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| |caption = Thoreau in 1856 | |||
| |name = Henry David Thoreau | |||
| |birth_date = {{birth date|1817|07|12}} | |||
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| |death_date = {{death date and age|1862|05|06|1817|07|12}} | |||
| |death_place = Concord, Massachusetts, United States | |||
| | resting_place_coordinates = {{coord|42|27|53.7|N|71|20|33|W|type:landmark|display=inline|format=dms}} <!-- (N42° 27' 53.7" W71° 20' 33")--> | |||
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| '''Henry David Thoreau''' (see ]; July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American ]ist, ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. A leading ],<ref>Howe, Daniel Walker, ''What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848''. ISBN 978-0-19-507894-7, p. 623.</ref> Thoreau is best known for his book '']'', a reflection upon ] in natural surroundings, and his essay "]" (originally published as "Resistance to Civil Government"), an argument for disobedience to an unjust state. | |||
| Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry amount to more than 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions are his ] and philosophy, in which he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and ], two sources of modern-day ]. His ] style interweaves close observation of nature, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, ]ic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical ], and Yankee attention to practical detail.<ref name="ReferenceA">Thoreau, Henry David. ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers'' / ''Walden'' / ''The Maine Woods'' / ''Cape Cod''. Library of America. ISBN 0-940450-27-5.</ref> He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and ] in order to discover life's true essential needs.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> | |||
| He was a lifelong abolitionist, delivering lectures that attacked the ] while praising the writings of ] and defending the abolitionist ]. Thoreau's philosophy of ] later influenced the political thoughts and actions of such notable figures as ], ], and ] | |||
| Thoreau is sometimes referred to as an ].<ref>Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds. (1937). ''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', p. 12.</ref><ref>Gross, David, ed. ''The Price of Freedom: Political Philosophy from Thoreau's Journals''. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-4348-0552-2. "The Thoreau of these journals distrusted doctrine, and, though it is accurate I think to call him an anarchist, he was by no means doctrinaire in this either."</ref> Though "Civil Disobedience" seems to call for improving rather than abolishing government—"I ask for, not at once no government, but ''at once'' a better government"<ref name="resistance">Thoreau, H. D. "".</ref>—the direction of this improvement points toward anarchism: "'That government is best which governs not at all;' and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have."<ref name="resistance" /> | |||
| ==Pronunciation of his name== | |||
| ] and Thoreau's aunt each wrote that "Thoreau" is pronounced like the word ''thorough'' (pronounced {{respell|THUR|oh}}—{{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ʌ|r|oʊ|}}—in ],<ref> ''Thoreau Reader''.</ref><ref>'''', under the sidebar "Pronouncing Thoreau".</ref> but more precisely {{respell|THOR|oh}}—{{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɔː|r|oʊ|}}—in 19th-century New England). ] wrote that the name should be pronounced "Thó-row", with the ''h'' sounded and stress on the first syllable.<ref>See the note on pronouncing the name at .</ref> Among modern-day American speakers, it is perhaps more commonly pronounced {{respell|thə|ROH|'}}—{{IPAc-en|θ|ə|ˈ|r|oʊ|}}—with stress on the second syllable.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau|publisher=Dictionary.com|date=2013|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/thoreau}}</ref><ref>Wells, J. C. (1990) ''Pronunciation Dictionary'', s.v. "Thoreau". Essex, U.K.: Longman.</ref> | |||
| ==Physical appearance== | |||
| Thoreau was a homely man, with a nose that he called "my most prominent feature."<ref>Thoreau, H. D. ''''.</ref> Of his appearance and disposition, Ellery Channing wrote, "His face, once seen, could not be forgotten. The features were quite marked: the nose aquiline or very Roman, like one of the portraits of Caesar (more like a beak, as was said); large overhanging brows above the deepest set blue eyes that could be seen, in certain lights, and in others gray,—eyes expressive of all shades of feeling, but never weak or near-sighted; the forehead not unusually broad or high, full of concentrated energy and purpose; the mouth with prominent lips, pursed up with meaning and thought when silent, and giving out when open with the most varied and unusual instructive sayings."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/images.html|title=The Days of Henry Thoreau|author=Harding, Walter|work=thoreau.eserver.org}}</ref> | |||
| ==Life== | |||
| ===Early life and education, 1817–1836=== | |||
| ] in ]]] | |||
| Henry David Thoreau was born David Henry Thoreau<ref>Nelson, Randy F. (1981). ''The Almanac of American Letters''. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann. p. 51. ISBN 0-86576-008-X.</ref> in ], into the "modest ] family"<ref name=McElroy>] (2005-07-30) . ].</ref> of John Thoreau, a pencil maker, and Cynthia Dunbar. His paternal grandfather was born in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=maold&id=I18020|title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Ancestors of Mary Ann Gillam and Stephen Old|publisher=}}</ref> His maternal grandfather, Asa Dunbar, led ] 1766 student "]",<ref>.</ref> the first recorded student protest in the American colonies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/first-student-protest-in-the-united-states.htm|title=First Student Protest in the United States|publisher=}}</ref> David Henry was named after his recently deceased paternal uncle, David Thoreau. He began to call himself Henry David after he finished college; he never petitioned to make a legal name change.<ref>, "Meet the Writers." Barnes & Noble.com</ref> He had two older siblings, Helen and John Jr., and a younger sister, Sophia.<ref>. americanpoems.com</ref> ] still exists on Virginia Road in Concord. The house has been restored by the Thoreau Farm Trust,<ref>{{cite web|title=Thoreau Farm|work=thoreaufarm.org|url=http://thoreaufarm.org/}}</ref> a nonprofit organization, and is now open to the public. | |||
| He studied at ] between 1833 and 1837. He lived in ] and took courses in ], classics, philosophy, mathematics, and science.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} He was a member of the Institute of 1770<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |title=Organizations Thoreau Joined |publisher=Thoreau Society |accessdate=June 26, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503192646/http://www.thoreausociety.org/_membership.htm |archivedate=May 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> (now the ]). According to legend, Thoreau refused to pay the five-dollar fee for a Harvard diploma. In fact, the master's degree he declined to purchase had no academic merit: ] offered it to graduates "who proved their physical worth by being alive three years after graduating, and their saving, earning, or inheriting quality or condition by having Five Dollars to give the college."<ref>"Thoreau's Diploma". ''American Literature''. Vol. 17, May 1945. pp. 174–75.</ref> He commented, "Let every sheep keep its own skin",<ref>{{cite web |author=] |url=http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |title=Live Your Own Life |work=Geneseo Summer Compass |date=June 4, 1984 |accessdate=November 21, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060129085602/http://www.walden.org/Institute/thoreau/about2/H/WalterHarding/LiveYourOwnLife.htm |archivedate=2006-01-29}}</ref> a reference to the tradition of using ] ] for diplomas. | |||
| ===Return to Concord, 1836–1842=== | |||
| The traditional professions open to college graduates—law, the church, business, medicine—did not interest Thoreau,<ref name="sattelmeyer">Sattelmeyer, Robert (1988). ''Thoreau's Reading: A Study in Intellectual History with Bibliographical Catalogue''. . Princeton: Princeton University Press.</ref>{{Rp|25}} so in 1835 he took a leave of absence from Harvard, during which he taught school in ]. After he graduated in 1837, he joined the faculty of the Concord public school, but he resigned after a few weeks rather than administer ].<ref name="sattelmeyer"/>{{Rp|25}} He and his brother John then opened the Concord Academy, a ] in Concord in 1838.<!-- Concord Academy (1822–1863) is a different institution than Concord Academy (est. 1922). --><ref name="sattelmeyer" />{{Rp|25}} They introduced several progressive concepts, including nature walks and visits to local shops and businesses. The school closed when John became fatally ill from ] in 1842 after cutting himself while shaving.<ref>Dean, Bradley P. "".</ref><ref>{{cite web |jstor=3817844 |title=Barzillai Frost's Funeral Sermon on the Death of John Thoreau Jr. |work=Huntington Library Quarterly |date=1994 |author=Myerson, Joel}}</ref> He died in Henry's arms.<ref>Woodlief, Ann. "".</ref> | |||
