seized the Christian city of ] on 24 November 1202 and were excommunicated by the appalled Innocent.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=158–159}}</ref> They met limited resistance in their initial siege of Constantinople, sailing down the ] and breaching the sea walls. Alexios IV Angelos was strangled after a palace coup, robbing them of success, and they repeated the siege in April 1204. This time the city was sacked, churches pillaged, and many citizens killed; the crusaders divided the empire into Latin fiefs and Venetian colonies. In the latter, the defence of La Cava and Nicosia was emphasised.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|1995|p=181}}</ref> In April 1205 the crusaders were defeated by the Bulgars and remaining Greeks at ], where ] captured and imprisoned new Latin emperor ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=159–161}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=554–561}}</ref> While deploring its methods, the papacy initially supported the apparent forced reunion of the Eastern and Western churches.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=531–532}}</ref> The Fourth Crusade effectively left two Roman Empires in the East: a Latin "Empire of the Straits" which existed until 1261 and a ] ruled from ], which regained control in the absence of the Venetian fleet. Venice was the sole beneficiary in the long run.<ref name="Davies1997360">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=360}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Although the ] was launched in 1208 to eliminate the ] of ] (present-day southern France), the decades-long struggle had as much to do with the desire of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with battling heresy. The Cathars were ultimately driven underground, and southern France lost its independence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=163–165}}</ref> In 1221 ] called on ] to ], and Hungarian forces responded to additional papal calls in 1234 and 1241; the latter campaign ended with the ]. The ] was theologically Catholic, but its schism with the Roman Catholic Church extended well past the end of the Middle Ages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=172–173}}</ref> Innocent III declared that a new crusade would begin in 1217, and summoned the ] in 1215. Most of the crusaders came from Germany, Flanders, and ], with a large army from Hungary led by Andrew II and additional forces led by Duke ]. Andrew and Leopold arrived in Acre in October 1217, but little was accomplished and Andrew returned to Hungary in January 1218. After the arrival of more crusaders, Leopold and king of Jerusalem ] laid siege to ] in Egypt;<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=168–169}}</ref> they captured it in November 1219. Further efforts by the ], ], to move further into Egypt were fruitless.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=179–180}}</ref> Blocked by ] ] ]'s forces, the crusaders were forced to surrender. Al-Kamil forced the return of Damietta, agreed to an eight-year truce, and the crusaders left Egypt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=561–562}}</ref> | |||
| ]'s '']'']] | |||
| After repeatedly breaking his vow to crusade, Emperor ] was excommunicated.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=169}}</ref> He finally sailed from ], landing at Acre in September 1228 following a stop in Cyprus.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=566–568}}</ref> Frederick agreed to a peace treaty with Al-Kamil which allowed Latin Christians to rule most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem, with the Muslims controlling their sacred areas in Jerusalem. In return Frederick pledged to protect Al-Kamil against all enemies, even if they were Christian.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|p=569}}</ref> Following the Sixth was the ], an effort by King ] in 1239 and 1240, originally summoned in 1234 by Gregory IX to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a truce. In addition to Theobald, ], ] and other French nobles participated. They arrived in Acre in September 1239. After a November defeat at ], Theobald arranged two treaties, one with the ] of ] and another with the Ayyubids of Egypt, which returned territory to the crusading states but caused disaffection among the crusaders. Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240; ], younger brother of King ], took the cross and arrived in Acre a few weeks later. After enforcing Theobald's treaty, Richard left the Holy Land for Europe in May 1241.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=173–174}}</ref> | |||
| During the summer of 1244 a ] force summoned by al-Kamil's son, ], stormed and took Jerusalem. The Franks allied with Ayyub's uncle ] and the ], and their combined forces went into battle at ] in ]. The crusader army and its allies were defeated within forty-eight hours by the Khwarezmian army.<ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2011|pp=574–576}}</ref> King ] organized a crusade after taking the cross in December 1244, preaching and recruiting from 1245 to 1248.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=770–775}}</ref> Louis' forces set sail from France in May 1249, landing in Egypt near Damietta on 5 June 1249. After the Nile floodwaters receded, the army marched into the interior in November and by February were near ]. They were defeated, and Louis was captured as he retreated towards Damietta.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hindley|2004|pp=194–195}}</ref> He was ransomed for 800,000 ]s, and a ten-year truce was agreed. Louis went to Syria, remaining there until 1254 to solidify and fortify the kingdom of Jerusalem.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=178}}</ref> | |||
