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===United Kingdom=== ===United Kingdom===
In the ] a charity named ] was founded in 1988 by professor Eileen Barker of the ], with the funding from the ] and the support of mainstream Churches. According to their website, their primary aim is "... to help people through providing them with accurate, balanced, up-to-date information about new and/or alternative religious or spiritual movements."
In the ] the ] subsidized a charity called ] (Inform), founded by the sociologist Eileen Barker of the ] that claims to give facts based on research about religious movements including "cults".

INFORM patrons includes Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia (Greek Ortodox Church) and Bishop ] (Roman Catholic Church Bishop), Lord ] and Lord ].


==See also== ==See also==

Revision as of 23:54, 12 November 2004

This article discusses only religious or sociological cultist groups, and small or new religious groups considered harmful or strange by the public, media or anti-cult activists. This article does not discuss "cult" in its original sense of "religious practice"; for that usage see cult (religion). See also destructive cult and Cult (disambiguation) for more meanings of the term "cult".

In religion and sociology, a cult is a group with a religious or philosophical identity, often existing on the margins of society. Its marginal status may come about either due to its novel belief system or due to idiosyncratic practices that cause the surrounding culture to regard it as far outside the mainstream.

In English-speaking countries since about the 1960s, especially in North America, the term cult has taken on a pejorative and sometimes offensive connotation. This is largely originated with highly-publicized cults which were widely believed to exploit their members psychologically and financially, or which were accused of group-based persuasion techniques (including "brainwashing", "love bombing", and "mind control"; the debate on whether these techniques are in use, are effective, or if they even exist, is addressed for each within its own article).

As typified by many of the widely-publicized North American cults from the 1960s and later, the quintessential modern cult is thought to be religion taken to the extreme, usually characterized by high levels of dependency and obedience to the cult's leadership, by separation from family and non-believers, and by the infiltration of religion into nearly every aspect of daily life. Beginning in the 1980s, a movement among conservative and fundamentalist Christians has sought to expand the meaning of cult to include groups practising unique forms of Christianity, whose marginality within society remains highly controversial. Because of the increasingly pejorative connotation of the word cult, most members of these groups find the word offensive when applied to them. See anti-cult movement. On the other hand, some skeptics have questioned the distinction between a cult and a mainstream religion. They say that the only difference between a cult and a religion is that the latter is older and has more followers and as a consequence seems less controversial because society has become used to it.

Problems surrounding the definitions of a cult

The literal and traditional meanings of the word cult, which are more fully explored at the entry Cult (religion), derive from the Latin cultus, meaning "care" or "adoration", as "a system of religious belief or ritual; or: the body of adherents to same." In French or Spanish, culte or culto simply means "worship"; thus an association cultuelle is an association whose goal is to organize worship and quite distinct from an association culturale or "cultural association". The word for "cult" is secte (French) or secta (Spanish). (See false cognate.) In German or Russian the word sekta (sect) has a slightly different meaning than the English word cult in addition to the German word Sekte. In formal English use, and in non-English European terms, the cognates of the English word "cult" are neutral, and refer mainly to divisions within a single faith, a case where English speakers might use the word "sect". Hence Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Protestantism are cults within Christianity. In English, it remains perfectly neutral to refer to the "cult of Artemis at Ephesus" and the "cult figures" that accompanied it, or to "the importance of the Ave Maria in the cult of the Virgin."

Although anti-cult activists and scholars did not agree on precise criteria that new religions should meet to be considered "cults". Two of the several existing definitions formulated by anti-cult activists are:

Cults are groups that often exploit members psychologically and/or financially, typically by making members comply with leadership's demands through certain types of psychological manipulation, popularly called mind control, and through the inculcation of deep-seated anxious dependency on the group and its leaders
Cult: A group or movement exhibiting a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some person, idea, or thing and employing unethically manipulative techniques of persuasion and control . . . designed to advance the goals of the group's leaders to the actual or possible detriment of members, their families, or the community.