| Upon graduation Thoreau returned home to Concord, where he met ] through a mutual friend.<ref name=McElroy/> Emerson took a paternal and at times patronizing interest in Thoreau, advising the young man and introducing him to a circle of local writers and thinkers, including ], ], ], and ] and his son ], who was a boy at the time. | |||
| Emerson urged Thoreau to contribute essays and poems to a quarterly periodical, '']'', and lobbied the editor, Margaret Fuller, to publish those writings. Thoreau's first essay published in ''The Dial'' was "," an essay on the Roman playwright, in July 1840.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau's_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/The_Dial|title=''The Dial''|publisher=Walden.org}}</ref> It consisted of revised passages from his journal, which he had begun keeping at Emerson's suggestion. The first journal entry, on October 22, 1837, reads, "'What are you doing now?' he asked. 'Do you keep a journal?' So I make my first entry to-day."<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (2007). ''I to Myself: An Annotated Selection from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau''. Jeffrey S. Cramer, ed. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 1.</ref> | |||
| Thoreau was a philosopher of nature and its relation to the human condition. In his early years he followed ], a loose and eclectic ] philosophy advocated by Emerson, Fuller, and Alcott. They held that an ideal spiritual state transcends, or goes beyond, the physical and empirical, and that one achieves that insight via personal intuition rather than religious doctrine. In their view, Nature is the outward sign of inward spirit, expressing the "radical correspondence of visible things and human thoughts", as Emerson wrote in ''Nature'' (1836). | |||
| ]]] | |||
| On April 18, 1841, Thoreau moved into the ].<ref name="Cheever">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 90. ISBN 0-7862-9521-X.</ref> There, from 1841 to 1844, he served as the children's tutor; he was also an editorial assistant, repairman and gardener. For a few months in 1843, he moved to the home of William Emerson on ],<ref>{{cite book |title=The Life of Henry David Thoreau |last=Salt |first=H. S. |date=1890 |publisher=Richard Bentley & Son |location=London |isbn= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_0RAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1–PA69 |page=69}}</ref> and tutored the family's sons while seeking contacts among literary men and journalists in the city who might help publish his writings, including his future literary representative ].<ref>Sanborn, F. B., ed. (1906). ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau''. Vol. VI, ''Familiar Letters''. . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.</ref>{{Rp|68}} | |||
| Thoreau returned to Concord and worked in his family's ] factory, which he continued to do for most of his adult life. He rediscovered the process of making good pencils with inferior ] by using clay as the binder; this invention improved upon graphite found in ] and bought in 1821 by a relative, Charles Dunbar. (The process of mixing graphite and clay, known as the Conté process, was patented by ] in 1795.) His other source had been ], a mine operated by Native Americans in ]. Later, Thoreau converted the factory to produce plumbago (graphite), which was used in the ] process.<ref>Conrad, Randall. (Fall 2005). . '''' 253.</ref> | |||
| Once back in Concord, Thoreau went through a restless period. In April 1844 he and his friend Edward Hoar accidentally set a fire that consumed {{convert|300|acre|km2}} of Walden Woods.<ref>. The Thoreau Project, Calliope Film Resources. Accessed June 11, 2007.</ref> | |||
| ==="Civil Disobedience" and the Walden years, 1845–1849=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{quote|I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. I did not wish to live what was not life, living is so dear; nor did I wish to practise resignation, unless it was quite necessary. I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms, and, if it proved to be mean, why then to get the whole and genuine meanness of it, and publish its meanness to the world; or if it were sublime, to know it by experience, and be able to give a true account of it in my next excursion.| Henry David Thoreau, "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For", in '']''<ref>''Grammardog Guide to Walden''. Grammardog. p. 25. ISBN 1-60857-084-3.</ref>}} | |||
| Thoreau felt a need to concentrate and work more on his writing. In March 1845, Ellery Channing told Thoreau, "Go out upon that, build yourself a hut, & there begin the grand process of devouring yourself alive. I see no other alternative, no other hope for you."<ref>Packer, 1833.</ref> Two months later, Thoreau embarked on a two-year experiment in ] on July 4, 1845, when he moved to a small house he had built on land owned by Emerson in a ] around the shores of ]. The house was in "a pretty pasture and woodlot" of {{convert|14|acre|m2}} that Emerson had bought,<ref>Richardson. ''Emerson: The Mind on Fire''. p. 399.</ref> {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} from his family home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.google.com/maps/search/concord+mass/@42.449808,-71.342769,15z?source=s_q&hl=en&dg=dbrw&newdg=1|title=Google Maps|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| On July 24 or July 25, 1846, Thoreau ran into the local ], Sam Staples, who asked him to pay six years of delinquent ]. Thoreau refused because of his opposition to the ] and ], and he spent a night in jail because of this refusal. The next day Thoreau was freed when someone, likely to have been his aunt, paid the tax, against his wishes.<ref>Rosenwald, Lawrence. "". William Cain, ed. (2006). ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge: Oxford University Press.</ref> The experience had a strong impact on Thoreau. In January and February 1848, he delivered lectures on "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in relation to Government",<ref>Thoreau, H. D., letter to Ralph Waldo Emerson, February 23, 1848.</ref> explaining his tax resistance at the ]. Bronson Alcott attended the lecture, writing in his journal on January 26: | |||
| :{{quote|Heard Thoreau's lecture before the Lyceum on the relation of the individual to the State—an admirable statement of the rights of the individual to self-government, and an attentive audience. His allusions to the Mexican War, to Mr. Hoar's expulsion from Carolina, his own imprisonment in Concord Jail for refusal to pay his tax, Mr. Hoar's payment of mine when taken to prison for a similar refusal, were all pertinent, well considered, and reasoned. I took great pleasure in this deed of Thoreau's.|]|, ''Journals''<ref>Alcott, Bronson (1938). ''Journals''. Boston: Little, Brown.</ref>}} | |||
| Thoreau revised the lecture into an essay entitled "]" (also known as "Civil Disobedience"). It was published by ] in the ''Aesthetic Papers'' in May 1849. Thoreau had taken up a version of ]'s principle in the political poem "]" (1819), which begins with the powerful images of the unjust forms of authority of his time and then imagines the stirrings of a radically new form of social action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |title=Morrissociety.org |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105232938/http://www.morrissociety.org/JWMS/SP94.10.4.Nichols.pdf |archivedate=January 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> | |||
| At Walden Pond, Thoreau completed a first draft of '']'', an ] to his brother John, describing their trip to the ] in 1839. Thoreau did not find a publisher for the book and instead printed 1,000 copies at his own expense; fewer than 300 were sold.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|234}} He self-published the book on the advice of Emerson, using Emerson's publisher, Munroe, who did little to publicize the book. | |||
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| | caption1 = <center>Reconstruction of the interior of Thoreau's cabin</center> | |||
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| | caption2 = <center>Replica of Thoreau's cabin and a statue of him near Walden Pond</center> | |||
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| In August 1846, Thoreau briefly left Walden to make a trip to ] in ], a journey later recorded in "Ktaadn", the first part of ''The Maine Woods''. | |||
