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| {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2012}} | |||
| {{Infobox civilian attack | |||
| |title = Kent State shootings | |||
| <!--IMPORTANT: After careful consideration the article title "Kent State Shootings" is being used rather than "Kent State Massacre." Before changing this, please see the talk archives for details of the rationale behind this discussion and discuss on talk if you wish.--> | |||
| |image = Kent State massacre.jpg | |||
| |caption = ]'s ]-winning photograph of ], a 14-year-old runaway, kneeling over the body of ] minutes after he was fatally shot by the ] | |||
| |location = ], United States | |||
| |victims = ] students | |||
| |date = May 4, 1970 | |||
| |time = 12:24 p.m. | |||
| |timezone = Eastern: UTC-5 | |||
| |fatalities = 4 | |||
| |injuries = 9 | |||
| |weapons = {{hlist|]|]|]}} | |||
| |perps=] | |||
| |module= | |||
| {{Infobox NRHP | |||
| | embed = yes | |||
| | name = May 4, 1970, Kent State Shootings Site | |||
| | nrhp_type = nhl | |||
| | location = 0.5 mi. SE of the intersection of E. Main St. and S. Lincoln St., ] | |||
| | coordinates = {{coord|41.150092|-81.343353|region:US_type:landmark|display=inline,title}} | |||
| | locmapin = Ohio#USA | |||
| | area = {{convert|17.24|acre}}<ref name=nrhpreg/> | |||
| | added = February 23, 2010<ref name=newlistings>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20100305.htm |title=Announcements and actions on properties for the National Register of Historic Places for March 5, 2010|date=March 5, 2010 |accessdate=March 5, 2010 |work=Weekly Listings |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| | designated_nrhp_type = January 11, 2017 | |||
| | governing_body = ] | |||
| | refnum = 10000046<ref name=newlistings/> | |||
| }} | |||
| }} | |||
| ] | |||
| The '''Kent State shootings''' (also known as the '''May 4 massacre''' or the '''Kent State massacre''')<ref name="npr2005">"These would be the first of many probes into what soon became known as the Kent State Massacre. Like the ] almost exactly 200 years before (March 5, 1770), which it resembled, it was called a ] not for the number of its victims but for the wanton manner in which they were shot down." {{cite news | url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4630596 | title=The Kent State Shootings, 35 Years Later | author=Philip Caputo | publisher=NPR | date=May 4, 2005 | accessdate=November 9, 2007}}</ref><ref name="ryan2007">{{cite news | url=http://timryan.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=160&Itemid=48 | title=Congressman Tim Ryan Gives Speech at 37th Commemoration of Kent State Massacre | author=Rep. Tim Ryan | publisher=Congressional website of Rep. Tim Ryan (D-Ohio) | date=May 4, 2007 | accessdate=November 9, 2007}}</ref><ref name="warcamehome">{{cite news | url=http://archive.southcoasttoday.com/daily/04-00/04-30-00/a09wn031.htm | title=The day the Vietnam War came home | author=John Lang| publisher=Scripps Howard News service | date=May 4, 2000 | accessdate=November 9, 2007}}</ref> occurred at ] in ], in the United States and involved the shooting of unarmed college students by the ] on Monday, May 4, 1970. There were 28 soldiers who admitted to firing on top of the hill, 25 of these soldiers fired 55 rounds into the air and into the ground, two of the soldiers fired .45cal pistol shots, three into the crowd, and three into the air, one soldier fired birdshot into the air (James Russell was also hit with a shotgun's birdshot, some believe that some of the shot may have ricocheted off a tree and hit him).<ref>{{cite news|title=Kent State Massacre|last=Ricci|first=Kelly|pages=217–218|access-date=May 19, 2016}}</ref> The guardsmen fired 67 rounds over a period of 13 seconds, killing four students and wounding nine others, one of whom suffered permanent ].<ref> 'Dean Kahler, who was paralyzed during the shootings, went on to become a high school teacher and covered the events of May 4 in his classes' NPR News, May 3, 2010. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref><ref> 'Dean Kahler, among the most severely wounded of the 13 Kent State students shot by the National Guard on May 4, 1970, tours the new May 4th Visitors' Center being dedicated this weekend' WKSU, May 3, 2013. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| Some of the students who were shot had been protesting the ], which President ] announced during a television address on April 30. Other students who were shot had been walking nearby or observing the protest from a distance.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.may4archive.org/sandy_scheuer.shtml |title=Sandy Scheuer | publisher=May4archive.org |date=May 4, 1970 |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name=lewis_hensley>{{cite journal|first=Jerry M.|last=Lewis|author2=Thomas R. Hensley |date=Summer 1998|title=The May 4 Shootings At Kent State University: The Search For Historical Accuracy|journal=Ohio Council for the Social Studies Review|format=Reprint|volume=34|issue=1| pages=9–21|issn=1050-2130|url=http://dept.kent.edu/sociology/lewis/lewihen.htm|accessdate=April 16, 2007|oclc=21431375}}</ref> | |||
| There was a significant national response to the shootings: Hundreds of universities, colleges, and high schools <!-- haven't found any citations for ''and even junior high schools'' --> closed throughout the United States due to a ] of 4 million students,<ref name="Nix Prez Rev">{{Cite AV media| people=Director: Joe Angio|title=Nixon a Presidency Revealed|medium=television|publisher=History Channel|date=February 15, 2007}}</ref> and the event further affected public opinion, at an already socially contentious time, over the ].<ref name=highlight/> | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| ] was elected president of the United States in 1968, promising to end the ]. In November 1969, the ] by American troops of between 347 and 504 civilians in a Vietnamese village was exposed, leading to increased public opposition in the United States to the war. The nature of the draft also changed in December 1969, with the first ] since World War II. This eliminated deferments allowed in the prior draft process, affecting many college students and teachers. | |||
| The war had appeared to be winding down in 1969, so the new ] angered those who believed it only exacerbated the conflict. Across the U.S., campuses erupted in protests in what '']'' called "a nation-wide student strike", setting the stage for the events of early May 1970. | |||
| ==Timeline== | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Thursday, April 30=== | |||
| President ] announced that the "Cambodian Incursion" had been launched by United States combat forces. | |||
| ===Friday, May 1=== | |||
| At Kent State University, a demonstration with about 500 students<ref name="task force chronology">{{cite web| url=http://www.m4tf.org/chronology.html | title=Chronology of events | work=May 4 Task Force | publisher=May 4 Task Force | accessdate=April 20, 2010}}</ref> was held on May 1 on the Commons (a grassy knoll in the center of campus traditionally used as a gathering place for rallies or protests). As the crowd dispersed to attend classes by 1 p.m., another rally was planned for May 4 to continue the protest of the ] into ]. There was widespread anger, and many protesters issued a call to "bring the war home". A group of history students buried a copy of the ] to symbolize that Nixon had killed it.<ref name="task force chronology"/> | |||
| Trouble exploded in town around midnight, when people left a bar and began throwing beer bottles at police cars and breaking downtown storefronts. In the process they broke a bank window, setting off an alarm. The news spread quickly and it resulted in several bars closing early to avoid trouble. Before long, more people had joined the vandalism. | |||
| By the time police arrived, a crowd of 120 had already gathered. Some people from the crowd had already lit a small bonfire in the street. The crowd appeared to be a mix of bikers, students, and transient people. A few members of the crowd began to throw beer bottles at the police, and then started yelling obscenities at them. The entire Kent police force was called to duty as well as officers from the county and surrounding communities. Kent Mayor ] declared a ], called the office of Ohio Governor ] to seek assistance, and ordered all of the bars closed. The decision to close the bars early increased the size of the angry crowd. Police eventually succeeded in using tear gas to disperse the crowd from downtown, forcing them to move several blocks back to the campus.<ref name=lewis_hensley/> | |||
| ===Saturday, May 2=== | |||
| City officials and downtown businesses received threats, and rumors proliferated that radical revolutionaries were in Kent to destroy the city and university. Mayor Satrom met with Kent city officials and a representative of the ]. Following the meeting, Satrom made the decision to call Governor Rhodes and request that the National Guard be sent to Kent, a request that was granted. Because of the rumors and threats, Satrom believed that local officials would not be able to handle future disturbances.<ref name=lewis_hensley/> | |||
| The decision to call in the National Guard was made at 5:00 p.m., but the guard did not arrive in town that evening until around 10 p.m. By this time, a large demonstration was under way on the campus, and the campus ] (ROTC) building<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.may4.org/?q=node/5|title=Kent State 1970:Description of Events May 1 through May 4|accessdate=April 3, 2009}}</ref> was burning. The arsonists were never apprehended, and no one was injured in the fire. According to the report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, "Information developed by an FBI investigation of the ROTC building fire indicates that, of those who participated actively, a significant portion weren't Kent State students. There is also evidence to suggest that the burning was planned beforehand: railroad flares, a machete, and ice picks are not customarily carried to peaceful rallies."<ref>The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, 1970. Special Report KENT STATE, Page 251.</ref> There were reports that some Kent firemen and police officers were struck by rocks and other objects while attempting to extinguish the blaze. Several fire engine companies had to be called because protesters carried the fire hose into the Commons and slashed it.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p6.html|title=ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970, p. 6|publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p4.html |title= ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970, p. 4|publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/box107/107f24p5.html|title=ROTC building arson May 2, 1970: Witness statements taken August 6, 1970, p. 5|publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> The National Guard made numerous arrests, mostly for curfew violations, and used ]; at least one student was slightly wounded with a ].<ref name=payne>{{cite web|url= http://www.may4archive.org/chronology.shtml|title=Chronology|year=1997|first=J. Gregory|last=Payne|publisher=May4.org| accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| ===Sunday, May 3=== | |||