| In 1256 the Venetians were evicted from Tyre, prompting the War of Saint Sabas over territory in Acre claimed by Genoa and Venice.<ref name=SS39>{{harvnb|Marshall|1994|pp=39}}</ref> Although the Venetians conquered the disputed territory (destroying Saint Sabas' fortifications), they could not expel the ]. During a 14-month blockade, Genoa allied with ], ], and the ] and Venice was supported by the ] and the Knights Templar.<ref name=SS10>{{harvnb|Marshall|1994|pp=10}}</ref> By 1261 the Genoese were expelled but ], concerned about the impact of the war on defence against the ], organised a peace council.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|1973|p=37}}</ref> The conflict resumed in 1264 when the Genoese received aid from ], ], and Venice unsuccessfully tried to conquer Tyre. Both sides used Muslim soldiers (primarily ]) against their Christian foes, and the Genoese forged an alliance with the Egyptian sultan ].<ref name=SS59>{{harvnb|Marshall|1994|pp=59}}</ref> The war significantly impaired the kingdom's ability to withstand external threats. Except for religious buildings, most fortified buildings in Acre were destroyed; at one point, the city looked as if it had been ravaged by a Muslim army. According to Rothelin, ] of ] ''History'', 20,000 men died in the conflict (when the crusader states were chronically short of soldiers). The war ended in 1270, and in 1288 Genoa regained its ] in Acre.<ref name=SS41>{{harvnb|Marshall|1994|pp=41}}</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In 1266 Louis IX' brother ] seized Sicily, previously-controlled parts of the eastern ], ], ]o, ], and ]. The ] was agreed with the exiled ] and ]; the heirs of both Latin princes would marry Charles' children, and if there were no heirs Charles would receive the empire and principality. Charles turned his brother's crusade to his own advantage, persuading Louis to direct the ] against Charles' rebel vassals in Tunis. Louis’ death, illness among the crusaders and a fleet-devastating storm forced Charles to postpone his designs on Constantinople. Michael VIII Palailogos was alarmed by Charles’ planned crusade to restore the Latin Empire, which had fallen in 1261, and Charles' expansion in the Mediterranean. Michael delayed Charles by beginning negotiations with ] for union of the Greek and the Latin churches. At the ] a union of the churches was declared, with Charles and ] compelled to form a truce with Byzantium. This union would later prove unacceptable to the Greeks. Michael also provided Genoa with funds to encourage revolt in Charles’ northern Italian territories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Baldwin|2014|p=}}</ref> In 1268 Charles executed ], great-grandson of ] and principal pretender to the throne of Jerusalem, when he seized Sicily from the Holy Roman Empire. Charles purchased the rights to Jerusalem from ], the only surviving grandchild of Queen Isabella, creating a claim rivalling that of ] (Isabella's great-grandson). | |||
| Charles spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean empire, and he and Louis saw themselves as God's instruments to uphold the papacy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Setton|1985|p=201}}</ref> Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in ]. The weather was hot, and his army was devastated by disease. Louis died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Strayer|1969|p=487}}</ref> From 1265 to 1271, ]s led by Baibars drove the Franks to a few small coastal outposts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=816–817}}</ref> The future ] vowed to crusade with Louis IX, but he was delayed and did not arrive in North Africa until November 1270. After Louis' death, Edward went to Sicily and then to Acre in May 1271. His forces were small, however, and he was displeased with the truce between Baibars and King ] of Jerusalem. Edward learned of his father's death and his succession to the throne in December 1272, but he did not return to England until 1274 (although he accomplished little in the Holy Land).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=164}}</ref> The ] of a French pope, ], brought the full power of the papacy into line behind Charles. He campaigned unsuccessfully in Albania and ] before preparing to launch his crusade (with 400 ships, carrying 27,000 mounted knights) against Constantinople. Michael VIII Palailogos allied with ] to foment an uprising, the ], during which the crusader fleet was abandoned and burnt. The Sicilians appealed to Peter, who was proclaimed king, and the ] was exiled from Sicily. Martin excommunicated Peter and called for a crusade against Aragon before Charles died in 1285, allowing ] to reclaim Jerusalem. One factor in the crusaders' decline was the disunity and conflict among Latin Christian interests in the eastern Mediterranean. Martin compromised the papacy by supporting Charles of Anjou, and botched secular "crusades" against Sicily and Aragon tarnished its spiritual lustre. The collapse of the papacy's ] and the rise of nationalism rang the death knell for crusading, ultimately leading to the ] and the ]. The ] was declared by Martin against Peter III in 1284 and 1285, with Peter supporting anti-Angevin forces in Sicily after the Sicilian Vespers and Martin supporting Charles of Anjou. ] proclaimed a crusade against ] (Peter's youngest son) in 1298, but was unable to prevent Frederick's coronation and recognition as king of Sicily.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=186}}</ref> | |||