The problem with defining the word cult is that (1) purported cult members generally resist being called a cult, and (2) the word cult is often used to marginalize religious groups with which one does not agree or sympathize. Some serious researchers of religion and sociology prefer to use terms such as new religious movement (NRM) in their research on cults. Such usage may lead to confusion because some religious movements are "new" but not necessarily cults, and some purported cults are not religious or overtly religious. Where a cult practises physical or mental abuse, psychologists and other mental health professionals use the terms cult, abusive cult, or destructive cult. The popular press also commonly uses these terms. However, not all cults function abusively or destructively, and among those that psychologists believe are abusive, few members would agree that they suffer abuse. Other researchers like David V. Barrett hold the view that classifying a religious movement as a cult has no added value, instead, he argues, that one should investigate the beliefs and practices of the religious movement.

Some groups, particularly those labeled by others as cults, view the designation as insensitive, and feel persecuted by what they call the "anti-cult movement", the existence of which is disputed.

Such groups often defend their position by comparing themselves to more established, mainstream religious groups such as Catholicism and Judaism. The argument offered in this case can usually be simplified as, "Christianity and Judaism can also be defined as cults under some definitions of the term, and therefore the term cult is superfluous and useless." Members of groups referred to as cults have been known to engage in long discussions over the definition of the word "cult." Critics of alleged cult groups state that by doing so, these persons have been known to waste large amounts of time and effort that would be better spent examining the actions of the groups in question, so as to reveal why these groups are referred to as cults.

Another problem with writing about cults comes about because they generally hold belief systems that give answers to questions about the meaning of life and morality. This makes it difficult not to write in biased terms about a certain cult, because writers are not neutral about these questions. Some writers who deal with the subject choose to explicitly state their ethical values and belief systems to deal with this difficulty.

For many scholars and professional commentators, the usage of the word "cult" applies to maleficent or abusive behavior, and not to a belief system. For members of competing religions, use of the word remains pejorative and applies primarily to rival beliefs (see memes), and only incidentally to behavior.

In the sociology of religion, the term cult is a part of the subdivision of religious groups into sects, cults, denominations and ecclesias. In these terms, it is a neutral term, referring to a religious movement with novel beliefs and a high degree of tension with the surrounding society. Cults, in this sense, may or may not be dangerous, abusive, etc. By this definition, most of the groups which have been popularly labelled cults are indeed cults.

The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines cult as:

"a religion regarded as unorthodox or spurious; also : its body of adherents"

Lloyd Eby calls this definition problematic, because:

"...then we must ask: regarded as spurious or unorthodox by whom? Who has or was given this authority to decide what beliefs or practices are orthodox or genuine, and what are unorthodox or spurious? In the realm of religion and belief, one person's or group's norm is another's anathema, and what is regarded as false or counterfeit by one person or group is regarded as genuine and authentic by another." (emphasis added)

This definition is entirely subjective: it means that if you think a religion is unorthodox, then you will call it a cult.

Are cults dangerous?

The stigma surrounding the classification of a group as as a cult stems from the effect the group's influence has on its members. The threat presented by a cult to its members (whether real or perceived) ranges from risks to the physical safety of its members, to their mental and spiritual growth. Much of the actions taken against cults and alleged cults have been in reaction to members of the organization experiencing harm due to their affiliation with the groups in question. However, not all cults are equally dangerous (as members of alleged cult groups have taken pains to emphasize). Over a period of time, some minority religious organizations considered cults have been accepted by mainstream society, such as Mormonism, Christian Science, and the Amish. On the other hand, certain fringe groups have demonstrated by their actions that they do pose a threat to the well-being of both their own members and to society in general; these organizations are often referred to as destructive cults.

There is no reliable, generally accepted way to determine what groups will turn into destructive cults, nor is there such a way to determine what groups will harm its members. In spite of that, popular but generally non-scientific cult checklists try to predict the probablity of harm. One checklist by Eileen Barker claims to be based on empirical research.