| Thoreau left Walden Pond on September 6, 1847.<ref name="Cheever" />{{Rp|244}} At Emerson's request, he immediately moved back to the Emerson house to help Emerson's wife, Lidian, manage the household while her husband was on an extended trip to Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |title=Thoreausociety.org |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129085846/http://thoreausociety.org/_news_abouthdt.htm |archivedate=November 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Over several years, as he worked to pay off his debts, he continuously revised the manuscript of what he eventually published as '']'' in 1854, recounting the two years, two months, and two days he had spent at Walden Pond. The book compresses that time into a single calendar year, using the passage of the four seasons to symbolize human development. Part ] and part spiritual quest, ''Walden'' at first won few admirers, but later critics have regarded it as a classic American work that explores natural simplicity, harmony, and beauty as models for just social and cultural conditions. | |||
| The American poet ] wrote of Thoreau, "In one book ... he surpasses everything we have had in America."<ref>Frost, Robert (1968). Letter to Wade Van Dore, June 24, 1922, in ''Twentieth Century Interpretations of Walden''. Richard Ruland, ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. p. 8. {{LCCN|68-14480}}.</ref> | |||
| The American author ] said of the book, "A century and a half after its publication, Walden has become such a totem of the back-to-nature, preservationist, anti-business, civil-disobedience mindset, and Thoreau so vivid a protester, so perfect a crank and hermit saint, that the book risks being as revered and unread as the Bible."<ref>Updike, John (2004). "A Sage for All Seasons". .</ref> | |||
| Thoreau moved out of Emerson's house in July 1848 and stayed at a house on nearby Belknap Street. In 1850, he and his family moved into a house at ], where he lived until his death.<ref>Ehrlich, Eugene; Carruth, Gorton (1982). ''The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-19-503186-5.</ref> | |||
| ===Later years, 1851–1862=== | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1851, Thoreau became increasingly fascinated with ] and narratives of travel and expedition. He read avidly on ] and often wrote observations on this topic into his journal. He admired ] and ]'s '']''. He kept detailed observations on Concord's nature lore, recording everything from how the fruit ripened over time to the fluctuating depths of Walden Pond and the days certain birds migrated. The point of this task was to "anticipate" the seasons of nature, in his word.<ref>. Walden.org</ref><ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1862). "Autumnal Tints". ''The Atlantic Monthly'', October. pp. 385–402. . Retrieved November 21, 2009.</ref> | |||
| He became a ] and continued to write increasingly detailed observations on the natural history of the town, covering an area of {{convert|26|sqmi|km2}}, in his journal, a two-million-word document he kept for 24 years. He also kept a series of notebooks, and these observations became the source of his late writings on natural history, such as "Autumnal Tints", "The Succession of Trees", and "Wild Apples", an essay lamenting the destruction of indigenous wild apple species. | |||
| Until the 1970s, literary critics{{Who|date=July 2009}} dismissed Thoreau's late pursuits as amateur science and philosophy. With the rise of ] and ] as academic disciplines, several new readings of Thoreau began to emerge, showing him to have been both a philosopher and an analyst of ecological patterns in fields and woodlots.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thorson|first1=Robert M.|title=Walden's Shore: Henry David Thoreau and Nineteenth-Century Science|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=067472478X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Primack|first1=Richard B.|title=Tracking Climate Change with the Help of Henry David Thoreau|url=http://www.elsevier.com/connect/tracking-climate-change-with-the-help-of-henry-david-thoreau|accessdate=23 September 2015|date=June 13, 2013}}</ref> For instance, his late essay "The Succession of Forest Trees" shows that he used experimentation and analysis to explain how forests regenerate after fire or human destruction, through the dispersal of seeds by winds or animals. | |||
| ]]] | |||
| He traveled to ] once, ] four times, and Maine three times; these landscapes inspired his "excursion" books, '']'', ''Cape Cod'', and ''The Maine Woods'', in which travel itineraries frame his thoughts about geography, history and philosophy. Other travels took him southwest to ] and New York City in 1854 and west across the ] in 1861, when he visited ], Detroit, Chicago, ], ] and ].<ref>Thoreau, Henry David (1970). ''The Annotated Walden''. Philip Van Doren Stern, ed. pp. 96, 132.</ref> He was provincial in his own travels, but he read widely about travel in other lands. He devoured all the first-hand travel accounts available in his day, at a time when the last unmapped regions of the earth were being explored. He read ] and ]; the ]s ], ] and ]; ] and ] on Africa; ]; and hundreds of lesser-known works by explorers and literate travelers.<ref>Christie, John Aldrich (1965). ''Thoreau as World Traveler''. New York: Columbia University Press.</ref> Astonishing amounts of reading fed his endless curiosity about the peoples, cultures, religions and natural history of the world and left its traces as commentaries in his voluminous journals. He processed everything he read, in the local laboratory of his Concord experience. Among his famous aphorisms is his advice to "live at home like a traveler."<ref> in ''The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection''.</ref> | |||
| After ], many prominent voices in the abolitionist movement distanced themselves from Brown or ]. Thoreau was disgusted by this, and he composed a key speech, '']'', which was uncompromising in its defense of Brown and his actions. Thoreau's speech proved persuasive: the abolitionist movement began to accept Brown as a martyr, and by the time of the ] entire armies of the North were ]. As a biographer of Brown put it, "If, as ] suggests, without John Brown there would have been no Civil War, we would add that without the Concord Transcendentalists, John Brown would have had little cultural impact."<ref>Reynolds, David S. (2005). ''John Brown, Abolitionist''. Knopf. p. 4.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ===Death=== | |||
| Thoreau contracted ] in 1835 and suffered from it sporadically afterwards. In 1860, following a late-night excursion to count the rings of tree stumps during a rainstorm, he became ill with ].<ref>.</ref><ref>.</ref> His health declined, with brief periods of remission, and he eventually became bedridden. Recognizing the terminal nature of his disease, Thoreau spent his last years revising and editing his unpublished works, particularly ''The Maine Woods'' and ], and petitioning publishers to print revised editions of ''A Week'' and ''Walden''. He wrote letters and journal entries until he became too weak to continue. His friends were alarmed at his diminished appearance and were fascinated by his tranquil acceptance of death. When his aunt Louisa asked him in his last weeks if he had made his peace with God, Thoreau responded, "I did not know we had ever quarreled."<ref>{{cite book|first=Simon|last= Critchley|title=The Book of Dead Philosophers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME-6IKs4a2sC&pg=PA181&lpg=PA181 |p= 181|location=New York|publisher= Random House |date=2009|isbn=9780307472632}}</ref> | |||
| ] in Concord]] | |||
| Aware he was dying, Thoreau's last words were "Now comes good sailing", followed by two lone words, "moose" and "Indian".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/programs/2008/05/05/|title=The Writer's Almanac|publisher=American Public Media}}.</ref> He died on May 6, 1862, at age 44. ] planned the service and read selections from Thoreau's works, and Channing presented a hymn.<ref>Packer, Barbara L. (2007). ''The Transcendentalists''. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-8203-2958-1.</ref> Emerson wrote the eulogy spoken at the funeral.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NWACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239|last= Emerson|first= Ralph Waldo |title=Thoreau|work=The Atlantic|date= August 1862}}</ref> Thoreau was buried in the Dunbar family plot; his remains and those of members of his immediate family were eventually moved to ] ({{coord |42.464676| -71.342251| type:landmark| display=inline| format=dms }}) in Concord, Massachusetts. | |||