| The mainland ] of the '']'' were extinguished with the fall of ] in 1289 and ] in 1291.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=122}}</ref> Most remaining Latin Christians left for destinations in the '']'' or were killed or enslaved.<ref>{{Harvnb|Tyerman |2006|pp=820–822}}</ref> Minor crusading efforts lingered into the 14th century; ] captured and sacked ] in 1365 in what became known as the ], although his motivation was as much commercial as religious.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=195–196}}</ref> ] led the 1390 ] against Muslim ]s in North Africa; after a ten-week siege, the crusaders signed a ten-year truce.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=199}}</ref> | |||
| ==={{anchor|Crusades of the 14th and 15th centuries}}14th and 15th centuries=== | |||
| ]s and crusaders; Jena Codex, 15th century]] | |||
| {{main|Ottoman Wars in Europe}} | |||
| {{further|Crusade of Nicopolis|Crusade of Varna|Hussite Wars|Siege of Belgrade (1456)}} | |||
| A number of crusades were launched during the 14th and 15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman Empire; the first (in 1396) was led by ], king of Hungary. Many French nobles joined Sigismund's forces, including the crusade's military leader ] (son of the Duke of Burgundy). Although Sigismund advised the crusaders to focus on defence when they reached the Danube, they besieged the city of ]. The Ottomans defeated them in the ] on 25 September, capturing 3,000 prisoners.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=200}}</ref> The Hussite Crusades, also known as the ] and the Bohemian Wars, involved military action against the followers of ] in ] from 1420 to about 1431. Crusades were declared five times during that period: in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, and 1431. These expeditions forced the Hussite forces, who disagreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the invaders. The wars ended in 1436 with the ratification of the ] by the Church.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=201–202}}</ref> | |||
| Polish-Hungarian King ] invaded the recently conquered Ottoman territory, reaching Belgrade in January 1444; a negotiated truce was repudiated by Sultan ] within days of its ratification. Further efforts by the crusaders ended in the ] on 10 November, a decisive Ottoman victory which led to the withdrawal of the crusaders. This withdrawal, following the last Western attempt to aid the Byzantine Empire, led to the 1453 fall of Constantinople. ] and ] organized a 1456 crusade to lift the Ottomon siege of Belgrade.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=202–203}}</ref> In April 1487, ] called for a crusade against the ] of ], the ], and the ] in southern France and northern Italy. The only efforts actually undertaken, resulting in little change, were in the Dauphiné.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=204}}</ref> | |||
| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Crusader states== | |||
| ] | |||
| The First Crusade established the first four crusader states in the Eastern Mediterranean: the ] (1098–1149), the ] (1098–1268), the ] (1099–1291), and the ] (1104—although Tripoli was not conquered until 1109—to 1289). The ] originated before the Crusades, but it received kingdom status from Pope Innocent III and later became fully Westernized by the ]. According to historian ], these states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known as ''outremer'', from the ] ''outre-mer'' ("overseas" in English).<ref>{{OED|Outremer}}</ref> | |||
| The Fourth Crusade established a ] in the east and allowed the partition of Byzantine territory by its participants. The Latin emperor controlled one-fourth of the Byzantine territory, Venice three-eighths (including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople), and the remainder was divided among the other crusade leaders. This began the period of ] known as ''Frankokratia'' or ''Latinokratia'' ("Frankish rule"), when Catholic Western European nobles—primarily from France and Italy—established states on former Byzantine territory and ruled over the ] ]. The '']'' is a valuable record of early-13th-century Byzantine administrative divisions ('']'') and family estates.<ref name="Runciman 1951 480"/> | |||
| ==Finance== | |||
| ] with Arabic inscriptions (1216–1241)]] | |||
| Crusades were expensive; as the number of wars increased, their costs escalated. Pope Urban II called upon the rich to help First Crusade lords such as ] and Count Raymond of St. Gilles, who subsidized knights in their armies. The total cost to King Louis IX of France of the 1284–1285 crusades was estimated at 1,537,570 ''livres'', six times the king's annual income. This may be conservative, since records indicate that Louis spent 1,000,000 ''livres'' in Palestine after his Egyptian campaign. Rulers demanded subsidies from their subjects,<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2009|pp=43–44}}</ref> and alms and bequests prompted by the conquest of Palestine were additional sources of income. The popes ordered that collection boxes be placed in churches and, beginning in the mid-twelfth century, granted indulgences in exchange for donations and bequests.<ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2009|p=44}}</ref> | |||
| ==Military orders== | |||
| {{Main|Military order (monastic society)}} | |||