| During a press conference at the Kent firehouse, an emotional Governor Rhodes pounded on the desk<ref name="SharkeyLamis1994">{{cite book|last1=Sharkey|first1=Mary Anne|last2=Lamis|first2=Alexander P.|title=Ohio politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7hkbUXIQdwC&pg=PA81|year=1994|publisher=Kent State University Press|location=Kent, Ohio|isbn=0-87338-509-8|page=81}}</ref> and called the student protesters un-American, referring to them as revolutionaries set on destroying higher education in Ohio. "We've seen here at the city of Kent especially, probably the most vicious form of campus-oriented violence yet perpetrated by dissident groups. They make definite plans of burning, destroying, and throwing rocks at police and at the National Guard and the Highway Patrol. This is when we're going to use every part of the law enforcement agency of Ohio to drive them out of Kent. We are going to eradicate the problem. We're not going to treat the symptoms. And these people just move from one campus to the other and terrorize the community. They're worse than the ] and the communist element and also the ] and the vigilantes", Rhodes said. "They're the worst type of people that we harbor in America. Now I want to say this. They are not going to take over campus. I think that we're up against the strongest, well-trained, militant, revolutionary group that has ever assembled in America."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083899.pdf |title=President's Commission on Campus Unrest - pp. 253–254 |format=PDF |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref> Rhodes can be heard in the recording of his speech yelling and pounding his fists on the desk.<ref name="Caputo">{{cite book|last=Caputo|first=Philip|title=13 Seconds: A Look Back at the Kent State Shootings/with DVD|year=2005|publisher=Chamberlain Bros|isbn=1-59609-080-4}}</ref> | |||
| Rhodes also claimed he would obtain a court order declaring a state of emergency that would ban further demonstrations and gave the impression that a situation akin to ] had been declared; however, he never attempted to obtain such an order.<ref name=lewis_hensley /> | |||
| During the day, some students came to downtown Kent to help with cleanup efforts after the rioting, which was met with mixed reactions from local businessmen. Mayor Satrom, under pressure from frightened citizens, ordered a curfew until further notice. | |||
| Around 8 p.m., another rally was held on the campus Commons. By 8:45 p.m. the Guardsmen used tear gas to disperse the crowd, and the students reassembled at the intersection of Lincoln and Main, holding a sit-in with the hopes of gaining a meeting with Mayor Satrom and University President Robert White. At 11:00 p.m., the Guard announced that a curfew had gone into effect and began forcing the students back to their dorms. A few students were bayoneted by Guardsmen.<ref name="13 seconds">{{cite book|title=Thirteen seconds; confrontation at Kent State|first=Joe|last=Eszterhas|author2=Michael D. Roberts |location=New York|publisher=Dodd, Mead|year=1970|oclc=108956|page=121|isbn=0-396-06272-5}}</ref> | |||
| ===Monday, May 4=== | |||
| <!-- Deleted image removed: ] --> | |||
| On Monday, May 4, a protest was scheduled to be held at noon, as had been planned three days earlier. University officials attempted to ban the gathering, handing out 12,000 leaflets stating that the event was canceled. Despite these efforts, an estimated 2,000 people gathered<ref name="ksu chron">{{cite web|url=http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/chronology/index.html|title=Chronology, May 1–4, 1970|publisher=Kent State University|accessdate=April 27, 2008}}</ref> on the university's Commons, near Taylor Hall. The protest began with the ringing of the campus's iron Victory Bell (which had historically been used to signal victories in football games) to mark the beginning of the rally, and the first protester began to speak. | |||
| Companies A and C, 1/145th Infantry and Troop G of the 2/107th Armored Cavalry, Ohio National Guard (ARNG), the units on the campus grounds, attempted to disperse the students. The legality of the dispersal was later debated at a subsequent wrongful death and injury trial. On appeal, the ] ruled that authorities did indeed have the right to disperse the crowd.<ref>{{cite court |litigants = Krause v. Rhodes |vol =471 |reporter = F.2d |opinion = 430 |court = United States Court of Appeals, 6th Cir. |date =1974 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| The dispersal process began late in the morning with campus patrolman Harold Rice<ref name="rice">{{cite book|last=Bills|first=Scott|title=Kent State/May 4: Echoes Through a Decade|publisher=Kent State University Press|year=1988|location=Kent, Ohio|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Xic2lMXkyakC&pg=PA16|isbn=0-87338-278-1|page=16}}</ref> riding in a National Guard Jeep, approaching the students to read an order to disperse or face arrest. The protesters responded by throwing rocks, striking one campus patrolman and forcing the Jeep to retreat.<ref name=lewis_hensley /> | |||
| Just before noon, the Guard returned and again ordered the crowd to disperse. When most of the crowd refused, the Guard used ]. Because of wind, the tear gas had little effect in dispersing the crowd, and some launched a second volley of rocks toward the Guard's line and chanted "Pigs off campus!" The students lobbed the tear gas canisters back at the National Guardsmen, who wore ]s. | |||
| When it became clear that the crowd was not going to disperse, a group of 77 National Guard troops from A Company and Troop G, with bayonets fixed on their ], began to advance upon the hundreds of unarmed protesters. As the guardsmen advanced, the protesters retreated up and over Blanket Hill, heading out of the Commons area. Once over the hill, the students, in a loose group, moved northeast along the front of Taylor Hall, with some continuing toward a parking lot in front of Prentice Hall (slightly northeast of and perpendicular to Taylor Hall). The guardsmen pursued the protesters over the hill, but rather than veering left as the protesters had, they continued straight, heading toward an athletic practice field enclosed by a chain link fence. Here they remained for about 10 minutes, unsure of how to get out of the area short of retracing their path. During this time, the bulk of the students congregated to the left and front of the guardsmen, approximately {{convert|150|to|225|ft|m|abbr=on}} away, on the veranda of Taylor Hall. Others were scattered between Taylor Hall and the Prentice Hall parking lot, while still others were standing in the parking lot, or dispersing through the lot as they had been previously ordered. | |||
| While on the practice field, the guardsmen generally faced the parking lot which was about {{convert|100|yd|m}} away. At one point, some of them knelt and aimed their weapons toward the parking lot, then stood up again. At one point the guardsmen formed a loose huddle and appeared to be talking to one another. They had cleared the protesters from the Commons area, and many students had left, but some stayed and were still angrily confronting the soldiers, some throwing rocks and tear gas canisters. About 10 minutes later, the guardsmen began to retrace their steps back up the hill toward the Commons area. Some of the students on the Taylor Hall veranda began to move slowly toward the soldiers as they passed over the top of the hill and headed back into the Commons. | |||
| During their climb back to Blanket Hill, several guardsmen stopped and half-turned to keep their eyes on the students in the Prentice Hall parking lot. At 12:24 p.m.,<ref name="shooting time">{{cite web|url=http://www.kent.edu/about/history/May4/memorials.cfm |title=May 4th Memorials |publisher=Kent State University |accessdate=February 24, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508152812/http://www.kent.edu:80/about/history/May4/memorials.cfm |archivedate=May 8, 2010 |df=mdy }}</ref> according to eyewitnesses, a sergeant named Myron Pryor turned and began firing at the crowd of students with his .45 pistol.<ref name="timetrial">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917769-1,00.html|title=TRIALS: Last Act at Kent State|date=September 8, 1975|work=]|accessdate=August 18, 2011}}</ref> A number of guardsmen nearest the students also turned and fired their rifles at the students. In all, at least 29 of the 77 guardsmen claimed to have fired their weapons, using an estimate of 67 rounds of ammunition. The shooting was determined to have lasted only 13 seconds, although John Kifner reported in ''The New York Times'' that "it appeared to go on, as a solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer."<ref name=1970_NYT_frontpg>{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0504.html | title=4 Kent State Students Killed by Troops | author=John Kifner |work=The New York Times | date=May 4, 1970 | accessdate=May 5, 2010}}</ref> The question of why the shots were fired remains widely debated. ] ] |date=April 21, 2014 |accessdate=May 1, 2014 |subscription=y}}</ref> by ] caused by a .30 caliber round fired by the Ohio National Guard at Kent State on May 4, 1970]] | |||
| The ] of the Ohio National Guard told reporters that a ] had fired on the guardsmen, which remains a debated allegation. Many guardsmen later testified that they were in fear for their lives, which was questioned partly because of the distance between them and the students killed or wounded. ''Time'' magazine later concluded that "triggers were not pulled accidentally at Kent State." The ] avoided probing the question of why the shootings happened. Instead, it harshly criticized both the protesters and the Guardsmen, but it concluded that "the indiscriminate firing of rifles into a crowd of students and the deaths that followed were unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable."<ref>''President's Commission on Campus Unrest'', p. 289.</ref> | |||
