| Revision as of 11:53, 10 December 2017 editKleuske (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers45,460 edits Largely unspourced or poorly sourced confusion between a language and a group of dialects.← Previous edit | Revision as of 12:03, 10 December 2017 edit undoAKAKIOS (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users626 edits Please discuss on talk, because the changes to this article were very well sourced and a lot of work.Next edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Infobox language family | {{Infobox language family | ||
| |name= |
|name=Netherlandic | ||
| |altname=Low Frankish, |
|altname=Low Frankish, Low Franconian | ||
| |region=], northern ], northern ], western ], ], ], ], ] and ] | |region=], northern ], northern ], western ], ], ], ], ] and ] | ||
| |familycolor=Indo-European | |familycolor=Indo-European | ||
| Line 7: | Line 7: | ||
| |fam3=] | |fam3=] | ||
| |fam4=] | |fam4=] | ||
| |protoname=] | |protoname=] | ||
| |child1=] | |child1=] | ||
| |child2=] | |child2=] | ||
| |child3=] | |child3=] | ||
| |child4=] | |child4=] | ||
| |child5=] | |child5=] | ||
| |child6=] | |||
| ⚫ | |glotto= |
||
| |child7=] | |||
| |glottoname=Low Franconian (Weser–Rhine) | |||
| |child8=] | |||
| |map=Frankischetalen.png | |||
| |child9=] | |||
| ⚫ | |mapcaption= |
||
| ⚫ | |glotto= | ||
| {{legend|#a0f288|Low Franconian dialects in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany (]) and France (])}} | |||
| |glottoname= | |||
| {{legend|#fc9581|] (], ], ])}} | |||
| |map=File:Niederfränkisch.png | |||
| ⚫ | |mapcaption=Netherlandic dialects in Europe (Dutch, as standard language spoken in the whole of the Netherlands and Belgium is not indicated on this map): | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| '''Low Franconian''' |
The term '''Netherlandic''', also called '''Low Franconian''' or '''Low Frankish''', refers to several, closely related, ] spoken in the ], northern ] (]), in the ] department of ], in westernmost Germany (]), as well as in ], ] and ] that originally descended from ], and, by extension, ]. | ||
| == Nomenclature and definition == | |||
| ==Frankish language == | |||
| {{See|Netherlandic sound shift}} | |||
| ⚫ | {{main|Frankish language}} | ||
| In modern linguistic discourse, the terms '''Netherlandic''' and '''Low Frankish''' / '''Low Franconian''' are synonymous.<ref>Cowan, H. Oudoostnederfrankisch of oostelijk Oudnederlands? 71.161.182 (1953)</ref> Low Frankish can be considered to be the traditional term, deriving from the ] tradition of naming and associating ] with various ancient ] and the medieval ] of ] and ]. The word "low" signifies that the dialects in question did not participate in the ], as opposed to the "high" dialects that have and the "middle" forms, that partially incorporate its features. Though still in common use, the term has been criticized for the controversial relatedness it implies to ], it not being an ] by which Netherlandic-speakers self-identify as well as being undescriptive to casual readers.<ref>Cowan, H. Oudoostnederfrankisch of oostelijk Oudnederlands? 71.161.182 (1953)</ref> In more modern literature, the term Low Frankish is occasionally used to specifically refer to dialects spoken in the ] region of ], as opposed to the dialectal grouping as a whole,<ref>Irmgard Hatsche: Atlas zur Geschichte des Niederrheins, Schriftenreihe der Niederrhein-Akademie Band 4, {{ISBN|3-89355-200-6}}, P. 66</ref> or as the name for a, minutely attested, theoretical intermediary stage between the unattested ] and ] as spoken following the ].<ref>Het Nederlands, Janssen, G. (2005) P. 57-59</ref> | |||
| The ], also "Old Frankish", was the language of the ]. It is a ] and was spoken in ] times, preceding the 7th century. ] formed the northeastern portion of the Kingdom of the Merovingian Franks (]), comprising parts of the territory of present-day western Germany, eastern and northern France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The Franks first established themselves in the Netherlands and Flanders before they started to fight their way down south and east. The language had a significant impact on ]. It evolved into ] in the north and it was replaced step by step by the ] in the south. | |||