| The military orders, especially the Templars and the Hospitallers, played a major role in providing support for the Crusader States, for they provided decisive forces of highly trained and motivated soldiers at critical moments.<ref>Alfred J. Andrea, ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades'' (2003) pp 213-15</ref> The Hospitallers and the Templars became international organisations, with ] across Western Europe and the East. The Teutonic Knights focused on the Baltic, and the Spanish military orders of Santiago, Calatrava, ], and ] concentrated on the Iberian Peninsula. The Hospitallers (Knights of the Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem) had been founded in Jerusalem before the First Crusade but greatly enlarged its mission once the Crusades began.<ref>Helen J. Nicholson, ''The Knights Hospitaller'' (2001).</ref> After the fall of Acre they relocated to Cyprus, conquering and ruling Rhodes (1309–1522) and Malta (1530–1801). The Poor Knights of Christ and its Temple of Solomon were founded in 1118 to protect pilgrims en route to Jerusalem. They became wealthy and powerful through banking and real estate. In 1322 the King of France suppressed the order, ostensibly for sodomy, magic and heresy but probably for financial and political reasons.<ref name="Davies 1997 359">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=359}}</ref> | |||
| =={{anchor|Role of women, children, and class}}Roles of women, children, and class== | |||
| ], 1892]] | |||
| Women were intimately connected to the Crusades; they aided in recruitment, took over the crusaders' responsibilities in their absence, and provided financial and moral support.<ref>{{Harvnb| Hodgson |2007|pp=39–44}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb| Maier |2004 |pp= 61–82}}</ref> Historians contend that the most significant role played by women in the West was in maintaining the ''status quo''.<ref name="EdingtonLambert 2002 98">{{Harvnb|EdingtonLambert|2002|p=98}}</ref> Landholders left for the Holy Land, leaving control of their estates to ]s who were often wives or mothers. Since the Church recognized that risk to families and estates might discourage crusaders, special papal protection was a crusading privilege.<ref>{{Harvnb| Hodgson |2007|pp=110–112}}</ref> A number of aristocratic women participated in crusades, such as ] (who joined her husband, ]).<ref>{{Harvnb| Owen |1993 |p= 22}}</ref> Non-aristocratic women also served in positions such as washerwomen.<ref name="EdingtonLambert 2002 98"/> More controversial was women taking an active role (counter to their femininity); accounts of fighting women were primarily by Muslim historians, who portrayed Christian women who killed as barbarous and ungodly.<ref>{{Harvnb| Nicholson |1997 |p= 337}}</ref> | |||
| The ] was said to have been a Catholic movement in France and Germany in 1212 who tried to reach the Holy Land. The traditional narrative is probably conflated from some factual and mythical notions of the period including visions by a French or German boy, an intention to peacefully convert Muslims in the Holy Land to Christianity, a band of several thousand youths set out for ], and children being sold into slavery.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zacour|1969|pp=325–342}}</ref> A study published in 1977 casts doubt on the existence of these events, and many historians came to believe that they were not (or not primarily) children but multiple bands of "wandering poor" in Germany and France, some of whom tried to reach the Holy Land and others who never intended to do so.<ref>{{Harvnb|Raedts|1977|pp=279–323}}</ref><ref>Russell, Oswald, "Children's Crusade", '']'', 1989</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bridge|1980}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Miccoli|1961|pp=407–443}}</ref> | |||
| Three crusading efforts were made by peasants during the mid-1250s and the early 14th century. The first, the ], was preached in northern France. After a meeting with ], it became disorganized and was disbanded by the government.<ref name="Lock 2006 179">{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=179}}</ref> The second, in 1309, occurred in ], northeastern France, and Germany; as many as 30,000 peasants arrived at ] before it was disbanded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|pp=187–188}}</ref> The third, in ], became a series of attacks on clergy and Jews and was forcibly suppressed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lock|2006|p=190}}</ref> However, this "crusade" is primarily seen as a revolt against the French monarchy. The Jews had been allowed to return to France, after being expelled in 1306; any debts owed to the Jews before their expulsion were collected by the monarchy, drove the '']'' (by which this movement is called).<ref>{{Harvnb|Tuchman|2011|p=41}}</ref> | |||
| ==Legacy== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Western Europeans in the East adopted native customs, saw themselves as citizens of their new home and intermarried.<ref>{{Harvnb|Krey|2012|pp=280–281}}</ref> This led to a people and culture descended from remaining European inhabitants of the crusader states, particularly French Levantines in ], ], and ]. Traders from the ] of the ] (], ] and ]) continued to live in ], ] and other parts of Anatolia and the eastern ] coast during the middle Byzantine and ] eras. These people, known as Levantines or Franco-Levantines (''Frankolevantini''; French Levantins, ] Levantini, ] Φραγκολεβαντίνοι, and ] Levantenler or Tatlısu ]leri), are ]. They are now concentrated in the Istanbul districts of ], ] and ], the ] districts of ], ] and ], and in ] (where they were influential in creating and reviving an ]tic tradition.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} After the British occupied parts of ] in the aftermath of ], the term "Levantine" was used pejoratively for inhabitants of mixed ] and European descent and for Europeans (usually French, Italian or Greek) who adopted local dress and customs.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} | |||