| The shootings killed four students and wounded nine. Two of the four students killed, ] and ], had participated in the protest, and the other two, ] and ], had been walking from one class to the next at the time of their deaths. Schroeder was also a member of the campus ] battalion. Of those wounded, none was closer than {{convert|71|ft|m}} to the guardsmen. Of those killed, the nearest (Miller) was {{convert|225|ft|m}} away, and their average distance from the guardsmen was {{convert|345|ft|m}}. | |||
| ====Eyewitness accounts==== | |||
| Two men who were present related what they saw. | |||
| Unidentified speaker 1: | |||
| <blockquote>Suddenly, they turned around, got on their knees, as if they were ordered to, they did it all together, aimed. And personally, I was standing there saying, they're not going to shoot, they can't do that. If they are going to shoot, it's going to be blank.<ref name="upi.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1970//12303235577467-6/ |title=Kent State Shootings: 1970 Year in Review |publisher=Upi.com |date=January 27, 2012 |accessdate=February 1, 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212010928/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1970/12303235577467-6/|archivedate=February 12, 2009 }}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Unidentified speaker 2: | |||
| <blockquote>The shots were definitely coming my way, because when a bullet passes your head, it makes a crack. I hit the ground behind the curve, looking over. I saw a student hit. He stumbled and fell, to where he was running towards the car. Another student tried to pull him behind the car, bullets were coming through the windows of the car.<br /><br />As this student fell behind the car, I saw another student go down, next to the curb, on the far side of the automobile, maybe 25 or 30 yards from where I was lying. It was maybe 25, 30, 35 seconds of sporadic firing.<br /><br />The firing stopped. I lay there maybe 10 or 15 seconds. I got up, I saw four or five students lying around the lot. By this time, it was like mass hysteria. Students were crying, they were screaming for ambulances. I heard some girl screaming, "They didn't have blank, they didn't have blank," no, they didn't.<ref name="upi.com"/></blockquote> | |||
| Another witness was ], the future lead singer of ] and a student at Kent State University at the time. In her 2015 autobiography she described what she saw: | |||
| <blockquote>Then I heard the tatatatatatatatatat sound. I thought it was fireworks. An eerie sound fell over the common. The quiet felt like gravity pulling us to the ground. Then a young man's voice: "They fucking killed somebody!" Everything slowed down and the silence got heavier.<br /><br />The ROTC building, now nothing more than a few inches of charcoal, was surrounded by National Guardsmen. They were all on one knee and pointing their rifles at...us! Then they fired.<br /><br />By the time I made my way to where I could see them it was still unclear what was going on. The guardsmen themselves looked stunned. We looked at them and they looked at us. They were just kids, 19 years old, like us. But in uniform. Like our boys in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hynde|first1=Chrissie|title=Reckless|date=2015|publisher=Ebury Press|isbn=9781785031441|pages=80–1}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ===May 4, after the shootings=== | |||
| Immediately after the shootings, many angry students were ready to launch an all-out attack on the National Guard. Many faculty members, led by geology professor and faculty marshal Glenn Frank, pleaded with the students to leave the Commons and to not give in to violent escalation:<blockquote>I don't care whether you've never listened to anyone before in your lives. I am begging you right now. If you don't disperse right now, they're going to move in, and it can only be a slaughter. Would you please listen to me? Jesus Christ, I don't want to be a part of this ... !<ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.cohums.ohio-state.edu/grimsley1/warchild/kent.htm|title=The Kent State Shootings and the "Move the Gym" Controversy, 1977|accessdate=April 3, 2009}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| After 20 minutes of speaking, the students left the Commons, as ambulance personnel tended to the wounded, and the Guard left the area. Professor Frank's son, also present that day, said, "He absolutely saved my life and hundreds of others".<ref name="cnn2000">{{cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2000-05-04/us/kent.state.revisit_1_shooting-victims-sandy-scheuer-antiwar-protests?_s=PM:US|title=Kent State shootings remembered|date=May 5, 2000|publisher=CNN|accessdate=December 6, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| ==Victims== | |||
| ''Killed (and approximate distance from the National Guard):'' | |||
| * ]; age 20; {{convert|265|ft|m|abbr=on}} shot through the mouth; killed instantly | |||
| * ]; age 19; {{convert|343|ft|m|abbr=on}} fatal left chest wound; died later that day | |||
| * ]; age 19; {{convert|382|ft|m|abbr=on}} fatal chest wound; died almost an hour later in a hospital while undergoing surgery | |||
| * ]; age 20; {{convert|390|ft|m|abbr=on}} fatal neck wound; died a few minutes later from loss of blood | |||
| ''Wounded (and approximate distance from the National Guard):'' | |||
| * Joseph Lewis, Jr.; {{convert|71|ft|m|abbr=on}}; hit twice in the right abdomen and left lower leg | |||
| * John R. Cleary; {{convert|110|ft|m|abbr=on}}; upper left chest wound | |||
| * Thomas Mark Grace; {{convert|225|ft|m|abbr=on}}; struck in left ankle | |||
| * ]; {{convert|225|ft|m|abbr=on}}; hit in his right wrist | |||
| * Dean R. Kahler; {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=on}}; back wound fracturing the vertebrae, permanently paralyzed from the chest down | |||
| * Douglas Alan Wrentmore; {{convert|329|ft|m|abbr=on}}; hit in his right knee | |||
| * James Dennis Russell; {{convert|375|ft|m|abbr=on}}; hit in his right thigh from a bullet and in the right forehead by birdshot, both wounds minor | |||
| * Robert Follis Stamps; {{convert|495|ft|m|abbr=on}}; hit in his right buttock | |||
| * Donald Scott MacKenzie; {{convert|750|ft|m|abbr=on}}; neck wound | |||
| In the ''President's Commission on Campus Unrest'' (pp. 273–274)<ref name="PCCU">{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083899.pdf |title=The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest, William W. Scranton, Chairman, US Government Printing Office, 1970. Retrieved April 20, 2011. |format=PDF |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref> they mistakenly list Thomas V. Grace, who is Thomas Mark Grace's father, as the Thomas Grace injured. | |||
| All those shot were students in good standing at the university.<ref name="PCCU" /> | |||
| Although initial newspaper reports had inaccurately stated that a number of National Guard members had been killed or seriously injured, only one Guardsman, Sgt. Lawrence Shafer, was injured seriously enough to require medical treatment, approximately 10 to 15 minutes prior to the shootings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.may4.org/1970fbiinvestigation.html|title=U.S. Justice Department 1970 Summary Of FBI Reports (truthful excerpts)|publisher=May4.org|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> Shafer is also mentioned in a memo from November 15, 1973. The FBI memo was prepared by the Cleveland Office and is referred to by Field Office file # 44-703. It reads as follows:<blockquote>Upon contacting appropriate officers of the Ohio National Guard at Ravenna and Akron, Ohio, regarding ONG radio logs and the availability of service record books, the respective ONG officer advised that any inquiries concerning the Kent State University incident should be directed to the Adjutant General, ONG, Columbus, Ohio. Three persons were interviewed regarding a reported conversation by Sgt Lawrence Shafer, ONG, that Shafer had bragged about "taking a bead" on Jeffrey Miller at the time of the ONG shooting and each interviewee was unable to substantiate such a conversation.<!-- Removed from article: These words are directly from the original microfilm of the FBI document. This is not available online. The seven reel set is titled "FBI File on Kent State Fire Bomb and Shooting." It was produced by Scholarly Resources, Inc. | |||
| --></blockquote> | |||
| In an interview broadcast in 1986 on the ] documentary series '']'', Shafer identified the person that he fired at as Joseph Lewis. | |||
| ==Aftermath and long-term effects== | |||
| Photographs of the dead and wounded at Kent State that were distributed in newspapers and periodicals worldwide amplified sentiment against the United States' invasion of Cambodia and the Vietnam War in general. In particular, the camera of Kent State photojournalism student ] captured a 14-year-old runaway, ], screaming over the dead body of ], who had been shot in the mouth. The photograph, which won a ], became the most enduring image of the events, and one of the more enduring images of the anti-Vietnam War movement.<ref name="filophoto">{{cite web| url=http://vietnamiconicphotos.wordpress.com/tag/john-filo/|title=John Filo: Iconic Photos of the Vietnam War and Their Influence on Collective Memory|last=Lovelave| first=Angie|date=August 26, 2010|work=Vietnam Iconic Photos|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref><ref name="may4arch">{{cite web| url=http://www.may4archive.org/retrospective95.shtml |title=May 4 Archive: 1995 Retrospective|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref> | |||
| The shootings led to protests on college campuses throughout the United States, and a ], causing more than 450 campuses across the country to close with both violent and non-violent demonstrations.<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> A common sentiment was expressed by students at ] with a banner hung out of a window that read, "They Can't Kill Us All."<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/collections/exhibits/arch/1970/1970-2.html| title=1970 Timeline|publisher=]|accessdate=May 1, 2007}}</ref> On May 8, 11 people were bayonetted at the ] by the ] in a confrontation with student protesters.<ref>{{cite news|last=Associated Press |title=Arsonists Strike on 2 Campuses |date=May 10, 1970 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=t3ouAAAAIBAJ&sjid=r4YFAAAAIBAJ&dq=new-mexico%20university%20protest%20bayonet&pg=2230%2C1943780 |work=The Modesto Bee |pages=A–2 |accessdate=December 5, 2010 |quote=National Guardsmen were withdrawn from the University of New Mexico late Friday after a confrontation with students that sent 11 people to the hospital with bayonet wounds. }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Also on May 8, an antiwar protest at New York's ] held at least partly in reaction to the Kent State killings was met with a counter-rally of pro-Nixon construction workers (organized by ], later appointed U.S. Labor Secretary by President Nixon), resulting in the ]. Shortly after the shootings took place, the ] conducted a national study that concluded the Kent State shooting was the single factor causing the only nationwide student strike in U.S. history; over 4 million students protested and hundreds of American colleges and universities closed during the student strikes. The Kent State campus remained closed for six weeks. | |||