| Thoreau's friend ] published his first biography, ''Thoreau the Poet-Naturalist'', in 1873. Channing and another friend, ], edited some poems, essays, and journal entries for posthumous publication in the 1890s. Thoreau's journals, which he often mined for his published works but which remained largely unpublished at his death, were first published in 1906 and helped to build his modern reputation. A new, expanded edition of the journals is under way, published by ]. Today, Thoreau is regarded as one of the foremost American writers, both for the modern clarity of his prose style and the prescience of his views on nature and politics. His memory is honored by the international ] and his by the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods, established in 1998 in Lincoln, Massachusetts. | |||
| ===Nature and human existence=== | |||
| {{quote|Most of the luxuries and many of the so-called comforts of life are not only not indispensable, but positive hindrances to the elevation of mankind.| Thoreau<ref>''Walden, or Life in the Woods'' (Chapter 1: "Economy")</ref>}} | |||
| Thoreau was an early advocate of recreational hiking and ], of conserving natural resources on private land, and of preserving wilderness as public land. He was himself a highly skilled canoeist; ], after a ride with him, noted that "Mr. Thoreau managed the boat so perfectly, either with two paddles or with one, that it seemed instinct with his own will, and to require no physical effort to guide it." <ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, Passages From the American Note-Books, entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> | |||
| He was not a strict vegetarian, though he said he preferred that diet<ref>Brooks, Van Wyck. ''The Flowering of New England''. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1952. p. 310</ref> and advocated it as a means of self-improvement. He wrote in ''Walden'', "The practical objection to animal food in my case was its uncleanness; and besides, when I had caught and cleaned and cooked and eaten my fish, they seemed not to have fed me essentially. It was insignificant and unnecessary, and cost more than it came to. A little bread or a few potatoes would have done as well, with less trouble and filth."<ref name="Cheever241">Cheever, Susan (2006). ''American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work''. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 241. ISBN 0-7862-9521-X.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Thoreau neither rejected civilization nor fully embraced wilderness. Instead he sought a middle ground, the ] realm that integrates nature and culture. His philosophy required that he be a didactic arbitrator between the wilderness he based so much on and the spreading mass of humanity in North America. He decried the latter endlessly but felt that a teacher needs to be close to those who needed to hear what he wanted to tell them. The wildness he enjoyed was the nearby swamp or forest, and he preferred "partially cultivated country." His idea of being "far in the recesses of the wilderness" of Maine was to "travel the logger's path and the Indian trail", but he also hiked on pristine land. In the essay "Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher" ] wrote, "Thoreau left Concord in 1846 for the first of three trips to northern Maine. His expectations were high because he hoped to find genuine, primeval America. But contact with real wilderness in Maine affected him far differently than had the idea of wilderness in Concord. Instead of coming out of the woods with a deepened appreciation of the wilds, Thoreau felt a greater respect for civilization and realized the necessity of balance."<ref>Nash, Roderick. ''Wilderness and the American Mind: Henry David Thoreau: Philosopher''.</ref> | |||
| Of alcohol, Thoreau wrote, "I would fain keep sober always.... I believe that water is the only drink for a wise man; wine is not so noble a liquor.... Of all ebriosity, who does not prefer to be intoxicated by the air he breathes?"<ref name="Cheever241" /> | |||
| ===Sexuality=== | |||
| Thoreau ] and was ]. He strove to portray himself as an ascetic puritan. However, his sexuality has long been the subject of speculation, including by his contemporaries. Critics have called him heterosexual, homosexual, or asexual.<ref name=harding/><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18_EHFSqSwwC&lpg=PA68&ots=RlUaIV9uay | title=Millennial Seduction | author=Quinby, Lee | page=68}}</ref> There is no evidence to suggest he had physical relations with anyone, man or woman. Some scholars have suggested that homoerotic sentiments run through his writings and concluded that he was homosexual.<ref name=harding>Harding, Walter (1991). "Thoreau's Sexuality". ''Journal of Homosexuality'' 21.3. pp. 23–45.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bronski |first=Michael |title=] |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2012 |isbn=0807044652 |page=50}}</ref><ref>Michael, Warner (1991). "Walden's Erotic Economy" in ''Comparative American Identities: Race, Sex and Nationality in the Modern Text''. Hortense Spillers, ed. New York: Routledge. pp. 157–73.</ref> The elegy ''Sympathy'' was inspired by the eleven-year-old Edmund Sewell, with whom he hiked for five days in 1839.<ref>{{cite web|last=Robbins|first= Paula Ivaska|title=The Natural Thoreau|work= ''The Gay And Lesbian Review'', September–October 2011|url= http://search.proquest.com/docview/890209875}}</ref> One scholar has suggested that he wrote the poem to Edmund because he could not bring himself to write it to Edmund's sister,<ref>Richardson, Robert; Moser, Barry (1986). ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind'',.University of California Press. pp. 58–63.</ref> and another that Thoreau's "emotional experiences with women are memorialized under a camouflage of masculine pronouns",<ref>Canby, Henry Seidel (1939). ''Thoreau''. Houghton Mifflin. p. 117.</ref> but other scholars dismiss this.<ref name=harding /><ref>Katz, Jonathan Ned (1992). ''Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the USA''. New York: Meridian. pp. 481–92.</ref> It has argued that the long paean in ''Walden'' to the French-Canadian woodchopper Alek Therien, which includes allusions to ], is an expression of conflicted desire.<ref>López, Robert Oscar (2007). "Thoreau, Homer and Community", in ''Henry David Thoreau''. Harold Bloom, ed. New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 153–74.</ref> In some of Thoreau's writing there is the sense of a secret self.<ref>Summers, Claude J ''The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage'', Routledge, New York, 2002, p202</ref> In 1840 he writes in his journal: "My friend is the apology for my life. In him are the spaces which my orbit traverses".<ref>Bergman, David, ed. (2009). ''Gay American Autobiography: Writings From Whitman to Sedaris''. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 10</ref> Thoreau was strongly influenced by the moral reformers of his time, and this may have instilled anxiety and guilt over sexual desire.<ref>Lebeaux, Richard (1984). ''Thoreau's Seasons''. University of Massachusetts Press. p. 386, n. 31.</ref> | |||
| ===Politics=== | |||
| {{Green anarchism |expanded=People}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Thoreau was fervently against ] and actively supported the abolitionist movement.<ref name=":6"/> He participated in the ], delivered lectures that attacked the ], and in opposition with the popular opinion of the time, supported radical abolitionist militia leader ] and his party.<ref name=":6">{{cite web|last=Furtak|first=Rick|title=Henry David Thoreau|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thoreau/|publisher=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=27 July 2013}}</ref> Two weeks after the ill-fated ] and in the weeks leading up to Brown's execution, Thoreau regularly delivered a speech to the citizens of Concord, Massachusetts in which he compared the American government to ] and likened Brown's execution to the ]: | |||
| {{quote|"Some eighteen hundred years ago Christ was crucified; this morning, perchance, Captain Brown was hung. These are the two ends of a chain which is not without its links. He is not Old Brown any longer; he is an angel of light."<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} | |||
| In '']'', Thoreau described the words and deeds of John Brown as noble and an example of heroism.<ref name=":1"> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> In addition, he lamented the newspaper editors who dismissed Brown and his scheme as "crazy".<ref name=":1"/> | |||
| Thoreau was a proponent of ] and ]. Although he was hopeful that mankind could potentially have, through self-betterment, the kind of government which "governs not at all", he distanced himself from contemporary "no-government men" (]), writing: "I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government."<ref name="resistance" /> | |||