| The Crusades influenced the attitude of the Western Church towards warfare, with the frequent calling of crusades habituating the clergy to violence. They also sparked a debate about the legitimacy of seizing land and possessions from pagans on purely religious grounds which would resurface during the ] in the 15th and 16th centuries.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|pp=146–147}}</ref> The needs of crusading stimulated secular governmental developments, not all of which were positive; resources used in crusading could have been used by developing states for local and regional needs.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|pp=149}}</ref> | |||
| Its power and prestige raised by the Crusades, the papal ] had greater control of the western Church and extended the system of papal taxation through the ecclesiastical structure of the West. The system of indulgences grew significantly in late medieval Europe, sparking the ] in the early 16th century.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|pp=147–149}}</ref> | |||
| The Crusades set up further encounters between Muslims and Christians, and at the same time, the campaigns enacted exchanges of knowledge, ushering Europe towards the Renaissance. The Christians took new ideas from the Muslims, including literature style and basic hygiene, for the Muslims outdid the Christians in standard of living and in cultural development. The Muslims also had preserved classic Greek and Romans texts in their libraries, which the crusaders would take, allowing Europe to relearn the discoveries they had made before the Middle Ages.<ref>Nicholson, Helen J.The Crusades Westport: Greenwood, 2004. Print. p.93-94</ref> These new pieces of knowledge were brought back to Europe as the crusaders returned home and would help form begin to bring Europe out of the dark. The Muslims, however, took little from the Christians besides warfare techniques, because there was nothing the Muslims had to learn from them and thought the Crusaders to be inferior.<ref>Nicholson, Helen J.The Crusades Westport: Greenwood, 2004. Print. p.95</ref> | |||
| The Crusades created and perpetuated hate and mistrust between Muslims and Christians that still lasts to this day. The Christians of Europe had already been hostile to the Muslims, but the Crusades helped continue and intensify this loathing.<ref>Nicholson, Helen J.The Crusades Westport: Greenwood, 2004. Print. p.96</ref> The Muslims, under commanders like ], saw revival of ], or holy war, against the both the christians and other opposing muslims alike during this time period.<ref>Harpur, James The Crusades The Two Hundred Years War: The Clash Between the Cross and the Crescent in the Middle East 1096-1291 New York: Rosen, 2008. Print. p.48</ref> The Crusades are key component to the beginning and continuation of the Muslim-Christian relations. | |||
| Although the Albigensian Crusade intended to eliminate ] in ], France acquired lands with closer cultural and linguistic ties to ]. The crusade also had a role in the creation and institutionalization of the ] and the ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Strayer|1992|p=143}}</ref> The ] is part of the long history of anti-Semitism in Europe.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|pp=161–163}}</ref> | |||
| The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to flourishing ] between Europe and the ''outremer''. Genoa and Venice flourished, with profitable trading colonies in crusader states in the ] and (later) in captured ] territory.<ref>{{Harvnb| Housley |2006|pp=152–154}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Campaignbox Crusades}} | |||
| {{Misplaced Pages books|The Crusades}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ](]) | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| {{refbegin|30em}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last1=Althoff|first1= Gerd |last2= Fried |first2= Johannes |last3= Geary |first3= Patrick J.|title= Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography |year=2002 |publisher=9780521780667 |isbn= 9780521780667|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Asbridge|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Asbridge |title=The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land |year=2011 |publisher=Ecco |isbn= 978-0-06-078729-5 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last= Baldwin |first= Philip B.|title='Pope Gregory X and the crusades' |year=2014|publisher= Boydell & Brewer Ltd |isbn= 9781843839163 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Barber|first=Malcolm |authorlink=Malcolm Barber |title=The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320 |publisher=Routledge |year=1992 |isbn=0-415-09682-0|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Bridge |first=Antony |title=The Crusades |location=London |publisher=Granada Publishing |year=1980 |isbn=0-531-09872-9|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Bull|first=Marcus |title=Origins |encyclopedia= The Oxford History of the Crusades |editor= Riley-Smith, Jonathan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-280312-3|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Chazan|title=European Jewry and the First Crusade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sndVK_foqI4C&pg=PA60|year=1996|publisher=U. of California Press|page=60|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=The pursuit of the Millennium |last=Cohn| first = Norman| year=1970 |publisher = |isbn=|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title= The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe|last= Daniel | first = Norman | year=1979 |publisher = Longman Group Limited |isbn=0-582-78088-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Europe – A History |last=Davies| first = Norman| year=1997 |publisher = Pimlico|isbn=0-7126-6633-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last1=Edington|first1=Susan B.