| Netherlandic has its origins in the Dutch ] ({{lang-nl|Nederlands}}, {{lang-de|Niederländisch}}, {{lang-fr|Neerlandais}}) and, while it includes the Dutch language itself, is not equivalent to Dutch. Since the standardization of Dutch in the early ], it has formed the ] of all Netherlandic dialects ever since, with the exception (since the early 19th century) of the ] dialects spoken in ] and ], and is the main term used for all predecessor languages (], ]) following ].<ref>German: Biography of a Language by R. Sanders. Oxford University Press (2010) pp. 201.</ref><ref>The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Volume 5. (2003) P. 213.</ref> | |||
| Old Frankish is not directly ] except in glosses and small phrases. It has been reconstructed using the ] from ]s in Old French and from Old Dutch which is actually a mix of ]. One known phrase in Old Frankish is found in the ] of the early sixth century, and is used to ]: | |||
| ⚫ | In older literature, Netherlandic / Low Franconian is occasionally grouped together with ]. However, since this grouping is not based on common linguistic innovations, but rather on the absence of the ] and ] features modern linguistic reference books do not group them together.<ref>Glück, H. (ed.): ''Metzler Lexikon Sprache'', pages 472, 473. Stuttgart, Weimar: Metzler, 2000 (entries ''Niederdeutsch'' and ''Niederfränkisch'')</ref> | ||
| {{quote|<poem>''Maltho thi afrio lito.'' | |||
| I say to you, I free you, half-free.</poem> | |||
| }} | |||
| Old Low Franconian (also Old Low Frankish) was a group of dialects spoken in the Low countries. It was a ] of the Old Frankish language. | |||
| == Origins == | |||
| ⚫ | {{main|Rhine-Weser Germanic|Frankish language}} | ||
| [[Image:Les Francs entre 400 et 440.svg|thumb|300px|Frankish settlement areas by the 5th century: | |||
| All Netherlandic dialects are assumed to have originated with the ], generally placed between the ] and ] ]. Frankish itself is not directly ], except in glosses and single, isolated, phrases. It has been reconstructed using the ] from ]s in Old French and from ], its main descendant. | |||
| {{legend|#fff600|]}} | |||
| {{legend|#ffa700|]}} | |||
| ]] | |||
| Old Low Franconian is sometimes divided in two groups, Old Dutch (also Old West Low Franconian) and Old East Low Franconian. Because the two groups were so similar it is often very hard to determine whether a text is Old Dutch or Old East Low Franconian, most linguists will generally use Old Dutch synonymously with Old Low Franconian and most of the time do not differentiate. | |||
| Though generally treated as a single language due to the relatively minor internal differences, ] can itself be divided into a western form referred to as Old West Dutch (''Oudwestnederlands'') and Old East Dutch (''Oudoostnederlands''). Both forms had merged by the time of ], with Old West Dutch proving dominant, but the easternmost dialects (] and ]) include several of its features.<ref>Welschen, Ad 2000-2005: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, University of Amsterdam</ref> The term ''Old Low Franconian'' is occasionally used in place of ], but has been variously considered archaic, depreciated or inaccurate by modern linguists.<ref>Sanders W., ‘Oudnederlands. Drie hoofdstukjes uit de vroegste Nederlandse taal- en letterkunde’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde 88, 161-177, 1972</ref> | |||
| == |
== Periodization of Netherlandic == | ||
| {{main|Dutch language}} | {{main|Dutch language}} | ||
| Dutch |
Dutch is conventionally divided into three phases, traditionally starting with attestation. In the development of Dutch, including assumed ]s, these phases were: | ||
| * '']'' (unattested, theoretical) | |||
| * 425/450–1150: ] | |||
| * '']'' (unattested) | |||
| * 1150–1500: ] (also called ''Dietsch'' in popular use, though not by linguists) | |||
| * 1500–present: ] (saw the creation of the Dutch standard language and includes contemporary Dutch) | |||
| Low-Franconian varieties are also spoken in the German area along the ] between Cologne and the border between Germany and the Netherlands. During the 19th and 20th centuries these dialects have partly and gradually been replaced by today's Standard German. | |||
| ⚫ | |||
| * ''']''': 425/450–1150 | |||
| ⚫ | == Modern |
||
| * ''']''': 1150–1500 | |||
| * ''']''': 1500 - present | |||
| ⚫ | == Modern Netherlandic languages & dialects == | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| Outside of the Netherlands and Flanders, the traditional Netherlandic language area is decreasing. Regions which have seen a decrease in speakers include ] and the ], having become increasingly ] during the last century and the ]-region of Germany, where Netherlandic now only exists as ] regiolects and dialects. | |||
| === Dutch === | === Dutch === | ||
| Line 68: | Line 64: | ||
