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| ==History== | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | Religious laws pertaining to ] are ancient. The ] commands the ] to perform the operation on their male child's eighth day of life and also to circumcise their slaves Genesis 17:11-12. See ] (the Hebrew name for ritual circumcision). During the Ottoman Empire, it was relatively routine that even non-Muslim servants of the state, including ] were required to be circumcised. | ||
| Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks valued the foreskin and were revolted by the Jewish custom of circumcision. Thus, banning circumcision may have been enacted as much to stop what the Greeks regarded as an abuse as for a deliberately anti-Jewish purpose. | |||
| King Antiochus IV, of ], the occupying power of the ] in 170 B.C. decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death. According to the '']'', the ] emperor ] issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire, triggering the Jewish ] revolt of A.D. 132. The Roman historian ], however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild ] as ], a city dedicated to ]. | Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks valued the foreskin and were revolted by the Jewish custom of circumcision. Thus, banning circumcision may have been enacted as much to stop what the Greeks regarded as an abuse as for a deliberately anti-Jewish purpose. | ||
| King Antiochus IV, of ], the occupying power of the ] in 170 B.C. decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death. According to the '']'', the ] emperor ] issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire, triggering the Jewish ] revolt of A.D. 132. The Roman historian ], however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild ] as ], a city dedicated to ]. | |||
| Hadrian's successor, ], permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them (upon ] or ]) from circumcising non-Jews. ] 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves; this law prohibited that practice, as well as making it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. Antoninus Pius also excepted the ]ian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. | Hadrian's successor, ], permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them (upon ] or ]) from circumcising non-Jews. ] 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves; this law prohibited that practice, as well as making it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. Antoninus Pius also excepted the ]ian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision. | ||
| ==Modern Law== | |||
| ] has traditionally been presumed legal under British law. One ] case, ''Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)'' (see | ] has traditionally been presumed legal under British law. One ] case, ''Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)'' (see | ||
| ) said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included a preponderance of medical evidence that circumcision would cause more medical risk than it would avoid; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation would irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father, for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. | ) said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included a preponderance of medical evidence that circumcision would cause more medical risk than it would avoid; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation would irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father, for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 made the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children unclear. | ||
| In recent years many have argued that male circumcision may be illegal under international human rights law. Article 24.3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child provides that State Parties must "take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children..." Although some argue that male circumcision may fall under "traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children," the procedural debate in connection with the Convention indicates its exclusion. | In recent years many have argued that male circumcision may be illegal under international human rights law. Article 24.3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child provides that State Parties must "take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children..." Although some argue that male circumcision may fall under "traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children," the procedural debate in connection with the Convention indicates its exclusion. | ||
| In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful, however, when performed on a child, the act appears to violate general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who still perform circumcisions on chidren must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery. | |||
| ⚫ | In the ], the parents' right to raise their child in their religious faith is protected by the ] to the ]. Although no case has addressed the point precisely, the relative commonness of the procedure for medical, cultural, and hygienic reasons would indicate that preventing ] in the context of a religious practice would not pass constitutional muster in the ]. Although parents are given wide latitude in child rearing, parental discretion is not unlimited in religious matters. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that, "arents may be free to become martyrs themselves. But it does not follow they are free, in identical circumstances, to make martyrs of their children before they have reached the age of full and legal discretion when they can make that choice for themselves." (Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158 (1944) |
||
| ⚫ | In the ], the parents' right to raise their child in their religious faith is protected by the ] to the ]. Although no case has addressed the point precisely, the relative commonness of the procedure for medical, cultural, and hygienic reasons would indicate that preventing ] in the context of a religious practice would not pass constitutional muster in the ]. Although parents are given wide latitude in child rearing, parental discretion is not unlimited in religious matters. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that, "arents may be free to become martyrs themselves. But it does not follow they are free, in identical circumstances, to make martyrs of their children before they have reached the age of full and legal discretion when they can make that choice for themselves." Furthermore, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that laws of general application may restrict religious practice. | ||