|last2=Lambert|first2=Sarah |title=Gendering the Crusades |publisher= Columbia University Press |year=2002|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Findley| first=Carter Vaughan | year = 2005| title=The Turks in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-516770-8|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{Citation |last = Flori |first = Jean |title = Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier | year = 1999 |language=French |location = Paris |publisher = Biographie Payot |isbn = 978-2-228-89272-8 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * Harris, Jonathan (2014), ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Hillenbrand| first=Carole | year = 1999| title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives|publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Hindley|first=Geoffrey |year=2004|title=The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy |publisher=Carrol & Graf |isbn=0-7867-1344-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Hodgson|first=Natasha |title=Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative |publisher=Boydell |year= 2007|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Holt|first=P. M. |title=Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=46 |issue=2 |year=1983 |pages=235–239 |jstor=615389 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00078824 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Housley|first=Norman |authorlink= Norman Housley |title=Contesting the Crusades |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1-4051-1189-5|url=http://www.amazon.com/Contesting-Crusades-Norman-Housley/dp/1405111895/|ref=harv }} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Krey|first=August C. |year=2012|title=The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants|publisher=Arx Publishing|isbn=9781935228080|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title= ''Western Representations of the Muslim Women: From Termagant to Odalisque |last= Kahf | first = Mohja | year=1999|publisher = ]|isbn=978-0-292-74337-3|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Kolbaba|first=T. M. |year=2000 |title=The Byzantine Lists: Errors of the Latins |publisher=University of Illinois |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Lock|first=Peter |title=Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-39312-4 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Madden|first=Thomas F. |title=The New Concise History of the Crusades |year=2005 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |isbn= 978-0-7425-3822-1|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last= Maier |first= C.T. |year=2004|title= The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey |journal=Journal of medieval history |issue=30#1 |pages=61–82|ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Marshall | first = Christopher | title = Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1994 | isbn = 9780521477420|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Mayer|first=Hans Eberhard |title=The Crusades |edition=Second|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1988|isbn=0-19-873097-7 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Miccoli |first=Giovanni |year=1961 |chapter=La crociata dei fancifulli |title=Studi medievali |others=Third Series |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Nelson|first=Laura N. |title=The Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade|isbn=9780549426554 |year=2007|publisher=ProQuest|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Nicholson|first=Helen |title=Women on the Third Crusade |journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=23 |issue=4 |year=1997 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Helen |title=The Crusades |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=9780313326851 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last= Nicolle|first=David|title=The Fourth Crusade 1202–04: The Betrayal of Byzantium |year=2011 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Pringle|first=Denys |title=Architecture in Latin East|encyclopedia= The Oxford History of the Crusades |editor= Riley-Smith, Jonathan |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-280312-3|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Owen|first=Roy Douglas Davis |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=1993|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title = The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads|last = Retso | first = Jan | year=2003 |publisher = ]|isbn=978-0-7007-1679-1|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal | last = Raedts | first = P | title = The Children's Crusade of 1213 | journal = Journal of Medieval History | volume = 3 | year = 1977|doi=10.1016/0304-4181(77)90026-4 |ref=harv}} | |||