Common concerns about cult involvement

Historical examples of genuinely destructive cults are rare. Informed relatives of cult members and ex-members of cults (in the meaning of abusive new religious movements) generally know this and are often concerned about other things than mass suicides or homicides. According to Barker (1989), the biggest worry about possible harm concerns the relatively few dedicated followers of a new religious movement (NRM). It generally does not concern the many superficial, or short-lived, or peripheral supporters of a NRM.

Lost time and opportunity

Cult members pay a lot of time and energy to their involvement, naturally at the expense of career opportunities and friends and family.

Betrayal of trust

Members usually sincerely believe in the propaganda of cults. When they come to believe that it was all a sham, then this can be a devastating experience.

Leaving a cult

Membership in a cult usually does not last forever: 90% or more of cult members ultimately leave their group

For various reasons, it can be difficult to leave a cult. One of the reasons is that a cult belief system and cult involvement can give meaning to life, both philosophically and in daily life. Members may love or feel devotion for the leader. Even if the member knows that something is wrong, leaving the cult and the transition to a life after the cult may be painful and long. The ex-member may either cling to some extent to the old belief system or be completely without any beliefs and value system at all. Besides the member usually loses a lot of friends. In some cases the ex member may lose all his friends and family. Some members live in a commune or ashram, have no money and job outside the cult. For them it may be very difficult to leave

Prevalence of purported cults

By one measure, between 3,000 and 5,000 purported cults existed in the United States in 1995. While some of the more well-known and influential of these groups are frequently labelled as cults, the majority of these groups vigorously protest the label and refuse to be classified as such, and often expend great efforts in public relations campaigns to rid themselves of the stigma of the term cult. For a list of groups frequently labelled as cults, see Purported cults.

Cults and governments

In many countries exist a separation of church and state and freedom of religion. Some governments are however worried about cults and have taken restrictive measures against some of their activities. Those measures were generally motivated by various crimes committed inside cults, especially by a string of murderous incidents involving doomsday cults circa 1995. However, critics of those measures argue that the counter-cult movement and the anti-cult movement have succeeded in infuencing goverments in transferring the public's abhorrence of doomsday cults against all small or new religious movements without discrimination.

Belgium

In Belgium, the Belgian Parliamentary Commission on Cults submitted a report to the Belgian Parliament in 1997 that included a list of 189 organizations that it labelled "cults". The list covered a wide range of religious groups, including the Amish Mission in Belgium, Buddhist groups, Opus Dei, some Evangelical Christian denominations, Hasidic Judaism, Quakers, and Satanists.

The Quakers complained to Deputy Prime Ministers about their inclusion on the list, pointed out their their humanitarian aid programs, and requested to see the evidence against them which had been presented the federal police in a closed session to the Parliamentary Commission. They were unsuccessful in their appeal.

China

An extreme form of measures against "cults" is the case of Falun Gong in China. The government of the People's Republic of China consider Falung Gong a dangerous cult and seeks to dismantle it; Falung Gong followers have been jailed, and occurrences of torture have been reported. Many anti-cult activists feel that, even if Falun Gong deserves the negative connotations associated with the term cult, the Chinese government took disproportionate measures against it.

The People's Republic of China has also engaged in repression against Buddhist worshippers, especially monks and nuns, in Tibet, on suspicions that they work for the end of the Chinese domination of Tibet and the return of the Dalai-Lama as ruler of Tibet.

Controversies have erupted concerning the reaction of various foreign governments with respect to the Chinese anti-Falung Gong and anti-Tibetan actions, or, rather, the lack thereof.

According to the CESNUR, French anti-cultist organizations such as the CCMM (Center Against Mind Control), the European federation of anti-cult movements FECRIS and Alain Vivien (president of the French governmental Mission to Fight Cults, now disbanded) attended a colloquium organized by the Chinese government on the topic of cults. Some interpret this as assisting the Chinese government in what some consider is state-persecution of religious minorities in China. Controversy has also erupted in France regarding the security measures that the French government has deployed for official visits of Chinese officials, including the exclusion of pro-Tibet and pro-Falung Gong protesters from the path of the Chinese officials .