| Just five days after the shootings, 100,000 people demonstrated in Washington, D.C., against the war and the killing of unarmed student protesters. Ray Price, Nixon's chief speechwriter from 1969–1974, recalled the Washington demonstrations saying, "The city was an armed camp. The mobs were smashing windows, slashing tires, dragging parked cars into intersections, even throwing bedsprings off overpasses into the traffic down below. This was the quote, student protest. That's not student protest, that's civil war."<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> Not only was Nixon taken to ] for two days for his own protection, but ] (Counsel to President Nixon from 1969 to 1973) stated that the military was called up to protect the administration from the angry students; he recalled that "The ] was in the basement of the executive office building, so I went down just to talk to some of the guys and walk among them, and they're lying on the floor leaning on their packs and their helmets and their cartridge belts and their rifles cocked and you're thinking, 'This can't be the United States of America. This is not the greatest free democracy in the world. This is a nation at war with itself.'"<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> | |||
| President Nixon and his administration's public reaction to the shootings was perceived by many in the anti-war movement as callous. Then ] ] said the president was "pretending indifference." ] noted in his ''Vietnam: A History'' that "The administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, ], whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invites ].'" Three days before the shootings, Nixon had talked of "bums" who were antiwar protestors on United States campuses,<ref name="bums">{{cite news| url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30B11FE3D5F14738DDDAB0894DD405B808BF1D3| title=Nixon puts 'bums' label on some college radicals|last=de Onis|first=Juan|date=May 1, 1970| work=The New York Times|page=1|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> to which the father of ] stated on national TV "My child was not a bum."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.lehigh.edu/~ineng/mac6/mac6-histcontext.html |title=histcontext |publisher=Lehigh.edu |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| Karnow further documented that at 4:15 a.m. on May 9, 1970, the president met about 30 student dissidents conducting a vigil at the ], whereupon Nixon "treated them to a clumsy and condescending monologue, which he made public in an awkward attempt to display his benevolence." Nixon had been trailed by White House Deputy for Domestic Affairs ], who saw it differently, saying, "I thought it was a very significant and major effort to reach out."<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> In any regard, neither side could convince the other and after meeting with the students, Nixon expressed that those in the anti-war movement were the pawns of foreign communists.<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> After the student protests, Nixon asked ] to consider the ], which would have used illegal procedures to gather information on the leaders of the anti-war movement. Only the resistance of ] stopped the plan.<ref name="Nix Prez Rev"/> | |||
| A ] taken immediately after the shootings reportedly showed that 58 percent of respondents blamed the students, 11 percent blamed the National Guard and 31 percent expressed no opinion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=kn0yAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-bUFAAAAIBAJ&pg=862,4936664&dq=kent-state&hl=en |title=Campus Unrest Linked to Drugs Palm Beach Post May 28, 1970 |publisher=Google |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref> However, there was wide discussion as to whether these were legally justified shootings of American citizens, and whether the protests or the decisions to ban them were constitutional. These debates served to further galvanize uncommitted opinion by the terms of the discourse. The term "]" was applied to the shootings by some individuals and media sources, as it had been used for the ] of 1770, in which five were killed and several more wounded.<ref name="npr2005" /><ref name="ryan2007" /><ref name="warcamehome" /> | |||
| On May 14, ten days after the Kent State shootings, two students were killed (and 12 wounded) by police at ] under similar circumstances — the ] — but that event did not arouse the same nationwide attention as the Kent State shootings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1660/Killings_at_Jackson_State_University |title=Killings at Jackson State University! |work=The African American Registry |year=2005 |accessdate=April 16, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061201034204/http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/1660/Killings_at_Jackson_State_University |archivedate=December 1, 2006 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> | |||
| On June 13, 1970, as a consequence of the killings of protesting students at Kent State and Jackson State, President Nixon established the ], known as the Scranton Commission, which he charged to study the dissent, disorder, and violence breaking out on college and university campuses across the nation.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED083899.pdf|subscription=yes | title=The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1970| accessdate=April 30, 2011 |isbn=0-405-01712-X}} This book is also known as ''The Scranton Commission Report.''</ref> | |||
| The Commission issued its findings in a September 1970 report that concluded that the Ohio National Guard shootings on May 4, 1970, were unjustified. The report said: | |||
| <blockquote>Even if the guardsmen faced danger, it was not a danger that called for lethal force. The 61 shots by 28 guardsmen certainly cannot be justified. Apparently, no order to fire was given, and there was inadequate fire control discipline on Blanket Hill. The Kent State tragedy must mark the last time that, as a matter of course, loaded rifles are issued to guardsmen confronting student demonstrators.</blockquote> | |||
| In September 1970, twenty-four students and one faculty member were indicted on charges connected with the May 4 demonstration at the ROTC building fire three days before. These individuals, who had been identified from photographs, became known as the "Kent 25". Five cases, all related to the burning of the ROTC building, went to trial; one non-student defendant was convicted on one charge and two other non-students pleaded guilty. One other defendant was acquitted, and charges were dismissed against the last. In December 1971, all charges against the remaining twenty were dismissed for lack of evidence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burr.kent.edu/archives/may4/twentyfive/twentyfive1.html |title=Kent Twenty Five |publisher=Burr.kent.edu |accessdate=May 12, 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020918131557/http://www.burr.kent.edu/archives/may4/twentyfive/twentyfive1.html|archivedate=September 18, 2002 }}</ref><ref name=may41970.org_chronology>{{cite web|url=http://www.may41970.com/trials.htm|title=Chronological summary of events|first= Michael|last=Pacifico|author2=Kendra Lee Hicks Pacifico |work=Mike and Kendra's May 4, 1970, Web Site|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| ===Legal action=== | |||
| Eight of the guardsmen were indicted by a grand jury. The guardsmen claimed to have fired in self-defense, a claim that was generally accepted by the criminal justice system. In 1974 U.S. District Judge Frank Battisti dismissed charges against all eight on the basis that the prosecution's case was too weak to warrant a trial.<ref name=lewis_hensley /> | |||
| Larry Shafer, a guardsman who said he fired during the shootings and was one of those charged, told the Kent-Ravenna '']'' newspaper in May 2007: "I never heard any command to fire. That's all I can say on that." Referring to the assertion that the static-filled tape reveals the order ""Right here! Get Set! Point! Fire!", Shafer—a Ravenna city councilman and former fire chief—went on to say, "That's not to say there may not have been, but with all the racket and noise, I don't know how anyone could have heard anything that day." Shafer also went on to say that "point" would not have been part of a proper command to open fire.<ref name="shafer">{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/02/AR2007050200322.html|title=Kent State Audio Tape Released|last=Sheeran|first=Thomas J.|date=May 2, 2007|work=]|accessdate=23 January 2017}}</ref> | |||
| Civil actions were also attempted against the guardsmen, the State of Ohio, and the president of Kent State. The federal court civil action for wrongful death and injury, brought by the victims and their families against Governor Rhodes, the President of Kent State, and the National Guardsmen, resulted in unanimous verdtape that has been icts for all defendants on all claims after an eleven-week trial.<ref>Tim Phillips, , Activist Defense, March 8, 2013.</ref> The judgment on those verdicts was reversed by the Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on the ground that the federal trial judge had mishandled an out-of-court threat against a juror. On remand, the civil case was settled in return for payment of a total of $675,000 to all plaintiffs by the State of Ohio<ref>Neil, Martha, , '']Journal'', March 8, 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-09.</ref> (explained by the State as the estimated cost of defense) and the defendants' agreement to state publicly that they regretted what had happened: | |||