| *{{cite book | last = Riley-Smith | first = Jonathan | title = The Feudal Nobility and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1174–1277 | publisher = Archon Books | year = 1973 | isbn = 9780208013484|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Riley-Smith|first=Johnathan|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades|date=1995|publisher=Oxford Press|isbn= 978-0192854285|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Riley-Smith|first=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=The Crusades: A Short History|edition=Second |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-300-10128-7|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Riley-Smith|first=Jonathan |title=What Were the Crusades?|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year= 2009|isbn=978-0230220690|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |title=The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 |first1=Louise |last1=Riley-Smith |first2=Johnathan |last2=Riley-Smith |series=Documents of Medieval History |volume=4 |publisher=E. Arnold |year=1981 |isbn=0-7131-6348-8|ref=harv }} | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Rose|first= Karen|year=2009|title=The Order of the Knights Templar|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Runciman|first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Runciman |title=A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades |year=1951 |edition= reprinted 1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title='A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East |last= Setton | first = Kenneth M. | year=1985|publisher = University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=0-299-09144-9|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade |last=Sinclair| first = Andrew| year=1995 |publisher = Crown Publishers|isbn=|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|first=Corliss K|last= Slack|title=Historical Dictionary of the Crusades|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uX8e2zU_TG0C&pg=PA108|year=2013|publisher=Scarecrow Press|pages=108–9|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last= Strack |first= Georg |year=2012|title= The Sermon of Urban II in Clermont and the Tradition of Papal Oratory |journal= Medieval Sermon Studies |issue=30#1 |pages=30–45 |doi=10.1179/1366069112Z.0000000002|url= http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf| ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Strayer|first=Joseph Reese |year=1992 |title=The Albigensian Crusades |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-06476-2|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Strayer|first=Joseph R. |editor=Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. |encyclopedia=The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |year=1969 |url =http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M |title=The Crusades of Louis IX |pages=487–521|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title= Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination|last= Tolan | first = John Victor| year=2002 |publisher = ]|isbn=978-0-231-12333-4|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last1= Tolan|first1=John|last2=Veinstein|first2= Gilles|last3=Henry|first3=Laurens |year=2013 |title=Europe and the Islamic World: A History.|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14705-5|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=Barbara W. |title=A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=9780307793690 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Tyerman|first=Christopher |title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades |publisher=Belknap Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-674-02387-1 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last= Vasilev|first=Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=History of the Byzantine Empire: 324–1453 |year=1952|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Villegas-Aristizabal|first= L|year=2009 |title=Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148–1180 |journal=Crusades |issue=8 |pages=63–129|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Wickham|first=Chris |authorlink= Christopher Wickham |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311742-1|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia |last= Zacour|first=Norman P. |title=The Children's Crusade |editor=Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. |encyclopedia=The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |year=1969 |pages=325–342|url =http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M|ref=harv }} | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==Further information== | |||
| {{hidden begin | |||
| |toggle = right | |||
| |title = Further Reading | |||
| |titlestyle = background:lightgrey; | |||
| }} | |||
| ;Introductions | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia |author= Andrea, Alfred J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Crusades |year= 2003|isbn= 0-313-31659-7|oclc= 52030565}} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Asbridge, Thomas |title=The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam |year=2005|isbn= 0-195-18905-1}} | |||
| * Cobb, Paul M. ''The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades'' (Oxford University Press, 2014) | |||
| * {{cite book |author= France, John |title=Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300 |year=1999 |isbn=0-801-48607-6 |OCLC=40179990}} | |||
| * Hillenbrand, Carole. ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. (2000) | |||
| * Holt, P.M. ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. (2nd ed. 2014) | |||
| * Jotischky, Andrew. ''The Crusades: a beginner's guide'' (Oneworld Publications, 2015) | |||
| * Madden, Thomas F. ''The Concise History of the Crusades'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014) | |||
| * Murray, Alan V., ed. ''The Crusades to the Holy Land: The Essential Reference Guide'' (ABC-CLIO, 2015) | |||
| * Phillips, Jonathan. ''Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades'' (2010) | |||
