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The '''United States embargo on Cuba''' (described in ] as ''el bloqueo'', ] for "the blockade") is an economic, commercial and financial ] imposed on ] by the ] on ], ]. ], the embargo is still in effect, making it one of the most enduring trade embargoes in modern history. It remains an extremely controversial issue worldwide. The '''United States embargo against Cuba''', described in ] as ''el bloqueo'', ] for "the blockade") is an economic, commercial and financial ] imposed on ] by the ] on ], ]. As of 2004, the embargo is still in effect, making it one of the most enduring in modern history. It remains a highly controversial issue worldwide.


==History== ==History==
While the U.S. government had initially been supportive of the ], it turned against ] when the Cuban government began implementing large-scale ] of the economy without compensating American businesses that had been expropriated. While the U.S. government had initially been supportive of the ], it turned against ] when the Cuban government began implementing large-scale ] of the economy without compensating the expropriated American businesses.


A partial embargo was imposed by ]'s government on ] ]. ] extended Eisenhower's measures, imposing a full economic embargo that took effect on ], ] as a response to Cuba's alignment with the ] during the ]. ], the embargo is still in effect, making it one of the most enduring trade embargoes in modern history. (According to former Kennedy aide ], Kennedy asked him to purchase thousands of Cuban cigars for the President's future use immediately before the embargo was to come into effect). A partial embargo was imposed during ]'s administration on ], ]. ] extended Eisenhower's measures, imposing a full economic embargo that took effect on ], ] in response to Cuba's alignment with the ].


The embargo was reinforced in October ] by the ] (the "Torricelli Law") and in ] by the ''Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act'' (known as the ]). While the U.S. has sought to normalize trade relations with other ]s such as the ] and ], there is a large lobby among ]s, particularly those living in ], in favor of the embargo. This makes it politically difficult for either the ] or the ] to substantially change American policy towards Cuba. The embargo was reinforced in October ] by the ], known as the Torricelli Law, and in ] by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act, known as the ]. While the U.S. has sought to normalize trade relations with other ]s such as the ] and ], there is a large lobby among ]s, particularly those living in ], which favors maintaining the embargo. Such political pressure makes it difficult for either the ] or the ] to substantially change American policy towards Cuba.


In response to pressure by American farmers and agribusiness, the embargo has been relaxed in recent years in order to allow the sale of food and agricultural goods to Cuba for humanitarian reasons. This change was mandated by the ], which was passed by the ] in October ] and signed by President ]. Though Cuba initially declined to engage in such trade, seeing it as a half measure serving U.S. interests, the Castro government began to allow the purchase of food from the U.S. as a result of ] in November ] and has continued since then. As a result, Cuba ranked 180th (out of 180) on the list of importers of U.S. agricultural products in 2000, rising to 138th in 2001, and 45th in 2002. The country was estimated to rank 33rd on in ]. In response to pressure by American farmers and agribusiness, the embargo has been relaxed in recent years to allow the sale of food and agricultural goods to Cuba for humanitarian reasons. This change was mandated by the ] in October ] and signed by President ]. Cuba initially considered the new law as a half measure serving U.S. interests and refused to engage in such trade. After the devastation caused by ] in ], the Castro government began to permit the purchase of food from the U.S. As a result, Cuba ranked 180th (out of 180) on the list of importers of U.S. agricultural products in 2000, rising to 138th in 2001, and to 45th in 2002. The country was estimated to rank 33rd on in ].


==Effects== ==Effects==
The Cuban government estimates that the direct economic damage caused to Cuba by the U.S. embargo since its institution exceeds $70 billion, including loss of export earnings, additional import costs, limiting the growth of the Cuban economy, and social damage. The ] the on-going annual loss to U.S. exporters at $1.2 billion. The Cuban government estimates that the direct economic damage caused to Cuba by the U.S. embargo since its implementation exceeds $70 billion, including loss of export earnings, additional import costs, limiting the growth of the Cuban economy, and social damage. According to the U.S. International Trade Commission, the annual loss to U.S. exporters from the embargo is approximately $1.2 billion.