| <blockquote>In retrospect, the tragedy of May 4, 1970 should not have occurred. The students may have believed that they were right in continuing their mass protest in response to the Cambodian invasion, even though this protest followed the posting and reading by the university of an order to ban rallies and an order to disperse. These orders have since been determined by the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals to have been lawful.</blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote>Some of the Guardsmen on Blanket Hill, fearful and anxious from prior events, may have believed in their own minds that their lives were in danger. Hindsight suggests that another method would have resolved the confrontation. Better ways must be found to deal with such a confrontation.</blockquote> | |||
| <blockquote>We devoutly wish that a means had been found to avoid the May 4th events culminating in the Guard shootings and the irreversible deaths and injuries. We deeply regret those events and are profoundly saddened by the deaths of four students and the wounding of nine others which resulted. We hope that the agreement to end the litigation will help to assuage the tragic memories regarding that sad day.</blockquote> | |||
| In the succeeding years, many in the anti-war movement have referred to the shootings as "murders," although no criminal convictions were obtained against any National Guardsman. In December 1970, journalist ] wrote the following: | |||
| <blockquote>To those who think murder is too strong a word, one may recall that even ] three days after the Kent State shootings used the word in an interview on the ] show in Los Angeles. Agnew admitted in response to a question that what happened at Kent State was murder, "but not first degree" since there was – as Agnew explained from his own training as a lawyer – "no premeditation but simply an over-response in the heat of anger that results in a killing; it's a murder. It's not premeditated and it certainly can't be condoned."<ref>{{cite journal|first=I.F.|last=Stone| authorlink=I. F. Stone |title=Fabricated Evidence in the Kent State Killings|journal=]|volume=15|issue=10|date=December 3, 1970|issn=0028-7504|oclc=1760105}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| The Kent State incident forced the National Guard to re-examine its methods of crowd control. The only equipment the guardsmen had to disperse demonstrators that day were ] rifles loaded with ] ] ammunition, 12 Ga. pump shotguns, ]s, and ] ]. In the years that followed, the U.S. Army began developing ] of dispersing demonstrators (such as ]s), and changed its crowd control and riot tactics to attempt to avoid casualties amongst the demonstrators. Many of the crowd-control changes brought on by the Kent State events are used today by police and military forces in the United States when facing similar situations, such as the ] and civil disorder during the aftermath of ] in 2005. | |||
| One outgrowth of the events was the Center for Peaceful Change established at Kent State University in 1971 "as a living memorial to the events of May 4, 1970".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kent.edu/cacm/ |title=Center for Applied Conflict Management |date=January 29, 2007 |work=CACM Homepage |accessdate=April 16, 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303135344/http://www.kent.edu/cacm/ |archivedate=March 3, 2007 }}</ref> Now known as The Center for Applied Conflict Management (CACM), it developed one of the earliest ] undergraduate degree programs in the United States. The Institute for the Study and Prevention of Violence, an interdisciplinary program dedicated to violence prevention, was established in 1998. | |||
| According to FBI reports,<!--citation needed for where these reports can be found - in KS library? If so, we can tag the fn; maybe, but there's a citation now from Cleveland newspaper.--> one part-time student, ], was already noted by student protesters as an informant for both campus police and the ] ] branch. Norman was present during the May 4 protests, taking photographs to identify student leaders,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.freetimes.com/story/152 |title=The Kent State Conspiracies: What Really Happened On May 4, 1970? |date=May 3, 2006 |first=James |last=Renner |work=] |accessdate=May 1, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022061127/http://www.freetimes.com/story/152 |archivedate=October 22, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> while carrying a sidearm and wearing a gas mask. | |||
| In 1970, FBI director ] responded to questions from then-Congressman ] by denying that Norman had ever worked for the FBI, a statement Norman disputed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alancanfora.com/?q=node/10 |title=US Government Conspiracy at Kent State – May 4, 1970|first=Alan|last=Canfora|authorlink=Alan Canfora|date=March 16, 2006|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> On August 13, 1973, Indiana Senator ] sent a memo to then-governor of Ohio ] suggesting that Norman may have fired the first shot, based on testimony he received from guardsmen who claimed that a gunshot fired from the vicinity of the protesters instigated the Guard to open fire on the students.<ref>Verifying documents are in the Special Collections archive at the Kent State University library.</ref> | |||
| Throughout the years since the shootings, debate has continued on about the events of May 4, 1970.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2006/05/04/why_kent_state_is_important_today/|title=Why Kent State is Important Today|first=Michael|last=Corcoran|work=The Boston Globe|date=May 4, 2006|accessdate=May 1, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://25thaviation.org/id960.htm|first=Alan|last=Stang|year=1974|title=Kent State:Proof to Save the Guardsmen|format=Reprint|journal=American Opinion|issn=0003-0236|accessdate=May 1, 2007|oclc=1480501}}</ref> | |||
| Two of the survivors have died — James Russell on June 23, 2007,<ref> {{wayback|url=http://dept.kent.edu/may4/people/russelljim.html |date=20160304053126 }} Department of Kent Education. Retrieved January 22, 2014.</ref> and Robert Stamps in June 2008.<ref> Recordpub.com. Retrieved from Internet Archive January 2014.</ref> | |||
| ===Strubbe Tape and further government reviews=== | |||
| In 2007 ], one of the wounded, located a copy of a tape of the shootings in a library archive. The original 30-minute ] was made by Terry Strubbe, a Kent State communications student who turned on his recorder and put its microphone in his dormitory window overlooking the campus.<ref name="shafer"/> A 2010 audio analysis of a tape recording of the incident by Stuart Allen and Tom Owen, who were described by the Cleveland '']'' as "nationally respected forensic audio experts," concluded that the guardsmen were given an order to fire. It is the only known recording to capture the events leading up to the shootings. According to the ''Plain Dealer'' description of the enhanced recording, a male voice yells "Guard!" Several seconds pass. Then, "All right, prepare to fire!" "Get down!," someone shouts urgently, presumably in the crowd. Finally, "Guard! ... " followed two seconds later by a long, booming volley of gunshots. The entire spoken sequence lasts 17 seconds. Further analysis of the audiotape revealed that four pistol shots and a violent confrontation occurred approximately 70 seconds before the National Guard opened fire. According to ''The Plain Dealer'', this new analysis raised questions about the role of ], a Kent State student who was an FBI informant and known to be carrying a pistol during the disturbance. Alan Canfora said it was premature to reach any conclusions.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Mangels |url=http://www.cleveland.com/science/index.ssf/2010/10/analysis_of_kent_state_audio_t.html |title=Kent State tape indicates altercation and pistol fire preceded National Guard shootings (audio) | work=Cleveland Plain Dealer | date=October 8, 2010 |publisher=Cleveland.com |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref><ref name=Strubbe>{{cite news|last=Maag |first=Christopher |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/12/us/12brfs-ANALYSISREOP_BRF.html |title=Ohio: Analysis Reopens Kent State Controversy |work=The New York Times |date=May 11, 2010 |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| In April 2012, the ] determined that there were "insurmountable legal and evidentiary barriers" to reopening the case. Also in 2012, the FBI concluded the Strubbe tape was inconclusive because what has been described as pistol shots may have been slamming doors and that voices heard were unintelligible. Despite this, organizations of survivors and current Kent State students continue to believe the Strubbe tape proves the Guardsmen were given a military order to fire and are petitioning State of Ohio and United States government officials to reopen the case using independent analysis. The organizations do not desire to prosecute or sue individual guardsmen, believing they are also victims.<ref>{{cite web|author=Northeast Ohio |url=http://www.cleveland.com/metro/index.ssf/2012/05/may_4th_wounded_from_kent_stat.html |title=May 4th wounded from Kent State shootings want independent review of new evidence Cleveland Plain Dealer May 3, 2012 |publisher=Cleveland.com |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name=NewAnalysis>{{cite web|author1=John Mangels |author2=The Plain Dealer |url=http://blog.cleveland.com/metro/2010/05/new_analysis_of_40-year-old_re.html |title=New analysis of 40-year-old recording of Kent State shootings reveals that Ohio Guard was given an order to prepare to fire | work=Cleveland Plain Dealer | date=May 9, 2010 |publisher=Blog.cleveland.com |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref> | |||
| One of these groups, the Kent State Truth Tribunal,<ref></ref> was founded in 2010 by the family of ], along with ], to demand accountability by the United States government for the massacre. In 2014 KSTT announced their request for an independent review by the ] under the ], the human rights treaty ratified by the United States.<ref name="aclu">{{cite web|url=https://www.aclu.org/blog/free-speech/decades-later-no-justice-kent-state-killings|title=Decades Later, No Justice for Kent State Killings|last=Krause|first=Laurel|date=March 7, 2014|work=Blog of Rights| publisher=American Civil Liberties Union|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="UNHRC">{{cite web| url=http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CCPR/Shared%20Documents/USA/INT_CCPR_CSS_USA_16490_E.pdf|title=KSTT submission to UN Human Rights Council|date=February 14, 2014| publisher=]|accessdate=7 March 2014}}</ref> | |||
