Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 13:51, 20 September 2006

This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Misplaced Pages. See Misplaced Pages's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Rashtrakuta Empire

Rashtrakuta Empire during Dhruva Dharavarsha (780CE.),
Official languages	Sanskrit Kannada
Capitals	Regal Capital: (early) Mayurkhand (Bidar district), (later)Manyakheta Other Capitals : Latur
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Badami Chalukya
Succeeding state	Kalyani Chalukya

The Rastrakutas (Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ) were a dynasty which ruled the southern and the central parts or the deccan, India during the 8th - 10th century. The Rashtrakutas came to power in South India around the same time as the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gujarat. This period saw a tri-partite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each empire annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. Their rule brought about great contributions from Jaina mathematicians and scholars, particularly in Kannada language.. Architecture reached a pinnacle in dravidian style, finest examples of which are seen in Ellora and Elephanta in Maharashtra and the Kashivishvanatha temple and Jain temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka, all of which are UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites.

History

The Rashtrakutas were feudatories to the Chalukyas and came into prominence under Dantidurga around 753 CE.The oldest Rashtrakutas are believed to be from ancient Kuntala in the valley of river Krishna. Manank ruled from 350 - 375 C.E. and had built his capital in Manpur (now Maan in Satara district). The Vakatakas of Vidarbha another Rashtrakuta ruler were in conflict with Manank.

Origin

There are several controversies about the origin of the founders of the Rashtrakuta feudatory during their rule from central India as subordinates of the Badami Chalukya during the 6th. and 7th. century. Dr. J. F. Fleet claimed a Rajput origin while historians Dr. P.B. Desai, Dr. A.S. Altekar, Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar, Dr. S.U. Kamat claim the Kannada origin. Historians C. V. Vadiaya, R. G. Bhandarkar postulate a Maratha origin theory while Dr. A. C. Burnell and H. Krishna Shastri believe they were descendants of Dravidian Reddis of Andhra Desha. However, the general understanding is that they originated from an area in the deccan called by various names such as Kuntala, Maharashtra and Karnata.

The Empire

Irrespective of the early lineage of the Rashtrakuta kings, there is broad consensus among historians that the true builders of the imperial empire in the period 8th.c C.E. through 10th. c. C.E., from their regal capital Manyakheta in Gulbarga district of Karnataka were of Kannada origin. This is proven by the fact that most of their inscriptions are in Kannada, while the rest are in Sanskrit. They encouraged literature in these languages, inherited the Dravidian style of architecture, best examples of which is scattered over present day Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.

The Rashtrakutas ruled nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh for several centuries as the heart of their empire. Dantidurga founded the kingdom in 735 C.E. He was the father-in-law of Pallava king Nandivarman of Kanchi. Dantidurga helped Nandivarman to regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and finally overthrew the Badami Chalukya yoke to start the Rashtrakuta empire, with the family based in Gulbarga.. The Rashtrakutas were involved in several wars and alliances with other southern deccan kingdoms like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, Cholas and Gangas of southern Karnataka. They had marital alliances with the Gangas, Cholas and kingdoms in central India.

The consolidation of the kingdom started with Krishna I in whose time major portions of present day Karnataka and coastal Maharashtra came under control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha the Kingdom expanded into an empire encompassing all territory between the Kaveri River and Central India. His led successful expeditions to Kannauj also, but without long term land gains. According to some historians, the Rashtrakutas became an "All-India" power during his rule.. The ascent of his third son Govinda III to the throne heralded an era like never before. During this time, the Rashtrakutas ruled a vast empire. One Sanjan inscriptions mentions that the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayas and his war elephantss tasted the sacred water of Ganga. He conquered regions from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Broach (Bharuch).. Though his successorAmoghavarsha I ruled a large empire, his rule was not so flamboyant militarily, but was a great success for arts and literature and religion. He is widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta kings. Jaina scholars adorned his court. During the rule of Krishna II, the empire shrank and covered mostly the Western Deccan and Gujarat. Indra III recovered most of their fortunes in Kannaujand central India, while maintaining his influence over Vengi. After a succession of unsuccessful and weak kings during which time the empire shrank in area, Krishna III, the last great king who once again consolidated the empire to stretch from the Narmada River to Kaveri River including northern Tamil country.

The final decline was sudden, Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta tracing his lineage back to the Chalukyas of Badami declared himself independent taking advantage of the defeated the successors of Krishna III at the hands of the Paramara who plundered Manyakheta. Indra IV, the last king commited Sallekhana and died (fasting unto death practiced by Jain monks). However by this time, several branches of Rashtrakutas had established themselves in North India.

Art and Architecture

The Rashtrakutas were great patrons of learning, many literary, religious and scientific texts were written during their rule.