Nevertheless, the embargo had a limited effect on Cuba in its first few decades as the island nation was heavily subsidized by the Soviet Union and the ] nations which supplied Cuba with cheap oil and other goods. The Cuban government became the recipient of large ] from the Soviet Union, peaking at around $6 billion per annum in the ]. The effect of the embargo on Cuba was alleviated by foreign aid, as it received large subsidies from the Soviet Union and ] nations, which supplied Cuba with petroleum and other goods at subsidized rates.


The collapse of the ] in ] and of the USSR itself two years later resulted in an economic crisis in Cuba and in the embargo having its greatest effect by denying Cuba the ability to replace Soviet imports with American ones. Cuba has developed trading relations the rest of the world, including a substantial amount of official (as well as much unofficial) trade with the U.S. but since the U.S. is the closest geographic entity to Cuba and the dominant producer in the region the necessity of importing goods from Europe instead of the U.S. at full market value made these goods more expensive due to transportation costs and thus made it more difficult for Cuba to pay for vital imports. Despite the difficulties created by the embargo in the ], Cuba defied predictions that without Soviet support it would quickly collapse. The collapse of the ] in ] and of the USSR itself two years later resulted in an economic crisis in Cuba and in the embargo having its greatest effect as Cuba was unable to replace Soviet imports with American ones. Cuba has developed trading relations the rest of the world, including a substantial amount of official and unofficial trade with the U.S. but since the U.S. is the closest geographic entity to Cuba and the dominant producer in the region the necessity of importing goods from Europe instead of the U.S. at full market value made these goods more expensive due to transportation costs and thus made it more difficult for Cuba to pay for vital imports. Despite the difficulties created by the embargo in the ], Cuba defied predictions that it would quickly collapse without Soviet support.


Though the leadership of the Cuban-American community is the main proponent of continuing the embargo, the policy has come to have a great effect on Cuban-American families, particularly more recent immigrants who still have family in Cuba, as they must circumvent the embargo in order to send goods to their relatives or even communicate with them. Although the Cuban-American community is the main proponent of continuing the embargo, the policy has come to have a great effect on Cuban-American families, particularly more recent immigrants who still have family in Cuba, as they must circumvent the embargo in order to send goods to their relatives or even communicate with them.


It is estimated that each year some 80,000 Americans visit Cuba, including over 3,000 business visits. As much as $1 billion per year is remitted to Cuba by Cuban Americans. Much of this activity contravenes the spirit, if not the letter, of the embargo. Cuba produces a number of luxury items, especially ]s that are thought to be in high demand among some Americans. In popular culture, such as in ]s, ], and ]s, rich and power men are often shown to have their own personal stock of illicitly obtained Cuban ] and cigars. Although the embargo itself may be partially responsible for the notion, it is accepted by many Americans that the "best" cigars are Cuban cigars. It is estimated that each year some 80,000 Americans visit Cuba, including over 3,000 business trips. As much as $1 billion per year is remitted to Cuba by Cuban-Americans. Much of this activity contravenes the spirit, if not the letter, of the embargo. Cuba produces a number of luxury items, especially ]s that are thought to be in high demand among some Americans. In popular culture, such as in ]s, ], and ]s, rich and powerful men are often shown to have their own personal stock of illicitly obtained Cuban brandy and cigars. Although the embargo itself may be partially responsible for the notion, it is accepted by many Americans that the best cigars are Cuban.


One of the visible manifestations of the embargo is the almost complete absence of modern ]s on the streets of ]. Instead, Cubans have made a virtue out of the necessity of keeping pre-1960 American automobiles in running order making Cuba a haven for 1950s vintage American cars. One of the visible manifestations of the embargo is the almost complete absence of modern ]s on the streets of ]. Instead, Cubans have made a virtue out of the necessity of keeping pre-1960 American cars in running order, making Cuba a haven for 1950s vintage American cars.