| ⚫ | A non-binding research paper of the ] (''Circumcision of Male Infants'') concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. | ||
| ⚫ | A non-binding research paper of the ] (''Circumcision of Male Infants'') concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed. | ||
| Action groups have focused legislative action in various jurisdictions to obtain either court or legislatures to ban circumcision, including in ], ], and ]. In no instance has a total ban been enacted, but the circumcision of minors in Sweden may only be performed under anaesthesia and for a limited time after the birth of the child. | Action groups have focused legislative action in various jurisdictions to obtain either court or legislatures to ban circumcision, including in ], ], and ]. In no instance has a total ban been enacted, but the circumcision of minors in Sweden may only be performed under anaesthesia and for a limited time after the birth of the child. | ||
| Recently, a man in Clark County, Washington, who circumcised his own son with a hunting knife, was charged with assault. | Recently, a man in Clark County, Washington, who allegedly circumcised his own son with a hunting knife, was charged with assault. | ||
| ==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| * Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). | |||
| * British Medical Association '' March 2003'' | * British Medical Association '' March 2003'' | ||
Revision as of 07:45, 12 September 2004
History
Religious laws pertaining to circumcision are ancient. The Hebrew Bible commands the Jews to perform the operation on their male child's eighth day of life and also to circumcise their slaves Genesis 17:11-12. See Brit milah (the Hebrew name for ritual circumcision). During the Ottoman Empire, it was relatively routine that even non-Muslim servants of the state, including Janissaries were required to be circumcised.
Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks valued the foreskin and were revolted by the Jewish custom of circumcision. Thus, banning circumcision may have been enacted as much to stop what the Greeks regarded as an abuse as for a deliberately anti-Jewish purpose.
King Antiochus IV, of Syria, the occupying power of the Holy Land in 170 B.C. decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death. According to the Historia Augusta, the Roman emperor Hadrian issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire, triggering the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt of A.D. 132. The Roman historian Cassius Dio, however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, a city dedicated to Jupiter.
Hadrian's successor, Antoninus Pius, permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them (upon penalty of death or banishment) from circumcising non-Jews. Genesis 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves; this law prohibited that practice, as well as making it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism. Antoninus Pius also excepted the Egyptian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision.
Modern Law
Circumcision has traditionally been presumed legal under British law. One 1999 case, Re J (child's religious upbringing and circumcision) (see ) said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included a preponderance of medical evidence that circumcision would cause more medical risk than it would avoid; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation would irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father, for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the Human Rights Act 1998 made the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children unclear.
In recent years many have argued that male circumcision may be illegal under international human rights law. Article 24.3 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child provides that State Parties must "take all effective and appropriate measures with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children..." Although some argue that male circumcision may fall under "traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children," the procedural debate in connection with the Convention indicates its exclusion.
In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful, however, when performed on a child, the act appears to violate general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who still perform circumcisions on chidren must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery.
In the United States, the parents' right to raise their child in their religious faith is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Although no case has addressed the point precisely, the relative commonness of the procedure for medical, cultural, and hygienic reasons would indicate that preventing circumcision in the context of a religious practice would not pass constitutional muster in the United States. Although parents are given wide latitude in child rearing, parental discretion is not unlimited in religious matters. The United States Supreme Court has ruled that, "arents may be free to become martyrs themselves. But it does not follow they are free, in identical circumstances, to make martyrs of their children before they have reached the age of full and legal discretion when they can make that choice for themselves." (Prince v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158 (1944) Furthermore, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that laws of general application may restrict religious practice. (Employment Div., Dept. of Human Resources of Ore. v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 (1990))
A non-binding research paper of the Queensland Law Reform Commission (Circumcision of Male Infants) concluded that "On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act", and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date. No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed.
Action groups have focused legislative action in various jurisdictions to obtain either court or legislatures to ban circumcision, including in Sweden, Denmark, and North Dakota. In no instance has a total ban been enacted, but the circumcision of minors in Sweden may only be performed under anaesthesia and for a limited time after the birth of the child.
Recently, a man in Clark County, Washington, who allegedly circumcised his own son with a hunting knife, was charged with assault.
External links
- Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault? 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000).
- British Medical Association The law & ethics of male circumcision - guidance for doctors March 2003