Kannada Literature

Kannada rose as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its language, script and literature showing remarkable growth during the Rashtrakuta period attaining dignity and productivity. The inscriptions mention a number of poets. However, the first extant work is Kavirajamarga of 850 C.E., a treatise on Kannada poetics. It is ascribed to the Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha I. Sri Ponna, honoured by the title Kavichakravarthi authored works like Bhuvanaika- Ramabhyudaya, Shantipurana and Jinaksaramale and Gatapratiagata. Other famous works were Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya or Pampa Bharata by Adikavi Pampa. Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are considered gems of Kannada literature. Asaga's Vardhamana Purana, Shivakotiacharya's Vaddaradhane is probably the earliest prose work in 900 C.E., Chavundaraya wrote Trishashti LaksanPuranaor Chavundarayapurana. Other poets mentioned in inscriptions are Rudrabhatta of Banahatti, Ravinagabhatta who wrote a record for Govinda IV, Kavi Rajaraja a minister patronised by Krishna II wrote the Kalasa record and Gajankusha, a minister of Krishna III wrote on erotics.

Sanskrit Literature

The Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha is thought to have written Prashottara Ratnamalike. Trivikrama was the most important poet of the time. He authored Nalachampu and the Bagumra plates. Plates were used to write poems. Halayudha patronised by Krishna III wrote Kavirahasya, Mritasanjivini, Somadevasuri who was patronised by King Arikesari of Vemulavada wrote Yashastilaka Champu and Neetivakyamrita. Many Advitha scholars like Padmapada, Visvarupa who wrote Balakrida lived during this time. Great Jain scholars like Virasena and Jinasena were active then. They jointly wrote Dhavala and Jayadhavala. Jinasena who was guru of Amoghavarsha I also wrote Harivamsha , Parshvabhyudaya and Adipurana which was later completed as Uttarapurana by Gunabhadra, who was patronised by Krishna II. Mahapurana, Jasaurachariu and Nayakumara Chariu were written by Pushpadanta who was patronised by Krishna III. Mahaveera wrote Ganithasarasangraha a work on Mathematices, Shakatayana wrote Amoghavritti, Amoghavarsha I himself authored Prashnottara Ratnamala, Chavundaraya wrote Charitrasara. Great logicians like Manikyanandin, Mallavadin and Prabhachandra were of this period.

Architecture

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the culture of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day Maharashtra. It is said that they altogether constructed 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive and sumptuous of them all is the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. The temple is a splendid achievement of dravidian art. The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindy mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.

The project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was dravidian. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka..

The achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural freak and should be considered one of the wonders of the world..

As an accomplishment of art, the Kailasnatha temple is considered stupendous and as a work of rock architecture, it is unrivalled in India. It has always exitd and astonished travellers..

While some scholars claim the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others confirm that they were built by the Rashtrakutas. Other famous rock cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora (famous for its sculptures of Vishnu and Shivaleela) and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.

In Karnataka their famous temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole being proposed for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli, Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kukanur and a Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, many temples at Shirival in Gulbarga and the Trikunteshwara temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Many of these temples have been studied by historians and some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas of Belur and Halebidu..

Administration

Cabinet

From inscriptions and other records it is known that the Rashtrakutas followed the practice of nominating the crown price based on heridity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son as in the case of Govinda III who was the third son crowned by Dhruva Dharavarsha. Abilities were given importance over age and chronology of birth. The most important positions under the king were Chief minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, conch, fan, white unbrella, a large drum and five muscical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. The commander (Dandanayaka), foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita)., a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya) usually associated with one of the feudatory kings. They must have had a position in government equivalent to a premier also. A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or even a high ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) with military training. There were cases where woman took care of significant areas like Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I who administered Edathore Vishaya.

Land governance

The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (Province). The Rashtra was ruled by Rashtrapathi which sometimes was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overlooked by a Vishayapathi and under that was a Grama (taluk) looked after by Gramakuta. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra like Bankesha, commander of Amoghavarsha I who headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70. The suffix designated the number of villages in that territory. Below the Vishaya was also Nadu looked after by Nadugowda or Nadugavunda and sometimes there were two such officials, one appointed by heridity and another centrally. The lowest division was a village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda. Taxes called Udranga, Uparika, Bhagakara and Bhuthotpatta Prathyaya existed on land and land revenue.

Army

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of a large infantry, numerous horseman and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the empire in case of war. Cheiftens and all officials also served as commanders whose posting was transferable if the need arose..