| ==Memorials and remembrances== | |||
| Each May 4 from 1971 to 1975 the Kent State University administration sponsored an official commemoration of the events. Upon the university's announcement in 1976 that it would no longer sponsor such commemorations, the May 4 Task Force, a group made up of students and community members, was formed for this purpose. The group has organized a commemoration on the university's campus each year since 1976; events generally include a silent march around the campus, a candlelight vigil, a ringing of the Victory Bell in memory of those killed and injured, speakers (always including eyewitnesses and family members), and music. | |||
| On May 12, 1977, a ] was erected and maintained for a period of more than 60 days by a group of several dozen protesters on the Kent State campus. The protesters, led by the May 4 Task Force but also including community members and local clergy, were attempting to prevent the university from erecting a gymnasium annex on part of the site where the shootings occurred seven years earlier, which they believed would alter and obscure the historical event. Law enforcement finally brought the tent city to an end on July 12, 1977, after the forced removal and arrest of 193 people. The event gained national press coverage and the issue was taken to the U.S. Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.may41970.com/Tent%20City/gym.htm|title= Tent City and Gym Struggle}}</ref> | |||
| In 1990, twenty years after the shootings, a memorial commemorating the events of May 4 was dedicated on the campus on a 2.5-acre (1.0 ha) site overlooking the University's Commons where the student protest took place.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/memorials/m4mem.html|title=May 4 Memorial (Kent State University)| publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> Even the construction of the monument became controversial and, in the end, only 7% of the design was constructed. The memorial does not contain the names of those killed or wounded in the shooting; under pressure, the university agreed to install a plaque near it with the names.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.may41970.com/Backgrounds,%20Titles,%20Lines/Various%20Backgrounds/memorial.htm |title=May 4 Memorial Controversy |publisher=May41970.com |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref><ref> Retrieved from Internet Archive January 18, 2014.</ref><!--The following website is not functioning at present: --> | |||
| {{external media | width = 210px | align = right | headerimage=] | video1 = , (1:46), Kent State TV | |||
| }} | |||
| In 1999, at the urging of relatives of the four students killed in 1970, the university constructed an individual memorial for each of the students in the parking lot between Taylor and Prentice halls. Each of the four memorials is located on the exact spot where the student fell, mortally wounded. They are surrounded by a raised rectangle of granite<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.may41970.com/PrenticeLotMay1999-2.htm|title=Prentice Lot May 1999|date=January 27, 2001|accessdate=September 14, 2010}}</ref> featuring six lightposts approximately four feet high, with the student's name engraved on a triangular marble plaque in one corner.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.may41970.com/Prentice%20Update%20May%201999/Prentice%20Dedication%20Sept%20,%201999/PreticeLotDedication.htm|title =Prentice Lot Memorial Dedication, September 8, 1999|year=2000|first=Michael|last=Pacifico|author2=Kendra Lee Hicks Pacifico |work=Mike and Kendra's May 4, 1970, Web Site|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| ] 1978 cast-from-life bronze sculpture, ''In Memory of May 4, 1970, Kent State: Abraham and Isaac'' was commissioned for the Kent State campus by a private fund for public art,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/4may70/exhibit/memorials/segal.html|title=Abraham and Isaac|publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 17, 2007}}</ref> but was refused by the university administration who deemed its ] (the biblical Abraham poised to sacrifice his son Isaac) too controversial. The sculpture was accepted in 1979 by ], and currently resides there between the university chapel and library.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.princetonol.com/patron/sculpt/|title=Strolling Among Sculpture on Campus|first=Jennifer|last=Sheppard|work=The Princeton Patron|publisher=Princeton Online|year=1995|accessdate=April 16, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| An earlier work of ], '']'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.robertsmithson.com/earthworks/partially_det5.htm |title=Photograph |publisher=Robertsmithson.com |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref> was produced on the Kent State campus by ] in January 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://speccoll.library.kent.edu/other/smithson.html|title=Robert I. Smithson, ''Partially Buried Woodshed'', Papers and Photographs, 1970–2005|date=April 15, 2005|first=Cara|last=Gilgenbach| publisher=Kent State University Libraries and Media Services, Department of Special Collections and Archives|accessdate=April 17, 2007}}</ref> Shortly after the events, an inscription was added that recontextualized the work in such a way that it came to be associated by some with the event. | |||
| In 2004, a simple stone memorial was erected at Plainview-Old Bethpage John F. Kennedy High School in ], which ] had attended. | |||
| On May 3, 2007, just prior to the yearly commemoration, an Ohio Historical Society marker was dedicated by KSU president ]. It is located between Taylor Hall and Prentice Hall between the parking lot and the 1990 memorial.<ref>{{Cite news |last = O'Brien |first = Dave |publication-date = May 3, 2007 |title = State honors historic KSU site with plaque near Taylor Hall |periodical = ] |publication-place = ] and ] |place = ] |pages = A1, A10 |url = http://www.recordpub.com/news/article/1946371 |accessdate =March 27, 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506113047/http://www.recordpub.com/news/article/1946371|archivedate=May 6, 2008 }}</ref> Also in 2007, a memorial service was held at Kent State in honor of James Russell, one of the wounded, who died in 2007 of a heart attack.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fairuse.100webcustomers.com/fairenough/oregon01.html |title=The long road back from Kent State |author=Steve Duin |work=The Oregonian |date=July 1, 2007 |accessdate=April 11, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503214325/http://fairuse.100webcustomers.com/fairenough/oregon01.html |archivedate=May 3, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> | |||
| Front side of Ohio Historical Marker #67-8:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Will_Bunch/status/756513980009644032|website=Twitter}}</ref> | |||
| <blockquote>'''Kent State University: May 4, 1970'''<br /> | |||
| In 1968, Richard Nixon won the presidency partly based on a campaign promise to end the Vietnam War. Though the war seemed to be winding down, on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the invasion of Cambodia, triggering protests across college campuses. On Friday, May 1, an anti-war rally was held on the Commons at Kent State University. Protestors called for another rally to be held on Monday, May 4. Disturbances in downtown Kent that night caused city officials to ask Governor James Rhodes to sent the Ohio National Guard to maintain order. Troops put on alert Saturday afternoon were called to campus Saturday evening after an ROTC building was set on fire. Sunday morning in a press conference that was also broadcast to the troops on campus, Rhodes vowed to "eradicate the problem" of protests at Kent State.</blockquote> | |||
| Back side of Ohio Historical Marker #67-8:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Will_Bunch/status/756527077499801600|website=Twitter}}</ref> | |||
| <blockquote>'''Kent State University: May 4, 1970'''<br /> | |||
| On May 4, 1970, Kent State students protested on the Commons against the U.S. invasion of Cambodia and the presence of the Ohio National Guard called to campus to quell demonstrations. Guardsman advanced, driving students past Taylor Hall. A small group of protesters taunted the Guard from the Prentice Hall parking lot. The Guard marched back to the Pagoda, where members of Company A, 145th Infantry, and Troop G, 107th Armored Cavalry, turned and fired 61-67 shots during thirteen seconds. Four students were killed - Allison Krause, Jeffrey Miller, Sandra Scheuer, and William Schroeder. Nine students were wounded - Alan Canfora, John Cleary, Thomas Grace, Dean Kahler, Joseph Lewis, D. Scott MacKenzie, James Russell, Robert Stamps, and Douglas Wrentmore. Those shot were 20 to 245 yards away from the Guard. The Report of the President's Commission on Campus Unrest concluded that the shootings were "unnecessary, unwarranted, and inexcusable."</blockquote> | |||
| In 2008, Kent State University announced plans to construct a May 4 Visitors' Center in a room in Taylor Hall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://einside.kent.edu/?type=art&id=88108 |title=Associate Provost's Perspective |publisher=Einside.kent.edu |accessdate=May 12, 2013}}</ref> The center was officially opened in May 2013, on the anniversary of the shootings.<ref> The Nation. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| A {{convert|17.24|acre|adj=on}} area was listed as "Kent State Shootings Site" on the ] on February 23, 2010.<ref name=newlistings>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/listings/20100305.htm |title=Announcements and actions on properties for the National Register of Historic Places for March 5, 2010|date=March 5, 2010 |accessdate=March 5, 2010 |work=Weekly Listings |publisher=]}}</ref> Places normally cannot be added to the Register until they have been significant for at least fifty years, and only cases of "exceptional importance" can be added sooner.<ref>, ]. Accessed 2013-02-28.</ref> The entry was announced as the featured listing in the ]'s weekly list of March 5, 2010.<ref name=featured>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/nrlist.htm|title=Weekly List Actions |accessdate=March 5, 2010 |publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Contributing resources in the site are: Taylor Hall, the Victory Bell, Lilac Lane and Boulder Marker, The Pagoda, Solar Totem, and the Prentice Hall Parking Lot.<ref name=nrhpreg>{{cite web |title=National Register of Historic Places Registration: Kent State Shootings Site |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/feature/weekly_features/KentStateShootingSite.pdf |format=PDF |date=December 31, 2008 |author1=Seeman, Mark F. |author2=Barbato, Carole |author3=Davis, Laura |author4=Lewis, Jerry |publisher=] |accessdate=March 5, 2010}}</ref> The ] stated the site "is considered nationally significant given its broad effects in causing the largest student strike in United States history, affecting public opinion about the Vietnam War, creating a legal precedent established by the trials subsequent to the shootings, and for the symbolic status the event has attained as a result of a government confronting protesting citizens with unreasonable deadly force."<ref name=highlight>{{cite web|title=Weekly Highlight 03/05/2010 Kent State Shootings Site, Portage County, Ohio |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/feature/weekly_features/10_02_26_KentStateShootingSite.htm}}</ref> | |||