==Criticism== ==Criticism==
Some critics of the embargo argue that rather than underminining the socialist nature of the Cuban system it tied Cuba even more closely to the USSR and resulted in it closely following the ] model. Other critics point out the contradiction between the ] policy of isolating Cuba and its ] towards Communist states such as the People's Republic of China and Vietnam as well as the then-Communist states of eastern Europe and the Soviet Union where it was argued that trade with the west is a means of encouraging economic reform. Some argue that this contradiction is not a result of a strategic policy but a product of domestic American politics and, particularly, the impact of the Cuban-American lobby on American electoral considerations. Some critics of the embargo argue that rather than underminining the socialist nature of the Cuban system it tied Cuba even more closely to the USSR and resulted in its closely following the ] model. Other critics point out the contradiction between the ] policy of isolating Cuba and its ] towards Communist states such as the People's Republic of China and Vietnam as well as the formerly Communist states of eEstern Europe and the Soviet Union where it was argued that trade with the west is a means of encouraging economic reform. Some argue that this contradiction is not a result of a strategic policy but a product of domestic American politics ,particularly the impact of the Cuban-American lobby.


The embargo has been the source of almost unanimous international criticism. Annual votes in the ] ] that call on the U.S. to lift its sanctions pass with exceptionally large majorities (173 to 3 in ]; 179 to 4 in ]). In the 2004 vote, only the U.S., ], the ], and ] voted aganist the resolution (with ] abstaining). The embargo has been the source of nearly unanimous international criticism. Annual votes in the ] ] that call on the U.S. to lift its sanctions pass with exceptionally large majorities (173 to 3 in ] and 179 to 4 in ]). In the 2004 vote, only the U.S., ], the ], and ] voted against the resolution, with ] abstaining.


The ] has been the target of criticism from ] and ] governments in particular who resent the extraterritorial pretensions of a piece of legislation aimed at punishing non-American corporations and non-American investors who have encomic interests in Cuba. In the ], Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the ] which called for the return of property of ] seized by the American government as a result of the ] (the bill never became law). The ] has been the target of criticism from ] and ] governments in particular who resent the extraterritorial outreach of American legislation aimed at punishing non-American corporations and investors with economic interests in Cuba. In the ], Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the ] which called for the return of property of ] seized by the American government as a result of the ]; the bill never became law.


==See also== ==See also==

Revision as of 18:43, 15 November 2004

The United States embargo against Cuba, described in Cuba as el bloqueo, Spanish for "the blockade") is an economic, commercial and financial embargo imposed on Cuba by the United States on February 3, 1962. As of 2004, the embargo is still in effect, making it one of the most enduring in modern history. It remains a highly controversial issue worldwide.

History

While the U.S. government had initially been supportive of the Cuban Revolution, it turned against Fidel Castro when the Cuban government began implementing large-scale nationalization of the economy without compensating the expropriated American businesses.

A partial embargo was imposed during President Eisenhower's administration on October 19, 1960. President Kennedy extended Eisenhower's measures, imposing a full economic embargo that took effect on February 3, 1962 in response to Cuba's alignment with the Soviet Union.

The embargo was reinforced in October 1992 by the Cuban Democracy Act, known as the Torricelli Law, and in 1996 by the Cuban Liberty and Democracy Solidarity Act, known as the Helms-Burton Act. While the U.S. has sought to normalize trade relations with other Communist states such as the People's Republic of China and Vietnam, there is a large lobby among Cuban Americans, particularly those living in Florida, which favors maintaining the embargo. Such political pressure makes it difficult for either the Republican Party or the Democratic Party to substantially change American policy towards Cuba.