| Thoreau deemed the evolution from ] to ] to ] as "a progress toward true respect for the individual" and theorized about further improvements "towards recognizing and organizing the rights of man."<ref name="resistance" /> Echoing this belief, he went on to write: "There will never be a really free and enlightened State until the State comes to recognize the individual as a higher and independent power, from which all its power and authority are derived, and treats him accordingly."<ref name="resistance" /> | |||
| Although Thoreau believed resistance to unjustly exercised authority could be both violent (exemplified in his support for John Brown) and nonviolent (his own example of ] displayed in ''Resistance to Civil Government''), he regarded ] ] as temptation to passivity,<ref name=":4"> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> writing: "Let not our Peace be proclaimed by the rust on our swords, or our inability to draw them from their scabbards; but let her at least have so much work on her hands as to keep those swords bright and sharp."<ref name=":4"/> Furthermore, in a formal lyceum debate in 1841, he debated the subject "Is it ever proper to offer forcible resistance?", arguing the affirmative.<ref> from The Thoreau Reader</ref> | |||
| Likewise, his condemnation of the ] did not stem from pacifism, but rather because he considered Mexico "unjustly overrun and conquered by a foreign army" as a means to expand the slave territory.<ref name=":5" /> | |||
| Thoreau was ] towards ] and ]. On one hand he regarded commerce as "unexpectedly confident and serene, adventurous, and unwearied"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> and expressed admiration for its associated ], writing: | |||
| {{quote|I am refreshed and expanded when the freight train rattles past me, and I smell the stores which go dispensing their odors all the way from Long Wharf to Lake Champlain, reminding me of foreign parts, of coral reefs, and Indian oceans, and tropical climes, and the extent of the globe. I feel more like a citizen of the world at the sight of the palm-leaf which will cover so many flaxen New England heads the next summer.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} | |||
| On the other hand, he wrote disparagingly of the factory system: | |||
| {{quote|I cannot believe that our factory system is the best mode by which men may get clothing. The condition of the operatives is becoming every day more like that of the English; and it cannot be wondered at, since, as far as I have heard or observed, the principal object is, not that mankind may be well and honestly clad, but, unquestionably, that corporations may be enriched.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} | |||
| Thoreau also favored ], the protection of animals and wild areas, ], and taxation for schools and highways.<ref name=":6"/> He disapproved of the subjugation of Native Americans, slavery, technological utopianism, ], ], mass entertainment, and frivolous applications of technology.<ref name=":6"/> | |||
| ===Intellectual interests, influences, and affinities=== | |||
| ====Indian sacred texts and philosophy==== | |||
| ], ''a text Thoreau read at Walden Pond ]] | |||
| Thoreau was influenced by ]. In ''Walden'', there are many overt references to the sacred texts of India. For example, in the first chapter ("Economy"), he writes: "How much more admirable the ] than all the ruins of the East!"<ref name="ReferenceA" /> ''American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia'' classes him as one of several figures who "took a more ] or ] approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world",<ref>{{Cite book |title = American Philosophy: An Encyclopedia |author = ] and ] |date = 2007 |ISBN = 0415939267 |page = 310 }}</ref> also a characteristic of Hinduism. | |||
| Furthermore, in "The Pond in Winter", he equates Walden Pond with the sacred ], writing: | |||
| {{quote|In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagvat Geeta since whose composition years of the gods have elapsed, and in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seem puny and trivial; and I doubt if that philosophy is not to be referred to a previous state of existence, so remote is its sublimity from our conceptions. I lay down the book and go to my well for water, and lo! there I meet the servant of the Brahmin, priest of Brahma and Vishnu and Indra, who still sits in his temple on the Ganges reading the Vedas, or dwells at the root of a tree with his crust and water jug. I meet his servant come to draw water for his master, and our buckets as it were grate together in the same well. The pure Walden water is mingled with the sacred water of the Ganges.<ref name="ReferenceA" />}} | |||
| Thoreau was aware his Ganges imagery could have been factual. He wrote about ice harvesting at Walden Pond. And he knew that New England's ] were shipping ice to foreign ports, including ]. | |||
| Additionally, Thoreau followed various ] customs, including following a ] ("It was fit that I should live on rice, mainly, who loved so well the philosophy of India."<ref name="ReferenceA" />), ] (reminiscent of the favorite musical pastime of ]), and ]. | |||
| In an 1849 letter to his friend H.G.O. Blake, he wrote about yoga and its meaning to him: | |||
| {{quote|Free in this world as the birds in the air, disengaged from every kind of chains, those who practice yoga gather in Brahma the certain fruits of their works. Depend upon it that, rude and careless as I am, I would fain practice the yoga faithfully. The yogi, absorbed in contemplation, contributes in his degree to creation; he breathes a divine perfume, he hears wonderful things. Divine forms traverse him without tearing him, and united to the nature which is proper to him, he goes, he acts as animating original matter. To some extent, and at rare intervals, even I am a yogi.<ref>Miller, Barbara S. "Why Did Henry David Thoreau Take the Bhagavad-Gita to Walden Pond? Parabola 12.1 (Spring 1986): 58–63.</ref>}} | |||
| ====Biology==== | |||
| ]. Those in the nest are of ], the other two of ].]] | |||
| Thoreau read contemporary works in the new science of biology, including the works of ], ], and ] (Charles Darwin's staunchest American ally).<ref name=":0" /> Thoreau was deeply influenced by Humboldt, especially his work ].<ref>Wulf, Andrea. ''The Invention of Nature: Alexander Humboldt's New World''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 2015, p. 250.</ref> | |||
| In 1859, Thoreau purchased and read Darwin's '']''. Unlike many natural historians at the time, including ] who publicly opposed Darwinism in favor of a static view of nature, Thoreau was immediately enthusiastic about the theory of ] and endorsed it,<ref>Cain, William E. ''A Historical Guide to Henry David Thoreau''. ISBN 0195138635, p. 146.</ref> stating: | |||
| {{quote|1=The development theory implies a greater vital force in Nature, because it is more flexible and accommodating, and equivalent to a sort of constant new creation. (A quote from ''On the Origin of Species'' follows this sentence.)<ref name=":0">Berger, Michael Benjamin. ''Thoreau's Late Career and The Dispersion of Seeds: The Saunterer's Synoptic Vision'". ISBN 157113168X, p. 52.</ref>}} | |||
| ==Influence== | |||
| ] of Thoreau from the ] at the ]]] | |||
| {{quote|text=Thoreau's careful observations and devastating conclusions have rippled into time, becoming stronger as the weaknesses Thoreau noted have become more pronounced Events that seem to be completely unrelated to his stay at Walden Pond have been influenced by it, including the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the wilderness movement. Today, Thoreau's words are quoted with feeling by ], ], ], ], and ] alike.|sign=Ken Kifer|source=''Analysis and Notes on Walden: Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary''<ref> by Ken Kifer, 2002</ref>||}} | |||
| Thoreau's political writings had little impact during his lifetime, as "his contemporaries did not see him as a theorist or as a radical, viewing him instead as a naturalist. They either dismissed or ignored his political essays, including ''Civil Disobedience''. The only two complete books (as opposed to essays) published in his lifetime, ''Walden'' and ''A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers'' (1849), both dealt with nature, in which he loved to wander."<ref name=McElroy/> His obituary was lumped in with others rather than as a separate article in an 1862 yearbook.<ref>{{cite book|title=Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862|date=1863|publisher=D. Appleton & Company|location=New York|page=666|url=https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n673/mode/1up}}</ref> Nevertheless, Thoreau's writings went on to influence many public figures. Political leaders and reformers like ], U.S. President ], American civil rights activist ], U.S. Supreme Court Justice ], and ] author ] all spoke of being strongly affected by Thoreau's work, particularly ''Civil Disobedience'', as did "] theorist ] devoted an entire issue of his monthly, ''Analysis'', to an appreciation of Thoreau."<ref name=Rothbard>]. , '']'', VI, 4, June 15, 1968</ref> | |||