| * ] (also called ''Kleverlandish'' or ''Clevian'') | * ] (also called ''Kleverlandish'' or ''Clevian'') | ||
| === |
=== Netherlandic in Germany === | ||
| {{main|Meuse-Rhenish}} | {{main|Meuse-Rhenish}} | ||
| There are two distinct Netherlandic variants spoken in Germany today: a form of southern ] and ].<ref>Theodor Frings, Gotthard Lechner: Niederländisch und Niederdeutsch. Berlin 1966, pp. 21 ff.</ref> Which are referred to by some linguists together as ].<ref>Welschen, Ad 2000-2005: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, University of Amsterdam</ref> Historically, Clevian was referred to in German as ''Deutschniederländisch'' ('German Dutch') and today forms the most isolated and divergent dialectal grouping found within German territory today.<ref>Einführung in die Dialektologie des Deutschen, H. Niebaum. Abb. 25 & Abb 26. (2014)</ref> Spoken mainly in the former ] and ], these regions were oriented towards the Netherlands and Flanders until Prussian conquest and absorption into the ] after ].<ref>(A. Welschen 2002)</ref> | |||
| It is common to consider the Limburgish varieties as belonging to the Low Franconian languages; in the past, however, all these Limburgish dialects were sometimes seen as ], part of ]. This difference is caused by a difference in definition: the latter stance defines a High German variety as one that has taken part in any of the first three phases of the ]. ] is also spoken in a considerable part of the German Lower Rhine area, in what could be called German-administered Limburg: from the border regions of Kleve, Aachen, Viersen, Heinsberg stretching out to the ] river. At the Rhine near ], it adjoins a smaller strip of other Low Franconian varieties called ''Bergisch''. Together these distinct varieties, now often combined with the Kleve dialects (Kleverländisch) as ] ('Rheinmaasländisch'), belong to the greater Low Franconian area between the rivers Meuse and Rhine (A. Welschen 2002). Limburgish straddles the borderline between 'Low Franconian' and 'Middle Franconian' varieties. They are more-or-less mutually intelligible with the Ripuarian dialects, but show fewer 'High German shifts' (R. Hahn 2001). In a number of towns and villages in the north-east of the Belgian province of ], such as ], ], and ], a transitional Limburgish-] dialect is spoken, called ] (Dutch: ''Platdiets'', Limburgish: ''Platduutsj'', French: ''Thiois'' or ''Platdutch''). | |||
| Linguistically, the Limburgish varieties are seen as Netherlandic today but were historically sometimes seen as ], and thus part of ]. This difference is caused by a difference in definition: the latter stance defines a High German variety as one that has taken part in any of the first three phases of the ]. Southernmost Limburgish (spoken, in the Netherlands, primarily around the city of ]) straddles the border between Netherlandic and Central German ('Middle Franconian') varieties. They to a certain degree mutually intelligible with neighboring Ripuarian German dialects, but show fewer features of the ].<ref>(R. Hahn 2001)</ref> | |||
| === Afrikaans === | === Afrikaans === | ||
| Line 80: | Line 78: | ||
| {{legend|#FFFACD|Countries with a considerable amount of Dutch or Afrikaans speaking immigrants}}]] | {{legend|#FFFACD|Countries with a considerable amount of Dutch or Afrikaans speaking immigrants}}]] | ||
| ] is an Indo-European language, derived from Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in ] and ], with smaller numbers of speakers in Botswana, Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Togo, and Zambia. | ] is an Indo-European language, derived from Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in ] and ], with smaller numbers of speakers in Botswana, Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Togo, and Zambia. | ||
| Afrikaans originated from the Dutch |
Afrikaans originated from the Dutch, specifically the dialect which became known as "Cape Dutch", which were in turn influenced by the ], ] and ] dialects of the ]. Later, Afrikaans was sometimes also referred to as "African Dutch" or "Kitchen Dutch", although these terms were mainly pejorative. Afrikaans was considered a Dutch ] until the late 19th century, when it began to be recognized as a distinct language, and it gained equal status with Dutch and English as an official language in South Africa in 1925. Dutch remained an official language until the new 1961 constitution finally stipulated the two official languages in South Africa to be Afrikaans and English (although, curiously, the 1961 constitution still had a sub-clause stipulating that the word "Afrikaans" was also meant to be referring to the Dutch language). It is the only Indo-European language of significance that underwent distinct development on the African continent. | ||