France

France has investigated some movements considered to be cults and passed a law (often known as the About-Picard law) making it easier to prosecute organizations for repeated criminal activities of their management, as well as criminalizing the abuse of psychologically weakened persons.

The Picard law was established following the second wave of suicides by members of the Order of the Solar Temple in 1995. The general information division of the French National Police (Renseignements généraux) compiled a list of religious organizations considered the be cults under various criteria, which was reprinted inside a parliamentary report. Although this list has no statutory or regulatory value, it is at the background of the criticism that some groups direct at France with respect to freedom of religion.

The Picard law raised concerns of violation of religious freedoms and it is being currently challenged in the European Court of Human Rights to have it declared in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights. In September 2002, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe issued a declaration as follows:

Governments are under an obligation, in their dealings with such groups, to remain in conformity not only with Article 9 but with all the provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights and other relevant instruments protecting the dignity inherent to all human beings and their equal and inalienable rights. This entails, inter alia, a duty to respect the principles of religious freedom and non-discrimination.

Some groups sought the help of foreign governments to fight what they claimed to be religious intolerance in France. In the United States, the Church of Scientology utilized pressure groups against the French government, and had limited success with the Clinton administration.

The French government, when challenged on the issue of religious discrimination, claims to not to be concerned in any way with religious doctrine per se, but with the concrete consequences of cult affiliation, especially with respect to children, in the light of past abuse committed in some criminal cults (sexual slavery and mass suicide). None of the criteria listed in all government documents on sects discuss theology in any way; they only focus on the actions and the methods of the groups.

Germany

Germany does not accept Scientology's claim to be a religion but asserts that it is a business disguised as a religion and puts restrictions on its activities. . The United States Congress passed a resolution in 1997 related to discrimination against minority religious groups in Germany.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom a charity named INFORM was founded in 1988 by professor Eileen Barker of the London School of Economics, with the funding from the Home Office and the support of mainstream Churches. According to their website, their primary aim is "... to help people through providing them with accurate, balanced, up-to-date information about new and/or alternative religious or spiritual movements."

INFORM patrons includes Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia (Greek Ortodox Church) and Bishop Charles Henderson (Roman Catholic Church Bishop), Lord Ralph Dahrendorf and Lord Meghnad Desai.

See also

Some Purported Cults and their Founders

External links

References

  • 1 William Chambers, Michael Langone, Arthur Dole & James Grice, "The Group Psychological Abuse Scale: A Measure of the Varieties of Cultic Abuse", Cultic Studies Journal, 11(1), 1994. The definition of a cult given above is based on a study of 308 former members of 101 groups.
  • 2 Barker, E. "The Ones Who Got Away: People Who Attend Unification Church Workshops and Do Not Become Moonies". In: Barker E, ed. Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West. Macon, Ga. : Mercer University Press; 1983.
  • 3 Barker, E. (1989) "New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction", London, HMSO
  • 4 Galanter M. "Unification Church ('Moonie') dropouts: psychological readjustment after leaving a charismatic religious group". Am J Psychiatry. 1983;140(8):984-989.
  • 5 Enroth, Ronald. Churches that Abuse
  • 6 Singer, M with Lalich, J (1995). Cults in Our Midst, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  • 7 Aronoff, Jodi; Lynn, Steven Jay; Malinosky, Peter. "Are cultic environments psychologically harmful?" Clinical Psychology Review, 2000, Vol. 20 #1 pp. 91-111
  • 8 West, L. J., & Langone, M. D. (1985). Cultism: A conference for scholars and policy makers. Summary of proceedings of the Wingspread conference on cultism, September 9–11. Weston, MA: American Family Foundation.
  • 9 Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions 2001 UK, Cassell & Co
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