| Thoreau also influenced many artists and authors including ], ], ], ], ], ], ],<ref>Maynard, W. Barksdale, ''Walden Pond: A History''. Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 265</ref> ], ],<ref>Mumford, Lewis, ''The Golden Day: A Study in American Experience and Culture''. Boni and Liveright, 1926. pp. 56–59,</ref> ], ],<ref>Posey, Alexander. ''Lost Creeks: Collected Journals''. (Edited by Matthew Wynn Sivils) University of Nebraska Press, 2009. p. 38</ref> and ].<ref>Saunders, Barry. ''A Complex Fate: Gustav Stickley and the Craftsman Movement''. Preservation Press, 1996. p. 4</ref> Thoreau also influenced naturalists like ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], whom ''Publishers Weekly'' called "the modern Thoreau".<ref>Kifer, Ken ''''</ref> English writer ] wrote a biography of Thoreau in 1890, which popularized Thoreau's ideas in Britain: ], ], and ] were among those who became Thoreau enthusiasts as a result of Salt's advocacy.<ref>Hendrick, George and Oehlschlaeger, Fritz (eds.) ''Toward the Making of Thoreau's Modern Reputation'', University of Illinois Press, 1979.</ref> Mohandas Gandhi first read ''Walden'' in 1906 while working as a civil rights activist in ], South Africa. He first read ''Civil Disobedience'' "while he sat in a South African prison for the crime of nonviolently protesting discrimination against the Indian population in the ]. The essay galvanized Gandhi, who wrote and published a synopsis of Thoreau's argument, calling its 'incisive logic unanswerable' and referring to Thoreau as 'one of the greatest and most moral men America has produced'."<ref>] (2011-05-04) , ]</ref><ref>"Although he was practicing civil disobedience before he read Thoreau's essay, Gandhi was quick to point out the debt he owed to Thoreau and other thinkers like him".Shawn Chandler Bingham, ''Thoreau and the sociological imagination : the wilds of society''. Lanham, Md. : Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2008. ISBN 9780742560581 p. 31.</ref> He told American reporter ], " ideas influenced me greatly. I adopted some of them and recommended the study of Thoreau to all of my friends who were helping me in the cause of Indian Independence. Why I actually took the name of my movement from Thoreau's essay 'On the Duty of Civil Disobedience', written about 80 years ago."<ref>Miller, Webb. I Found No Peace. Garden City, 1938. 238–39</ref> | |||
| ] noted in his autobiography that his first encounter with the idea of nonviolent resistance was reading "On Civil Disobedience" in 1944 while attending ]. He wrote in his autobiography that it was, "Here, in this courageous New Englander's refusal to pay his taxes and his choice of jail rather than support a war that would spread slavery's territory into Mexico, I made my first contact with the theory of nonviolent resistance. Fascinated by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system, I was so deeply moved that I reread the work several times. I became convinced that noncooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good. No other person has been more eloquent and passionate in getting this idea across than Henry David Thoreau. As a result of his writings and personal witness, we are the heirs of a legacy of creative protest. The teachings of Thoreau came alive in our civil rights movement; indeed, they are more alive than ever before. Whether expressed in a sit-in at lunch counters, a freedom ride into Mississippi, a peaceful protest in Albany, Georgia, a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, these are outgrowths of Thoreau's insistence that evil must be resisted and that no moral man can patiently adjust to injustice."<ref>King, M.L. '''' chapter two</ref> | |||
| American psychologist B. F. Skinner wrote that he carried a copy of Thoreau's ''Walden'' with him in his youth.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''A Matter of Consequences''</ref> and, in 1945, wrote '']'', a fictional utopia about 1,000 members of a community living together inspired by the life of Thoreau.<ref>Skinner, B. F., ''Walden Two'' (1948)</ref> Thoreau and his fellow ] from ] were a major inspiration of the composer ]. The 4th movement of the ] for piano (with a part for flute, Thoreau's instrument) is a character picture and he also set Thoreau's words.<ref>Burkholder, James Peter. ''Charles Ives and His World.'' Princeton University Press, 1996 (pp. 50–51)</ref> | |||
| In the early 1960s ] referred to Thoreau in his song parody "Here's To Crabgrass" about the suburban housing boom of that era with the line "Come let us go there and live like Thoreau there." | |||
| Actor ] did a dramatic portrayal of Henry David Thoreau on the 1976 ] television series '']''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tele-Vues, Sunday, June 6, 1976|date=June 6, 1976|work=]|location=]|page=170|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/30664120/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=June 5, 1976|work=]|title=TV Log|location=]|page=10|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/15447614/}}</ref><ref>{{cite video|work=]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FdGBFTxkHY|title=Actor Ron Thompson as Henry David Thoreau in The Rebels|date=June 6, 1976}}</ref> | |||
| Thoreau's ideas have impacted and resonated with various strains in the ] movement, with ] referring to him as "the greatest American anarchist".<ref>{{cite book|author=]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5ZYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA62|title=Anarchism and Other Essays|page=62}}</ref> ] and ] in particular have both derived inspiration and ecological points-of-view from the writings of Thoreau. ] included Thoreau's text "Excursions" (1863) in his edited compilation of works in the anarcho-primitivist tradition titled ''Against civilization: Readings and reflections''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989|title=Against Civilization: Readings And Reflections|first=John|last=Zerzan|publisher=|via=Amazon}}</ref> Additionally, ], the founder of ], has opined that Thoreau was one of the "great intellectual heroes" of his movement.<ref name="Rothbard" /> Thoreau was also an important influence on late-19th-century ] ].<ref name="naturismolibertario"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102181805/http://www.soliobrera.org/pdefs/cuaderno4.pdf |date=January 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ortega">{{cite web|url=http://info.autonomedia.org/node/4694|title=Anarchism, Nudism, Naturism|first=Carlos |last=Ortega|publisher=}}{{deadurl|date=October 2016}}</ref> Globally, Thoreau's concepts also held importance within ] circles<ref name="spanishind"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=May 26, 2006 }}</ref><ref name="aujourdhui">"Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence)." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225212442/http://ytak.club.fr/natytak.html |date=February 25, 2009 }}</ref> in Spain,<ref name="naturismolibertario" /><ref name="ortega" /><ref name="spanishind" /> France,<ref name="spanishind" /><ref name="france"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014165702/http://ytak.club.fr/natbiblioarmand.html |date=October 14, 2008 }}</ref> and Portugal.<ref name="portugal">Freire, João. "Anarchisme et naturisme au Portugal, dans les années 1920" in ''Les anarchistes du Portugal''. </ref> | |||
| ==Criticism== | |||
| Although his writings would receive widespread acclaim, Thoreau's ideas were not universally applauded. Scottish author ] judged Thoreau's endorsement of living alone and apart from modern society in natural simplicity to be a mark of "unmanly" ] and "womanish solitude", while deeming him a self-indulgent "skulker".<ref>Stevenson, Robert Louis. . Cornhill Magazine. June 1880.</ref> | |||
| ] had mixed feelings about Thoreau. He noted that "He is a keen and delicate observer of nature,—a genuine observer,—which, I suspect, is almost as rare a character as even an original poet; and Nature, in return for his love, seems to adopt him as her especial child, and shows him secrets which few others are allowed to witness." <ref>Nathaniel Hawthorne, ''Passages From the American Note-Books'', entry for September 2, 1842.</ref> On the other hand, he also wrote that Thoreau "repudiated all regular modes of getting a living, and seems inclined to lead a sort of Indian life among civilized men".<ref>Hawthorne, ''The Heart of Hawthorne's Journals, p. 106.</ref><ref>Borst, Raymond R. ''The Thoreau Log: A Documentary Life of Henry David Thoreau, 1817–1862.'' New York: G.K. Hall, 1992.</ref> | |||