| The South African Constitution of post 1994 considers Afrikaans as one of 11 official languages. The majority of Afrikaans speakers in South Africa are ]s of mixed European/Black African/Khoisan/Indonesian descent.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} | |||
| == See also == | == See also == | ||
Revision as of 12:03, 10 December 2017
| Netherlandic | |
|---|---|
| Low Frankish, Low Franconian | |
| Geographic distribution | Netherlands, northern Belgium, northern France, western Germany, Suriname, Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, Namibia and South Africa |
| Linguistic classification | Indo-European
|
| Proto-language | Frankish |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
 Netherlandic dialects in Europe (Dutch, as standard language spoken in the whole of the Netherlands and Belgium is not indicated on this map): | |
The term Netherlandic, also called Low Franconian or Low Frankish, refers to several, closely related, West Germanic dialects spoken in the Netherlands, northern Belgium (Flanders), in the Nord department of France, in westernmost Germany (Lower Rhine), as well as in Suriname, South Africa and Namibia that originally descended from Old Dutch, and, by extension, Frankish.
Nomenclature and definition
Further information: Netherlandic sound shiftIn modern linguistic discourse, the terms Netherlandic and Low Frankish / Low Franconian are synonymous. Low Frankish can be considered to be the traditional term, deriving from the 19th century tradition of naming and associating West Germanic dialects with various ancient Germanic tribes and the medieval stem duchies of Western and Central Europe. The word "low" signifies that the dialects in question did not participate in the Second Germanic consonant shift, as opposed to the "high" dialects that have and the "middle" forms, that partially incorporate its features. Though still in common use, the term has been criticized for the controversial relatedness it implies to other dialects called Franconian, it not being an autonym by which Netherlandic-speakers self-identify as well as being undescriptive to casual readers. In more modern literature, the term Low Frankish is occasionally used to specifically refer to dialects spoken in the Lower Rhine region of Germany, as opposed to the dialectal grouping as a whole, or as the name for a, minutely attested, theoretical intermediary stage between the unattested Germanic dialects spoken in the Rhine delta and Old Dutch as spoken following the 8th century.
Netherlandic has its origins in the Dutch autonym (Template:Lang-nl, Template:Lang-de, Template:Lang-fr) and, while it includes the Dutch language itself, is not equivalent to Dutch. Since the standardization of Dutch in the early 16th century, it has formed the Dachsprache of all Netherlandic dialects ever since, with the exception (since the early 19th century) of the Meuse-Rhenish dialects spoken in Germany and Afrikaans, and is the main term used for all predecessor languages (Middle Dutch, Old Dutch) following Frankish.
In older literature, Netherlandic / Low Franconian is occasionally grouped together with Low German. However, since this grouping is not based on common linguistic innovations, but rather on the absence of the High German consonant shift and Anglo-Frisian features modern linguistic reference books do not group them together.
Origins
Main articles: Rhine-Weser Germanic and Frankish languageAll Netherlandic dialects are assumed to have originated with the Frankish language, generally placed between the 4th and 7th century CE. Frankish itself is not directly attested, except in glosses and single, isolated, phrases. It has been reconstructed using the comparative method from loanwords in Old French and from Old Dutch, its main descendant.
Though generally treated as a single language due to the relatively minor internal differences, Old Dutch can itself be divided into a western form referred to as Old West Dutch (Oudwestnederlands) and Old East Dutch (Oudoostnederlands). Both forms had merged by the time of Middle Dutch, with Old West Dutch proving dominant, but the easternmost dialects (Clevian and Limburgisch) include several of its features. The term Old Low Franconian is occasionally used in place of Old Dutch, but has been variously considered archaic, depreciated or inaccurate by modern linguists.