In response to pressure by American farmers and agribusiness, the embargo has been relaxed in recent years to allow the sale of food and agricultural goods to Cuba for humanitarian reasons. This change was mandated by the [[Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act passed by the US Congress in October 2000 and signed by President Bill Clinton. Cuba initially considered the new law as a half measure serving U.S. interests and refused to engage in such trade. After the devastation caused by Hurricane Michelle in 2001, the Castro government began to permit the purchase of food from the U.S. As a result, Cuba ranked 180th (out of 180) on the list of importers of U.S. agricultural products in 2000, rising to 138th in 2001, and to 45th in 2002. The country was estimated to rank 33rd on in 2003.

Effects

The Cuban government estimates that the direct economic damage caused to Cuba by the U.S. embargo since its implementation exceeds $70 billion, including loss of export earnings, additional import costs, limiting the growth of the Cuban economy, and social damage. According to the U.S. International Trade Commission, the annual loss to U.S. exporters from the embargo is approximately $1.2 billion.

The effect of the embargo on Cuba was alleviated by foreign aid, as it received large subsidies from the Soviet Union and Comecon nations, which supplied Cuba with petroleum and other goods at subsidized rates.

The collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1989 and of the USSR itself two years later resulted in an economic crisis in Cuba and in the embargo having its greatest effect as Cuba was unable to replace Soviet imports with American ones. Cuba has developed trading relations the rest of the world, including a substantial amount of official and unofficial trade with the U.S. but since the U.S. is the closest geographic entity to Cuba and the dominant producer in the region the necessity of importing goods from Europe instead of the U.S. at full market value made these goods more expensive due to transportation costs and thus made it more difficult for Cuba to pay for vital imports. Despite the difficulties created by the embargo in the 1990s, Cuba defied predictions that it would quickly collapse without Soviet support.

Although the Cuban-American community is the main proponent of continuing the embargo, the policy has come to have a great effect on Cuban-American families, particularly more recent immigrants who still have family in Cuba, as they must circumvent the embargo in order to send goods to their relatives or even communicate with them.

It is estimated that each year some 80,000 Americans visit Cuba, including over 3,000 business trips. As much as $1 billion per year is remitted to Cuba by Cuban-Americans. Much of this activity contravenes the spirit, if not the letter, of the embargo. Cuba produces a number of luxury items, especially cigars that are thought to be in high demand among some Americans. In popular culture, such as in novels, television shows, and motion pictures, rich and powerful men are often shown to have their own personal stock of illicitly obtained Cuban brandy and cigars. Although the embargo itself may be partially responsible for the notion, it is accepted by many Americans that the best cigars are Cuban.

One of the visible manifestations of the embargo is the almost complete absence of modern automobiles on the streets of Havana. Instead, Cubans have made a virtue out of the necessity of keeping pre-1960 American cars in running order, making Cuba a haven for 1950s vintage American cars.

Criticism

Some critics of the embargo argue that rather than underminining the socialist nature of the Cuban system it tied Cuba even more closely to the USSR and resulted in its closely following the Communist model. Other critics point out the contradiction between the United States policy of isolating Cuba and its constructive engagement towards Communist states such as the People's Republic of China and Vietnam as well as the formerly Communist states of eEstern Europe and the Soviet Union where it was argued that trade with the west is a means of encouraging economic reform. Some argue that this contradiction is not a result of a strategic policy but a product of domestic American politics ,particularly the impact of the Cuban-American lobby.

The embargo has been the source of nearly unanimous international criticism. Annual votes in the United Nations General Assembly that call on the U.S. to lift its sanctions pass with exceptionally large majorities (173 to 3 in 2002 and 179 to 4 in 2004). In the 2004 vote, only the U.S., Israel, the Marshall Islands, and Palau voted against the resolution, with Micronesia abstaining.

The Helms-Burton Act has been the target of criticism from Canadian and European governments in particular who resent the extraterritorial outreach of American legislation aimed at punishing non-American corporations and investors with economic interests in Cuba. In the Canadian House of Commons, Helms-Burton was mocked by the introduction of the Godfrey-Milliken Bill which called for the return of property of United Empire Loyalists seized by the American government as a result of the American Revolution; the bill never became law.

See also

External links

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