| In a similar vein, poet ] detested what he deemed to be the "wicked" and "heathenish" message of ''Walden'', claiming that Thoreau wanted man to "lower himself to the level of a ] and walk on four legs".<ref>Wagenknecht, Edward. ''John Greenleaf Whittier: A Portrait in Paradox''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967: 112.</ref> | |||
| In response to such criticisms, English novelist ], writing for the '']'', characterized such critics as uninspired and narrow-minded: | |||
| {{quote|text=People—very wise in their own eyes—who would have every man's life ordered according to a particular pattern, and who are intolerant of every existence the utility of which is not palpable to them, may pooh-pooh Mr. Thoreau and this episode in his history, as unpractical and dreamy.<ref>], Vol. 6, No. 4 (Dec., 1933), pp. 733–46</ref>|}} | |||
| Thoreau himself also responded to the criticism in a paragraph of his work ''Walden'' by illustrating the irrelevance of their inquiries: | |||
| {{quote|text=I should not obtrude my affairs so much on the notice of my readers if very particular inquiries had not been made by my townsmen concerning my mode of life, which some would call impertinent, though they do not appear to me at all impertinent, but, considering the circumstances, very natural and pertinent. Some have asked what I got to eat; if I did not feel lonesome; if I was not afraid; and the like. Others have been curious to learn what portion of my income I devoted to charitable purposes; and some, who have large families, how many poor children I maintained. Unfortunately, I am confined to this theme by the narrowness of my experience. Moreover, I, on my side, require of every writer, first or last, a simple and sincere account of his own life, and not merely what he has heard of other men's lives; I trust that none will stretch the seams in putting on the coat, for it may do good service to him whom it fits.<ref>Thoreau ''Walden'' (1854)</ref>|}} | |||
| Recent criticism has accused Thoreau of hypocrisy, misanthropy, and being sanctimonious, based on his writings in ''Walden'',<ref name=neworker1>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |title=Henry David Thoreau, Hypocrite |last1=Schultz |first1=Kathryn |date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=The New Yorker |access-date=October 19, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/10/19/pond-scum |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref> although this criticism has been perceived as highly selective.<ref name=medium1>{{cite web|url=https://medium.com/@TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |title=Why do we love Thoreau? Because he was right. |date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=Medium |access-date=October 19, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019170355/https://medium.com/%40TheNewThoreau/why-do-we-love-thoreau-because-he-was-right-175251814c |archivedate=October 19, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic>{{cite web|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |title=Henry David Thoreau's Radical Optimism |first1=Jonathan |last1=Malesic |date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=New Republic |access-date=October 19, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151019204535/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123151/defense-thoreau |archivedate=October 19, 2015 }}</ref><ref name=newrepublic2>{{cite web|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |title=Everybody Hates Henry |first1=Donovan |last1=Hohn |date=October 21, 2015 |publisher=New Republic |access-date=October 21, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026134755/http://www.newrepublic.com/article/123162/everybody-hates-henry-david-thoreau |archivedate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref> | |||
| ==Works== | |||
| {{expand list|date=October 2014}} | |||
| {{Thoreauviana}} | |||
| * ''Aulus Persius Flaccus'' (1840)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1840)<ref name=":4"/> | |||
| * '']'' (1842)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1843)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * ''The Landlord'' (1843)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&cite=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=AGD1642-0013-6&coll=moa&root=/moa/usde/usde0013/&tif=00445.TIF&view=100|title=The United States Democratic Review Volume 0013 Issue 64 (Oct 1843)|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1844) | |||
| * '']'' (1844)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1845)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1846–48) | |||
| * '']'' (1847)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1849)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4232|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'', or ''Civil Disobedience'', or ''On the Duty of Civil Disobedience'' (1849)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/aestheticpapers00peabrich|title=Aesthetic papers|first1=Elizabeth Palmer|last1=Peabody|first2=Ralph Waldo|last2=Emerson|first3=Nathaniel|last3=Hawthorne|first4=Henry David|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1849|publisher=Boston, : The editor; New York, : G.P. Putnam|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''An Excursion to Canada'' (1853)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1854)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1854)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> A Fully Annotated Edition. ], ed., Yale University Press, 2004 | |||
| * '']'' (1859)<ref name=":3"> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1859)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1860)<ref name=":1"/> | |||
| * '']'' (1861)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1022|title=Walking from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Autumnal Tints'' (1862)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * ''Wild Apples: The History of the Apple Tree'' (1862)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4066|title=Wild Apples from Project Gutenberg|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''The Fall of the Leaf'' (1863)<ref name=":5">{{cite web|url=http://www.walden.org/Library/About_Thoreau%27s_Life_and_Writings:_The_Research_Collections/Civil_Disobedience|work=Walden.org|title=The Walden Woods Project}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=1863|publisher=]|pages=407–08|title=The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Excursions, translations, and poems|author1=Henry David Thoreau|author2=Bradford Torrey|author3=Franklin Benjamin Sanborn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpA9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA407&lpg=PA407&dq=the+fall+of+the+leaf+poem+henry&source=bl&ots=UB712yFzvn&sig=Gzoh3wL2oGjCIRBd5kyppBkGSAI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CC4Q6AEwA2oVChMIvoPtnbSVyQIVEPZjCh2OHgtj#v=onepage&q=the%20fall%20of%20the%20leaf%20poem%20henry&f=false}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/excursionhenry00thorrich|title=Excursions|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=|last2=Houghton (H. O.) & Company. (1863) bkp CU-BANC|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|first4=Sophia E.|last4=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1863|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-65|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 71 (September 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Night and Moonlight'' (1863)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABK2934-0012-77|title=The Atlantic Monthly Volume 0012 Issue 72 (November 1863)|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''The Highland Light'' (1864) | |||
| * ''The Maine Woods'' (1864)<ref> from The Thoreau Reader</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/mainewoods00thorrich|title=The Maine woods|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Sophia E.|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|date=January 1, 1864|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> Fully Annotated Edition. ], ed., Yale University Press, 2009 | |||
| * ''Cape Cod'' (1865)<ref name=":9">{{cite web|url=http://thoreau.eserver.org/capecd00.html|title=Thoreau's Cape Cod - an annotated edition|first=Richard|last=Lenat|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Letters to Various Persons'' (1865)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/lettersvarpersons00thorrich|title=Letters to various persons|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=Ralph Waldo|last3=Emerson|date=January 1, 1865|publisher=Boston : Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * '']'' (1866)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/yankeeincanada00thorrich|title=A Yankee in Canada, with Anti-slavery and reform papers|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Henry David|last2=Thoreau|first3=William Ellery|last3=Channing|first4=Ralph Waldo|last4=Emerson|first5=Sophia E.|last5=Thoreau|date=January 1, 1866|publisher=Boston, Ticknor and Fields|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Early Spring in Massachusetts'' (1881) | |||