Coinage

The Rashtrakutas issued coins such as Suvarrba, Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 grains, Kalanju weighing 48 grains, Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Kasu weighing 15 grains, Manjati with 2 1/2 grains and Akkam of 1 1/4 grain. Coins were minted in Akkashale. Kannada inscriptions from this empire from the Bombay-Karnataka region have been deciphered and recorded by historians of Archeological Survey of India - South Indian Inscriptions (vol 9, 11,15,17 and 18).

Religion

Template:Rashtrakuta Lata Kings Infobox Scholars have various arguments about the religion followed by the Rashtrakutas. Some feel they were strongly inclined towards Jainism because many of their scholars, both Sanskrit and Kannada were Jainas. Some of the most well known monuments built by their ardent feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad were Jaina monuments in Shravanabelagola, Hassan district and Kambadahalli, Mandya district. Some scholars even opine that Jainsim was a dominant religion being that Karnataka was its stronghold in South India at that time.

However, there is sufficient proof that the Rashtrakuta kings were ardent Hindu. Almost all their inscriptions began with an invocation of Vishnu and sometimes Shiva. Many of their titles like Veeranarayana showed their Hindu leanings. From inscriptions it is well known that Amoghavarsha I sacrificed his finger at the Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity. The famous Kailasnatha temple and other rock cut caves in Ellora show that Vedic Hinduism was flourishing. Some inscriptions of Dantidurga and Govinda IV also show that Brahminic Hinduism was popular.

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism and Hinduism.

Impact

The rise of Chalukyas and Rashtrakuts had a great impact even in North India. While some historians have called this as "Age of Imperial Kannauj", during these times, Chalukya Pulakesi II defeated Harshavardhana and stopped his southward march at the Narmada River. Vengi remained essentially a republic of Vatapi upto middle of 9th. century. The Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj and levied tribute on its rulers and on multiple occassions posed as masters of North India. During the period 7th - 12th. century, Central India was for much of the period under control of these empires and Vengi under their influence. The area between Kaveri River and Godavari River was known as "Kannada Nadu" from Kavirajamarga (850 C.E.) and formed the core area of these two ruling families. Hence according to Dr. Suryanath Kamat, the era deserves to be rightly called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka".. An Arab record of 851 C.E. wrote of the Rashtrakutas as one of the four great contemporary empires of the world.

References

• Dr. Suryanath U. Kamat, Concise History of Karnataka, 2001, MCC, Bangalore (reprint 2002)(Sahitya academy award, 1973).
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
• Dr. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India, From Origins to 1300 AD., Penguin, 2003, New Delhi.
• Marathi Encyclopedia (Khand.14), 1989,publisher-Maharashtra Rajya Vishwakosh Manda

Notes

1. Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955), A History of South India, Dr. Suryanath Kamath, Consice History of Karnataka, 2001
2. According to Dr. Romila Thapar, 2003, History of Early India, From Origin to 1300 AD)
3. Dr. A.S. Altekar claims in his book Rashtrakutas and their Times, (1934)
4. From the Sanjana plates, according to Dr. Jyotsna Kamat The Rashtrakutas and Dr. Suryanath Kamath Concise history of Karnataka, 2001
5. Takeo Kamiya,The Guide to the Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996, Japan Architects Academy (www.indoarch.org), Archeological Survey of India
6. According to Vincent Smith, Art critic. History of Karnataka, Arthikaje
7. Percy Brown and James Fergusson, Art critics. History of Karnataka, Arthikaje
8. Dr. A. Sundara and Dr. Sindgi Rajashekar, Historians. History of Karnataka, Arthikaje
9. whose main responsibility was to draft and maintain inscriptions or Shasanas like an archivist, according to Dr. Altekar
10. according to a record by Al Masudi
11. Says historian Dr. Panchamukhi, ASI- A Concise History of Karnataka, Dr. S.U. Kamath (2001)
12. Arab traveller Sulaiman (851 C.E.) wrote of the Rashtrakutas, (Dr. Suryanath.U. Kamath, Concise History of Karnataka 2001)

See also

• Chalukya Empire
• Ellora Caves

External links

• History of Karnataka, Mr. Arthikaje © 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc
• List of rulers of Maharashtra
• Ancient India
• South Indian Inscriptions- Archeological Survey of India
• Kannada Literature under the Rashtrakutas - Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, Karnataka Literary Academy Award 1988,
  Rajyotsava Award 1991 , Member -The Indian Archaeology Society
• About Karnataka historian/writer Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• The Rashtrakutas, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• Sanskrit Literature under the Rashtrakutas- Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• Archaeological Survey of India
• Architecture of Indian Subcontinent, Takeo Kamiya, Japan Architects Academy
• Early Rashtrakuta history article in Nasik gazetteer

• Ruling clans of India
• Ruling Hindu clans
• Empires and kingdoms of India
• History of Karnataka