| * Phillips, Jonathan. ''The Crusades, 1095–1204'' (2nd ed. Routledge, 2014) | |||
| * Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Atlas of the Crusades'' (1991) | |||
| * Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam'' (2011) | |||
| * Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The crusades: A history'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014) | |||
| ;Specialized studies | |||
| * Boas, Adrian J. ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under Frankish Rule'' (2001) | |||
| * Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches.'' (2003) | |||
| * {{cite book |author= Dickson, Gary |title=The Children's Crusade: Medieval History, Modern Mythistory |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year= 2008}} | |||
| * Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom.'' (2003) | |||
| * Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." ''Language & Intercultural Communication,'' 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp. 144–151 | |||
| * Folda, Jaroslav. ''Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre'' (2005) | |||
| * France, John. ''Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade'' (1996) | |||
| * Harris, Jonathan, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. (2014) ISBN 978-1-78093-767-0 | |||
| * Hillenbrand, Car. ''The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives'' (1999) | |||
| * Housley, Norman. ''The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar'' (1992) | |||
| * James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." ''History Review'' (Dec 2005), Issue 53 | |||
| * Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. ''Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean.'' (2003) | |||
| * Maalouf, Amin. ''Crusades Through Arab Eyes'' (1989) | |||
| * Madden, Thomas F. ''et al.'', eds. ''Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict'' (2010) | |||
| * {{cite book |author= Nicolle, David |title=Crusader Warfare Volume II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the Crusades |year=2007}} | |||
| * {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |title=The First Crusade 1066–99: Conquest of the Holy Land |series=Campaign |publisher=Osprey |year=2003|isbn=1-84176-515-5}} | |||
| * Peters, Edward. ''Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198–1229'' (1971) | |||
| * Powell, James M. ''Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221,'' (1986) | |||
| * Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. ''The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople'' (2nd ed. 1999) | |||
| * Riley-Smith, Jonathan.''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. (1986) | |||
| * Runciman, Steven. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East'' (1952) ; ''A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades'' (1954); the classic 20th century history | |||
| * Setton, Kenneth ed., ''A History of the Crusades''. (1969–1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes, published by the University of Wisconsin Press | |||
| : Includes: (2nd ed. 1969); (1969); (1975); (1977); (1985); (1989) | |||
| * Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951), pp. 133–149. | |||
| * Stark, Rodney. ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'' (2010) | |||
| * Tyerman, Christopher. ''England and the Crusades, 1095–1588.'' (1988) | |||
| ;Historiography | |||
| * Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'' (2001) | |||
| * Illston, James Michael. '''An Entirely Masculine Activity'? Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages Reconsidered'' (MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009) | |||
| * Madden, Thomas F. ed. ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'' (2002) | |||
| * Powell, James M. "The Crusades in Recent Research," '' The Catholic Historical Review'' (2009) 95#2 pp 313–19 | |||
| * Rubenstein, Jay. "In Search of a New Crusade: A Review Essay," ''Historically Speaking'' (2011) 12#2 pp 25–27 | |||
| * von Güttner-Sporzyński, Darius. "Recent Issues in Polish Historiography of the Crusades" in Judi Upton-Ward, The Military Orders: Volume 4, On Land and by Sea (2008) , | |||
| ;Primary sources | |||
| * ], Bate, Keith (2010). ''Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th Centuries'' (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd) | |||
| * Bird, Jessalynn, et al. eds. ''Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187–1291'' (2013) | |||
| * Housley, Norman, ed. ''Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274–1580'' (1996) | |||
| * Shaw, M. R. B. ed.''Chronicles of the Crusades'' (1963) | |||
| * Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. ''Chronicles of the Crusades'' ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007) | |||
| {{hidden end}} | |||
| {{hidden begin | |||
| |toggle = right | |||
| |title = External Links | |||
| |titlestyle = background:lightgrey; | |||
| }} | |||
| {{Wiktionary|Crusade}} | |||
| {{Commons category|Crusades}} | |||
| {{Wikisource1911Enc}} | |||
| * through ] ed. by E. L. Knox | |||
| * , Paul Crawford, 1999 | |||
| * —an international organization of professional Crusade scholars | |||
| * —contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades | |||
| * – a website about the Crusades | |||
| {{hidden end}} | |||
| {{Crusader States}} | |||
| {{Fragments of the Byzantine Empire}} | |||
| {{Middle Ages}} | |||
| {{History of Europe}} | |||
| {{Christian History|collapsed}} | |||
| {{Portal bar|Crusades|Middle Ages|History}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 01:55, 24 March 2016
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