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] communities in ] apply a system of ]. It developed as a result of ethnic segregation between the foreign conquerors (''Ashraf'') and the local converts (''Ajlaf''), as well as influence of the indigenous ] culture. ] does not recognize any castes. ] communities in ] apply a system of ]. It developed as a result of ethnic segregation between the foreign invaders (''Ajlaf or Muhajir'') and the local converts (''Ashraf''), as well as influence of the indigenous ] culture. ] does not recognize any castes.


== Historical development == == Historical development ==
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] does not recognize any castes,{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} however, by the time it came to ] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. The ancient Persian society had a social stratification system analogous to the Indian ] system. The ] society retained this system with some changes, even after the ] in the 7th century. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as '']'' of ] (11th century), '']'' of ] (13th century), and ''Jam-i-Mufidi'' (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}} ] does not recognize any castes,{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=27}} however, by the time it came to ] and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. The ancient Persian society had a social stratification system analogous to the Indian ] system. The ] society retained this system with some changes, even after the ] in the 7th century. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as '']'' of ] (11th century), '']'' of ] (13th century), and ''Jam-i-Mufidi'' (17th century).{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=29}}


The Muslims who came to the subcontinent during the 12th century ] were already divided into social classes such as priests, nobles and others. Further, a racial segregation demarcated the local Muslim converts from those of foreign origin. The foreigners claimed a superior status as they were associated with the conquerors, and categorized themselves as ] ("noble").{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} Over time, the Indian Muslim society also split on the basis of the existing ].{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=30}} According to ] (1986), Indian Hindu converts to Islam brought their original caste system to the Muslim society in the region. On the other hand, ] (1957) believes that the Islamic conquerors consciously adopted the Hindu caste system.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=115-116}}

], the 14th century political thinker of the ] recommended that the "sons of Mohamed" (i.e. Ashrafs) "be given a higher social status than the low-born (i.e. Ajlaf). His most significant contribution in the ] was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam. His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over ] law whenever they were in conflict. According to Barani, every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly ". Barani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily based on their caste.<ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani: an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, ISBN 81-85268-45-2 pp. 124-143</ref>


=== History of research === === History of research ===
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Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=32-35}} Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:{{sfn|Ghaus Ansari|1960|p=32-35}}


* ''Ashraf'', who claim foreign-origin descent from Afghans, Arabs, Persians, Turks etc. * ''Ajlaf'', who claim foreign-origin descent from Afghans, Arabs, Persians, Turks etc.
** E.g. ], ], ], ] ** E.g. ], ], ], ]
* Converts from upper castes * Converts from upper castes
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** E.g. ] ** E.g. ]


The non-Ashrafs are categorized as ''Ajlaf''. The untouchable Hindu converts are also categorized as ''Arzal'' ("degraded").<ref name="Ambedkar">{{cite book |last = Ambedkar |first = Bhimrao |authorlink = B.R. Ambedkar |title = Pakistan or the Partition of India |publisher = Thackers Publishers }}</ref><ref name="Ambedkaronline"></ref> They are relegated to menial professions such as scavenging and carrying ].<ref> by Tanweer Fazal,''Indian express''</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Falahi|first1=Masood|title=Caste and caste based discrimination s Among Indian Muslims’|url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/5664/1/AHRC_16,_Caste_and_Caste_Based_Discriminations_Among_Indian_Muslims.pdf|website=SAS|accessdate=5 January 2015}}</ref>

In Pakistan, various social groups (called ''quom''s) display a social stratification comparable to the Hindu caste system. The various ''quom''s differ widely in power, privilege and wealth.{{sfn|Fredrik Barth|1960|p=113}} Both ethnic affiliation (e.g. ], ], ], ], etc.) and membership of specific biraderis or zaat/quoms are additional integral components of social identity.<ref name="barth">{{cite book | last = Barth | first = Fredrik | editor = E. R. Leach | title = The System Of Social Stratification In Swat, North Pakistan (Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan) | url= http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=2995517 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | page = 113 | year = 1962 }}</ref> Within the bounds of endogamy defined by the above parameters, close consanguineous unions are preferred due to a congruence of key features of group- and individual-level background factors as well as affinities. McKim Marriott adds that a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Ecologic Relationships of Ethnic Groups in Swat, North Pakistan|author=Fredrick Barth|journal=American Anthropologist|doi=10.1525/aa.1956.58.6.02a00080|volume=58|issue=6|pages=1079–1089|date=December 1956}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (Editor: Kenneth David)|author=Zeyauddin Ahmed|pages=337–354|isbn=90-279-7959-6|publisher=Aldine Publishing Company|year=1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Caste ranking and community structure in five regions of India and Pakistan|author=McKim Marriott|year=1960|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/caste-ranking-and-community-structure-in-five-regions-of-india-and-pakistan/oclc/186146571}}</ref>