| Every year on the anniversary of the shootings, notably on the 40th anniversary in 2010, students and others who were present share remembrances of the day and the impact it has had on their lives. Among them are ], head coach of the ] team who was a freshman in 1970;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/lopresti/2010-05-03-kent-state-shooting-anniversary_N.htm|title=May 4 shootings still follow former Kent State football players|last=Lopresti|first=Mike|date=May 3, 2010|work=USA Today|accessdate=December 6, 2010}}</ref> surviving student Tom Grace, who was shot in the foot;<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.syracuse.com/kirst/index.ssf/2010/05/post_46.html|title=Kent State: 'One or two cracks of rifle fire ... Oh my God!'|last=Kirst|first=Sean|date=May 4, 2010|work=]|accessdate=December 6, 2010|location=Syracuse, New York}}</ref> Kent State faculty member Jerry Lewis;<ref name="npr50310">{{cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126423778|title=Shots Still Reverberate For Survivors Of Kent State|last=Adams|first=Noah| date=May 3, 2010|publisher=NPR|accessdate=December 6, 2010}}</ref> photographer John Filo;<ref name="cnn2000" /> and others. | |||
| In 2017 the site of the shootings was named as a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-announces-24-new-national-historic-landmarks |title=Interior Department Announces 24 New National Historic Landmarks | U.S. Department of the Interior |publisher=Doi.gov |date= |accessdate=2017-01-14}}</ref> | |||
| ==Cultural references== | |||
| {{Main article|Kent State shootings in popular culture}} | |||
| ===Documentary=== | |||
| * 1970: ''Confrontation at Kent State'' (director ]) — documentary filmed by a Kent State University filmmaker in Kent, Ohio, directly following the shootings. | |||
| * 2000: ''Kent State: The Day the War Came Home'' (director Chris Triffo, executive producer ]), the Emmy-Award-winning documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses, guardsmen, and relatives of students killed at Kent State. | |||
| * 2007: ''4 Tote in Ohio: Ein Amerikanisches Trauma'' ("4 dead in Ohio: an American trauma") (directors Klaus Bredenbrock and Pagonis Pagonakis) — documentary featuring interviews with injured students, eyewitnesses and a German journalist who was a U.S. correspondent. | |||
| * 2008: ''How It Was: Kent State Shootings'' — ] documentary series episode.<ref> Kent State University - Special Collections and Archives. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * 2010: ''Fire In the Heartland: Kent State, May 4, and Student Protest in America'' — documentary featuring the build-up to, the events of, and the aftermath of the shootings, told by many of those who were present and in some cases wounded. | |||
| * 2015: ''The Day the '60s Died'' (Director Jonathan Halperin) — ] documentary featuring build-up of events at KSU, archival photos and film as well as eyewitness reminisce of the event. | |||
| ===Film and television=== | |||
| * 1974: '']'' — The climactic scene of this film depicts National Guardsmen lethally firing on unarmed students, and the credits specifically mention Kent State and other student shootings.<ref> 'The 1974 "The Trial of Billy Jack" was also a hit, in which Laughlin attacked such events as Kent State'. Variety.com, 15 December 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * 1981: ''Kent State'' (director James Goldstone) — television ].<ref> May 4 Archive.org. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * 1995: '']'' — Directed by ], the film features actual footage of the shootings; the event also plays an important role in the course of the film's narrative. | |||
| * 2000: ''The '70s'', starring ] and ], a mini-series depicting four Kent State students affected by the shootings, as they move through the decade.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.swapadvd.com/70s/dvd/8667/ |title=The 70s DVD|year=2000|publisher=Lions Gate| accessdate=March 3, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| * 2002: ''The Year That Trembled'' (written and directed by ]; based on a novel by Scott Lax), a coming-of-age movie set in 1970 Ohio, in the aftermath of the Kent State killings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.amctv.com/movie/291005/Year-That-Trembled/overview|title=Synopsis of ''The Year That Trembled''|publisher=AMC-TV|accessdate=December 6, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| * 2009: '']'' briefly features the Kent State shooting during its opening montage. | |||
| ===Literature=== | |||
| ====Plays==== | |||
| * 1976 — ''Kent State: A Requiem'' by J. Gregory Payne. First performed in 1976. Told from the perspective of Bill Schroeder's mother, Florence, this play has been performed at over 150 college campuses in the U.S. and Europe in tours in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s; it was last performed at Emerson College in 2007. It is also the basis of NBC's award-winning 1981 docudrama ''Kent State''.<ref> 'The play was first performed as a Readers Theatre production as Kent State: A Wake at Yale University and Occidental College in 1976'. May 4 Archive.org. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * 2010 — David Hassler, director of the Wick Poetry Center at Kent State and theatre professor Katherine Burke teamed up to write the play ''May 4 Voices'', in honor of the incident's 40th anniversary.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ohr.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2013/03/11/ohr.oht024|title=May 4th Voices|last=Brennan|first=Claire|work=Oral History Review|publisher=Oxford Journals|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref> | |||
| * 2012 — ''4 Dead in Ohio: Antigone at Kent State'' (created by students of ]'s theatre department and David Jaffe '77, associate professor of theater and the director of the play) — An adaptation of ]' '']'' using the play ''Burial at Thebes'' by Nobel Laureate ]. It was performed November 15–18, 2012 in Tansill Theater.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conncoll.edu/news/event-releases/4-dead-in-ohio-explores-modern-event-through-ancient-story.htm|title=Event Releases: '4 Dead in Ohio' explores modern event through ancient story|date=November 12, 2012|publisher=Connecticut College|accessdate=20 January 2014}}</ref> | |||
| ====Prose==== | |||
| * ]'s story collection, '']'' (1971), is dedicated to the four students who were killed.<ref>Ellison, Harlan. ''Alone Against Tomorrow'', MacMillan Publishing Company, 1972 ISBN 978-0025352506.</ref> | |||
| * ]'s '']'' trilogy (1988–1992) follows the story of a teaching assistant who narrowly missed being shot in the massacre. Frequent references are made to how the experience and its aftermath still traumatize the protagonist decades later, when she is a soldier. | |||
| * Jerry Fishman's ''How Nixon Taught America to do The Kent State Mambo'' (2010) is a fantasy novella about the tragedy.<ref>Fishman, Jerry. ''How Nixon Taught America to do The Kent State Mambo'', Rosedog PR, 2010 ISBN 978-1434982827.</ref> | |||
| * ]'s post-apocalyptic novel '']'' includes a scene in Book I in which Kent State campus police officers witness U.S. soldiers shooting students protesting the government cover-up of the military origins of the Superflu that is devastating the country.<ref>{{cite book| last1 = King | first1 = Stephen| title = ]| publisher = ]| pages = 264–268| year = 2011| isbn = 978-1444720730}}</ref> | |||
| ===Music=== | |||
| The best-known popular culture response to the deaths at Kent State was the ] "]", written by ] for ]. They promptly recorded the song, and preview discs (]) were rushed to major radio stations, although the group already had a hit song, "]", on the charts at the time. Within two and a half weeks of the Kent State shootings, "Ohio" was receiving national airplay.<ref name="hare" /> ], ], and ] visited the Kent State campus for the first time on May 4, 1997, where they performed the song for the May 4 Task Force's 27th annual commemoration.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Brummer|first1=Justin|title=Vietnam War: Kent / Jackson State Songs|url=https://rateyourmusic.com/list/JBrummer/vietnam_war__kent___jackson_state_songs/|accessdate=1 August 2014}}</ref> | |||
| There are a number of lesser-known musical tributes, including the following: | |||
| * ]' 1970 song "Hey Sandy"<ref name="hare"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harveyandrews.com/sounds/Writer/Harvey%20Andrews%20-%20Writer%20Of%20Songs%20-%20Hey%20Sandy.mp3 |format=MP3 excerpt from song |first=Harvey |last=Andrews |authorlink=Harvey Andrews |title=Hey Sandy |work=HarveyAndrews.com |accessdate=May 1, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614003617/http://www.harveyandrews.com/sounds/Writer/Harvey+Andrews+-+Writer+Of+Songs+-+Hey+Sandy.mp3 |archivedate=June 14, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> was addressed to ].<sup></sup> | |||
| * ] "Jackson-Kent Blues," from the ] album '']'' (released in November 1970), is another direct response.<ref name="hare"/> | |||
| * ] released "]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ocap.ca/songs/demonstr.html |first=Mike |last=Love |authorlink=Mike Love |title=Student Demonstration Time |work=ocap.ca |publisher=Ontario Coalition Against Poverty |accessdate=May 1, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416003444/http://www.ocap.ca/songs/demonstr.html |archivedate=April 16, 2007 |deadurl=yes |df=mdy }}</ref> in 1971 on ''].'' ] wrote new lyrics for ]'s "Riot in Cell Block Number Nine",<ref name="hare"/> referencing the Kent State shootings along with other incidents such as ] and the ]. | |||