| * ''Summer'' (1884)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/summerjournal00thorrich|title=Summer : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O. (Harrison Gray Otis)|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1884|publisher=London : T. Fisher Unwin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Winter'' (1888)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/winterjournal00thorrich|title=Winter : from the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=H. G. O.|last2=Blake|date=January 1, 1888|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Autumn'' (1892)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/autumnjournal00thorrich|title=Autumn. From the Journal of Henry D. Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Harrison Gray Otis|last2=Blake|publisher=Boston, Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Miscellanies'' (1894)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * ''Familiar Letters of Henry David Thoreau'' (1894)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/familiarletters00thorrich|title=Familiar letters of Henry David Thoreau|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last2=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1894|publisher=Boston : Houghton, Mifflin|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Poems of Nature'' (1895) | |||
| * ''Some Unpublished Letters of Henry D. and Sophia E. Thoreau'' (1898) | |||
| * ''The First and Last Journeys of Thoreau'' (1905)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys01thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/firstlastjourneys02thorrich|title=The first and last journeys of Thoreau : lately discovered among his unpublished journals and manuscripts|first1=Henry David|last1=Thoreau|first2=Mass )|last2=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first3=Mass )|last3=Bibliophile Society (Boston|first4=F. B. (Franklin Benjamin)|last4=Sanborn|date=January 1, 1905|publisher=Boston : Printed exclusively for members of the Bibliophile Society|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> | |||
| * ''Journal of Henry David Thoreau'' (1906)<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505210829/http://www.walden.org/Library/The_Writings_of_Henry_David_Thoreau%3A_The_Digital_Collection/Journal |date=May 5, 2010 }} from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * ''The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau'' edited by Walter Harding and Carl Bode (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1958)<ref> from the Writings of Henry David Thoreau: The Digital Collection</ref> | |||
| * ''Poets of the English Language'' (Viking Press, 1950) | |||
| * ''I Was Made Erect and Lone''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/184857|title=I Was Made Erect and Lone|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| * ''The Bluebird Carries the Sky on His Back'' (Stanyan, 1970) | |||
| * ''The Dispersion of Seeds'' (1993) | |||
| * ''The Indian Notebooks'' (1847-1861) | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * Bode, Carl. ''Best of Thoreau's Journals''. Southern Illinois University Press. 1967. | |||
| * Botkin, Daniel. ''No Man's Garden'' | |||
| * Dean, Bradley P. ed., ''Letters to a Spiritual Seeker''. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2004. | |||
| * Furtak, Rick, Ellsworth, Jonathan, and Reid, James D., eds. ''Thoreau's Importance for Philosophy''. New York: Fordham University Press, 2012. | |||
| * Harding, Walter. ''The Days of Henry Thoreau''. Princeton University Press, 1982. | |||
| * Hendrick, George. "The Influence of Thoreau's 'Civil Disobedience' on Gandhi's Satyagraha." ''The New England Quarterly'' 29, no. 4 (December 1956). 462–71. | |||
| * Howarth, William. ''The Book of Concord: Thoreau's Life as a Writer''. Viking Press, 1982 | |||
| * ]. ''Thoreau: His Home, Friends and Books''. New York: AMS Press. 1969 | |||
| * Myerson, Joel et al. ''The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau''. Cambridge University Press. 1995 | |||
| * Nash, Roderick. ''Henry David Thoreau, Philosopher'' | |||
| * Paolucci, Stefano. , ''Thoreau Society Bulletin'', No. 290 (Summer 2015), 10. (See also the of the same article.) | |||
| * Parrington, Vernon. ''''. V 2 online. 1927 | |||
| * Petroski, Henry. "H. D. Thoreau, Engineer." ''American Heritage of Invention and Technology'', Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 8–16 | |||
| * Petrulionis, Sandra Harbert, ed., ''Thoreau in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn From Recollections, Interviews, and Memoirs by Family, Friends, and Associates.'' Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2012. ISBN 1-60938-087-8 | |||
| * Richardson, Robert D. ''Henry Thoreau: A Life of the Mind''. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1986. ISBN 0-520-06346-5 | |||
| * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Riggenbach |first=Jeff |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |title= Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862) |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |date=2008 |publisher= ]; ] |location= ] |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n309 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=506–07 |quote= |ref= }} | |||
| * {{Cite journal|last=Riggenbach|first=Jeff|title=Henry David Thoreau: Founding Father of American Libertarian Thought |journal=Mises Daily |publisher=] |date=July 15, 2010|url=https://mises.org/daily/4562/Henry-David-Thoreau-Founding-Father-of-American-Libertarian-Thought}} | |||
| * Ridl, Jack. "" Scintilla (poem on Thoreau's last words) | |||
| * Schneider, Richard ''Civilizing Thoreau: Human Ecology and the Emerging Social Sciences in the Major Works'' ]. Camden House. 2016. ISBN 978-1-57113-960-3 | |||
| * Smith, David C. "The Transcendental Saunterer: Thoreau and the Search for Self." ]: Frederic C. Beil, 1997. ISBN 0-913720-74-7 | |||
| * Sullivan, Mark W. "Henry David Thoreau in the American Art of the 1950s." ''The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies'', New Series, Vol. 18 (2010), pp. 68–89. | |||
| * Sullivan, Mark W. ''Picturing Thoreau: Henry David Thoreau in American Visual Culture.'' ]: Lexington Books, 2015 | |||
| * ]. ''Henry David Thoreau and the Moral Agency of Knowing''. University of California, Berkeley. 2001. ISBN 0-520-23915-6 | |||
| * {{cite journal|last1=Traub|first1=Courtney|title='First-Rate Fellows': Excavating Thoreau's Radical Egalitarian Reflections in a Late Draft of "Allegash"|journal=The Concord Saunterer: A Journal of Thoreau Studies|date=2015|volume=23|pages=74–96}} | |||
| * ]. ''Seeing New Worlds: Henry David Thoreau and 19th Century Science''. University of Wisconsin. 1995. ISBN 0-299-14744-4 | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ===Historical fiction=== | |||
| {{Refbegin}} | |||
| * ]. '']'' (2006) | |||
| {{Refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikisource author}} | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{commons}} | |||
| {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|by=yes}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * by The Thoreau Institute | |||
| * —His Birthplace | |||
| * , by ] | |||
| * | |||
| * —by Randall Conrad | |||
| * —by the '']'' | |||
| * —by the '']'' | |||
| * by Vernon L. Parrington | |||
| * {{Find a Grave|1030}} | |||
| * | |||
| * from ]'s '']'' | |||
| * Online-Exhibition (2009) | |||
| ===Texts=== | |||
| * by '']'' | |||
| * at ''The Walden Woods Project'' | |||
| * at ''Princeton University Press'' | |||
| * | |||
| * —an Excerpt from Thoreau's 1848 Journal | |||
| * at the Concord Free Public Library | |||
| * —The Works and Life of Henry D. Thoreau | |||
| * {{Gutenberg author | id=54 | name=Henry David Thoreau}} | |||
| * {{FadedPage|id=Thoreau, Henry D.|name=Henry D. Thoreau|author=yes}} | |||
| * {{Internet Archive author |sname=Henry David Thoreau}} | |||
| * {{Librivox author |id=371}} | |||
| * at Open Library | |||
| {{Henry David Thoreau| state=expanded}} | |||
| {{Social and political philosophy}} | |||
| {{Simple living}} | |||
| {{Mohandas K. Gandhi}} | |||
| {{Hall of Fame for Great Americans}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| {{Portal bar|Biography|Cape Cod and the Islands|Environment|Poetry|Politics|Social and political philosophy|Spirituality}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:Thoreau, Henry David}} | |||
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