{{see also|List of Muslim Other Backward Classes communities}}

== Discrimination ==


Over the centuries, like other South Asian societies, the Muslim society in the region has evolved into the concept of caste purity and pollution.{{sfn|Azra Khanam|2013|pp=120-121}}<ref name=":7">{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1O2kBgAAQBAJ&pg=PT84&lpg=PT84&dq=caste+purity+among+Muslims&source=bl&ots=8El2LxPJFC&sig=NXcdbHvY5dmsLs6n5qk-Nxm5evI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiGsvvL3ofQAhWIw1QKHbJgC-8Q6AEINDAE#v=onepage&q=caste%20purity%20among%20Muslims&f=false |title=The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis |last1=Webner |first1=Pnina |date=2007 |website=Google Books |access-date=30 October 2016}}</ref> Hence, the low-class (''Ajlaf'') Muslims in the region have faced other kinds of discrimination. Though religiously, prayer is offered generally in the same mosque, however in the recent years, separate mosques have been enacted by the "untouchable" Muslims against the rest, similar to what Indian Christians have in South India. Also if caste is determined prior to marriage, marriage would be annulled by the ''Qazi'' if the couples were from Ashrafs and Ajlams, as intercaste marriage is generally socially forbidden. Also as Hindus have progressed to accept intercaste marriages and visitation & interaction among different caste households is now common, however till today, in many places across South Asia, ''Upper-caste Muslims'' restrict themselves to go to a lower caste household for visit, let alone marry. In 20th century India, the upper-class (''Ashraf'') Muslims dominated the government jobs and parliamentary representation. As a result, there have been campaigns to include the Muslim untouchable and lower castes among the groups eligible for ] under ''SC and STs provision act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milligazette.com/Archives/2004/01-15Sep04-Print-Edition/011509200449.htm |title=On reservation for Muslims |author=Asghar Ali Engineer |work=The Milli Gazette |publisher=Pharos |accessdate=2004-09-01 }}</ref>


In ] state of India, cases have been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |publisher=] |accessdate=2003-03-06 }}</ref> In ] state of India, cases have been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.<ref name="rediff_burial">{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/mar/06bihar.htm |title=Backward Muslims protest denial of burial |author=Anand Mohan Sahay |publisher=] |accessdate=2003-03-06 }}</ref>

Revision as of 05:46, 24 November 2016

Muslim communities in South Asia apply a system of social stratification. It developed as a result of ethnic segregation between the foreign invaders (Ajlaf or Muhajir) and the local converts (Ashraf), as well as influence of the indigenous Hindu culture. Islam does not recognize any castes.

Historical development

Islam does not recognize any castes, however, by the time it came to Persia and India, the existing divisions in these regions were adopted among the local Muslim societies. The ancient Persian society had a social stratification system analogous to the Indian varna system. The Sasanian society retained this system with some changes, even after the Muslim conquest of Persia in the 7th century. Evidence of social stratification can be found in several later Persian works, such as Siyasatnama of Nizam al-Mulk (11th century), Akhlaq-i Nasiri of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (13th century), and Jam-i-Mufidi (17th century).


History of research

There are various definitions of the term "caste", and therefore, various opinions on whether this term can be used to denote social stratification among non-Hindu communities. Ghaus Ansari (1960) uses the term "caste" to describe the Muslim social groups with following characteristics:

  • endogamy within a given social group
  • hierarchical gradation of social groups
  • determination of the group membership by birth
  • in some cases, association of an occupation with the social group

Beginning in the 19th century, the British scholars of India first catalogued the various Muslim castes:

  • Henry Miers Elliot's Supplement to the glossary of Indian terms (1844), later amplied into Memoirs on the history, folk-lore, and distribution of the Races of the North Western Provinces of India
  • John Charles Williams's The Report on the Census of Oudh (1869)
  • Denzil Ibbetson's Census Report of Punjab (1883), later adapted into Panjab Castes
  • John Nesfield's Brief View of the Caste System of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh (1885)
  • Herbert Hope Risley's Tribes and castes of Bengal (1893)
  • William Crooke's The tribes and castes of the North-western Provinces and Oudh (1896)

Nelson's book, in particular, included a whole chapter dedicated to the Muslim castes. In the 20th century British India, a number of works included the Muslim social gropus in their descriptions of the Indian castes. These included H. A. Rose's A Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (1911).

In independent India, Ghaus Ansari (1960) initiated academic discussion over the Muslim caste system. Subsequently, Imtiaz Ahmed elaborated the topic in his Caste and Social Stratification among the Muslims (1973).

Divisions

Ghaus Ansari (1960) named the following four broad categories of Muslim social divisions in India:


In Bihar state of India, cases have been reported in which the higher caste Muslims have opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard.

See also

References

  1. Ghaus Ansari 1960, p. 27.
  2. Ghaus Ansari 1960, p. 29.
  3. ^ Ghaus Ansari 1960, p. 22.
  4. Ghaus Ansari 1960, p. 2.
  5. Azra Khanam 2013, p. 115.
  6. Ghaus Ansari 1960, p. 32-35.
  7. Anand Mohan Sahay. "Backward Muslims protest denial of burial". Rediff.com. Retrieved 2003-03-06.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Ahmad, Imtiaz (1978). Caste and social stratification among Muslims in India. New Delhi: Manohar. OCLC 5147249.
  • Ali, A.F. Imam (September 1993). Changing Social Stratification in Rural Bangladesh. South Asia Books. ISBN 978-81-7169-267-5.
  • Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Islam, Caste and Muslim Relations in India. Global Media Publications. ISBN 81-88869-06-6.
  • Ali, Syed (December 2002). "Collective and Elective Ethnicity: Caste Among Urban Muslims in India". Sociological Forum. 17 (4): 593–620. doi:10.1023/A:1021077323866. ISSN 0884-8971.
  • Ahmad, S. Shamim; A. K. Chakravarti (January 1981). "Some regional characteristics of Muslim caste systems in India". GeoJournal. 5 (1): 55–60. doi:10.1007/BF00185243. ISSN 0343-2521.
  • Berreman, Gerald D. (June 1972). "Social Categories and Social Interaction in Urban India". American Anthropologist. 74 (3): 567–586. doi:10.1525/aa.1972.74.3.02a00220. ISSN 0002-7294.
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