| * ] wrote a song called "Where Was Jesus in Ohio" in May or June 1970. The unreleased and uncirculating song is reported to be the artist's emotionally charged response to the Kent State shootings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.springsteenlyrics.com/lyrics/w/wherewasjesusinohio.php |title=SpringsteenLyrics.com |accessdate=July 25, 2008}}</ref> | |||
| * In 1970–1971 ], a Kent State University music professor who was on campus when the shootings occurred, composed ''Opera Flies'', a full-length opera, in response to his experience. The work was first performed on the Kent State campus on May 8, 1971, and was revived for the 25th commemoration of the events in 1995.<ref name="hare2"> Kent State University: Special Collections and Archives. Retrieved January 21, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * Actress and singer ] released in 1971 a single with the song "41,000 Plus 4 — The Ballad of the Kent State", an homage to the four students killed at Kent State.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brummer|first=Justin|title=Vietnam War: Kent / Jackson State Songs|url=https://rateyourmusic.com/list/JBrummer/vietnam_war__kent___jackson_state_songs/|accessdate=23 May 2014}}</ref> | |||
| * In 1971, the composer and pianist Bill Dobbins (who was a Kent State University graduate student at the time of the shootings), composed "The Balcony", an avant-garde work for jazz band inspired by the same event, according to the album's liner notes.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://artworkbymanicmark.blogspot.com/2010/06/textures-bill-dobbins.html|title=Textures - Bill Dobbins|date=June 30, 2010|publisher=Unearthed in the Atomic Attic|accessdate=7 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
| * ]'s 1971 ] ''Truth Is Fallen'' was written in response to the slain students at Kent State University and Jackson State University; the work was premiered in ] on May 1, 1971, and released on LP in 1972.<ref name="hare"/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://composersdatebook.publicradio.org/listings/datebook_20020501.php|title=May 1–4, 2002|work=Composers Datebook| date=May 1, 2002|accessdate=May 1, 2007}}</ref> | |||
| * ]'s "It Could Have Been Me" was released on ''A Live Album'' (1974). The song is Near's personal response to the incident.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CadP4dRemYk|title=Holly Near - It Could Have Been Me (Live)|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> | |||
| * A commemorative 2-CD compilation featuring music and interviews was released by the May 4 Task Force in May 2005, in commemoration of the 35th anniversary of the shootings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/kent-state-may-4-cd-project/oclc/664554120|title=The Kent State May 4 CD Project|work=WorldCat|accessdate=10 May 2015}}</ref> | |||
| * One of the students who participated in the protest was ], future leader of ], who was a sophomore at the time.<ref>{{Cite episode | format=Kent State portion, hosted at ''May 4 Archive''|title=Behind the Music 1970|series=VH1: Behind the Music|serieslink=Behind the Music|network=]| url=http://www.may4archive.org/vh1.shtml}}</ref> Her former bandmate,<ref name="hynde">{{cite web| url=http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/pretenders/news/artists/8865/63295/63316|title=Pretenders|year=2001|work=The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll|publisher=Simon & Schuster| accessdate=December 6, 2010}}</ref> ], and ], founding members of ], also attended Kent State at the time of the shootings. Casale was reportedly "standing about {{convert|15|ft|m}} away"<ref name="devo" /> from Allison Krause when she was shot, and was friends with her and another one of the students who were killed. The shootings were the transformative moment for him<ref name="speakers">{{cite web|url=http://kentwired.com/biography-of-may 4-speakers/|title=Biography of May 4 speakers|date=May 2, 2010|publisher=KentWired|accessdate=December 6, 2010|quote=Casale told DrownedInSound.com, an online music magazine, that May 4, 1970, was the day he stopped being a hippie. 'It was just so hideous,' he said. 'It changed everything: no more mister nice guy.'}}{{dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> and for the band, which became less of a pure joke and more a vehicle for social critique, albeit with a ] bent.<ref name="devo">{{cite journal|url=http://www.juicemagazine.com/devo.html |title=DEVO and the evolution of The Wipeouters: interview with Mark Mothersbaugh |first=Steve |last=Olson |date=July 2006 |accessdate=May 1, 2007 |journal=Juice: Sounds, Surf & Skate |oclc=67986266 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070814054216/http://www.juicemagazine.com/devo.html |archivedate=August 14, 2007 }}</ref> | |||
| * ] cover the topic in their 1995 album, ''Give Light''. The song 'Kent' was written by band member, Terry Leonino, a survivor of the Kent State shootings.<ref name="hare2" /> | |||
| * ] recreates the events from the perspective of the Guards in the song "]", on '']'' (October 1970).<ref name="hare"> Chapman University Historical Review. Retrieved January 20, 2014.</ref> | |||
| * ] sings "The Kent State Massacre" written by Jack Warshaw on her 1973 album ''I Hate the Capitalist System''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wirz.de/music/danefrm.htm|title=Barbara Dane Discography|accessdate=October 12, 2009}}</ref> | |||
| * Musician, spoken word artist and political activist ], who was influenced by the Vietnam War protests and Kent State,<ref name="prog2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.progressive.org/mag_intvbiafra|title=Jello Biafra Interview|last=Vander Molen|first=Jodi|date=February 2001|work=The Progressive|accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref> mentions the shootings in his satirical song "Wish I Was in El Salvador", included in the collaboration album ] he made with Canadian hardcore punk band ] in 1990. The verse recites "Commander says I gotta hold the line/'Til the TV cameras leave/Then we'll fire away, make my day/Just like good ol' Kent State".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.plyrics.com/lyrics/jellobiafra/wishiwasinelsalvador.html|title=Jello Biafra Lyrics: Wish I was in El Salvador|accessdate=16 September 2014}}</ref> | |||
| * ] ] band ] reference Kent State in the first verse of "Loaded Gun," the opening track of their 1999 album '']''. Kent State is mentioned with other examples of American unrest and violence, including the ], strike-breaking violence perpetrated by the ] during the labor movement, and violence directed at the Civil Rights Movement. | |||
| * ] (]) was attending ] at the time of the shootings and released an album in 2014 based on his personal recollections of the event.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} | |||
| * The Swedish rock band Gläns över Sjö & Strand made a song about the shootings, in the album ''Är du lönsam lilla vän?'', called "Ohio 4 maj 1970".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://open.spotify.com/track/3dpNoBNHYkP7YlI8UsmvAg |title=Ohio 4 Maj 1970 by Gläns över sjö & strand on Spotify |publisher=Open.spotify.com |accessdate=February 1, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.progg.se/band.asp?ID=88&skiva=204 |title=Gläns Över Sjö & Strand – Är Du Lönsam Lille Vän? (1970) |publisher=Progg.se |accessdate=February 1, 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005075137/http://www.progg.se/band.asp?ID=88&skiva=204 |archivedate=October 5, 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| {{Main article|Bibliography of the Kent State shootings}} | |||
| * Agte, Barbara Becker, (2012), ''Kent Letters: Students' Responses to the May 1970 Massacre''. Deming, New Mexico: Bluewaters Press ISBN 978-0-9823766-6-9 | |||
| * Bills, Scott. (1988). ''Kent State/May 4: Echoes Through a Decade.'' Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-278-1. | |||
| * Caputo, Philip. (2005). ''13 Seconds: A Look Back at the Kent State Shootings'' with DVD. New York: Chamberlain Bros. ISBN 1-59609-080-4. | |||
| * Davies, Peter and the Board of Church and Society of the United Methodist Church. (1973). ''The Truth About Kent State: A Challenge to the American Conscience.'' New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-27938-1. | |||
| * Eszterhas, Joe, and Michael D. Roberts (1970). ''Thirteen Seconds: Confrontation at Kent State''. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 978-1-938441-11-0. | |||
| * Gordon, William A. (1990). ''The Fourth of May: Killings and Coverups at Kent State.'' Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-582-2. Updated and reprinted in 1995 as ''Four Dead in Ohio: Was There a Conspiracy at Kent State?'' Laguna Hills, California: North Ridge Books. ISBN 0-937813-05-2. | |||
| * {{cite interview |last=Grace |first=Tom |title=The Shooting at Kent State: An Eyewitness Account |url=http://web.mala.bc.ca/davies/H323Vietnam/Grace_Kent_State.1970.htm}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |last=Lewis |first=Jerry M. |last2=Hensley |first2=Thomas R. |date=Summer 1998 |title=The May 4 Shootings at Kent Stat University: The Search of Historical Accuracy |url=http://dept.kent.edu/sociology/lewis/lewihen.htm |journal=The Ohio Council for the Social Studies Review |volume=34|issue=1 |pages=9–21 |doi= |accessdate=28 August 2014}} | |||
| * Listman, John W. Jr. "", ''National Guard'' magazine, May 2000. | |||
| * Michener, James. (1971). ''Kent State: What Happened and Why.'' New York: Random House and Reader's Digest Books. ISBN 0-394-47199-7. | |||
| * Payne, J. Gregory (1981). ''Mayday: Kent State''. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. ISBN 0-8403-2393-X. | |||
| * '''' ("Scranton Commission"). (1970) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 0-405-01712-X. | |||
| * Stone, I. F. (1970). ''The Killings at Kent State: How Murder Went Unpunished'', in series, ''New York Review Book.'' New York: distributed by Vintage Books. ''N.B''.: The second printing also includes copyrighted material dated 1971. ISBN 0-394-70953-5. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Commons category|Kent State shootings}} | |||
| {{Wikiquote}} | |||
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| * — Kent State University | |||
| * — Kent State University, Special Collections and Archives | |||
| * — a Web site about the Kent State shootings | |||
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