Periodization of Netherlandic
Main article: Dutch languageDutch is conventionally divided into three phases, traditionally starting with attestation. In the development of Dutch, including assumed proto-languages, these phases were:
- Weser-Rhine Germanic (unattested, theoretical)
- Frankish (unattested)
- Old Dutch: 425/450–1150
- Middle Dutch: 1150–1500
- Modern Dutch: 1500 - present
Modern Netherlandic languages & dialects
Outside of the Netherlands and Flanders, the traditional Netherlandic language area is decreasing. Regions which have seen a decrease in speakers include French Flanders and the Brussels Capital Region, having become increasingly francophone during the last century and the Lower Rhine-region of Germany, where Netherlandic now only exists as Meuse-Rhenish regiolects and dialects.
Dutch
The main dialects are:
- Brabantian
- East Flemish
- Hollandic
- Limburgian
- Zealandic
- West Flemish
- South Guelderish (also called Kleverlandish or Clevian)
Netherlandic in Germany
Main article: Meuse-RhenishThere are two distinct Netherlandic variants spoken in Germany today: a form of southern Limburgish and Clevian. Which are referred to by some linguists together as Meuse-Rhenish. Historically, Clevian was referred to in German as Deutschniederländisch ('German Dutch') and today forms the most isolated and divergent dialectal grouping found within German territory today. Spoken mainly in the former Duchy of Jülich and Berg, these regions were oriented towards the Netherlands and Flanders until Prussian conquest and absorption into the German Empire after 1871.
Linguistically, the Limburgish varieties are seen as Netherlandic today but were historically sometimes seen as West Central German, and thus part of High German. This difference is caused by a difference in definition: the latter stance defines a High German variety as one that has taken part in any of the first three phases of the High German consonant shift. Southernmost Limburgish (spoken, in the Netherlands, primarily around the city of Kerkrade) straddles the border between Netherlandic and Central German ('Middle Franconian') varieties. They to a certain degree mutually intelligible with neighboring Ripuarian German dialects, but show fewer features of the High German consonant shift.
Afrikaans
Main article: Afrikaans
Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from Dutch and classified as Low Franconian Germanic, mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia, with smaller numbers of speakers in Botswana, Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Togo, and Zambia. Afrikaans originated from the Dutch, specifically the dialect which became known as "Cape Dutch", which were in turn influenced by the Zealandic, Hollandic and West Flemish dialects of the Low Countries. Later, Afrikaans was sometimes also referred to as "African Dutch" or "Kitchen Dutch", although these terms were mainly pejorative. Afrikaans was considered a Dutch pidgin until the late 19th century, when it began to be recognized as a distinct language, and it gained equal status with Dutch and English as an official language in South Africa in 1925. Dutch remained an official language until the new 1961 constitution finally stipulated the two official languages in South Africa to be Afrikaans and English (although, curiously, the 1961 constitution still had a sub-clause stipulating that the word "Afrikaans" was also meant to be referring to the Dutch language). It is the only Indo-European language of significance that underwent distinct development on the African continent.
See also
- Afrikaans
- Dutch dialects
- Dutch language
- Franconian languages
- Istvaeones
- History of Dutch
- Low Dietsch
- Meuse-Rhenish
- Middle Dutch
Notes
- Cowan, H. Oudoostnederfrankisch of oostelijk Oudnederlands? 71.161.182 (1953)
- Cowan, H. Oudoostnederfrankisch of oostelijk Oudnederlands? 71.161.182 (1953)
- Irmgard Hatsche: Atlas zur Geschichte des Niederrheins, Schriftenreihe der Niederrhein-Akademie Band 4, ISBN 3-89355-200-6, P. 66
- Het Nederlands, Janssen, G. (2005) P. 57-59
- German: Biography of a Language by R. Sanders. Oxford University Press (2010) pp. 201.
- The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Volume 5. (2003) P. 213.
- Glück, H. (ed.): Metzler Lexikon Sprache, pages 472, 473. Stuttgart, Weimar: Metzler, 2000 (entries Niederdeutsch and Niederfränkisch)
- Welschen, Ad 2000-2005: Course Dutch Society and Culture, International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, University of Amsterdam
- Sanders W., ‘Oudnederlands. Drie hoofdstukjes uit de vroegste Nederlandse taal- en letterkunde’, in: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde 88, 161-177, 1972
- Theodor Frings, Gotthard Lechner: Niederländisch und Niederdeutsch. Berlin 1966, pp. 21 ff.
- Welschen, Ad 2000-2005: Course Dutch Society and Culture, International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, University of Amsterdam
- Einführung in die Dialektologie des Deutschen, H. Niebaum. Abb. 25 & Abb 26. (2014)
- (A. Welschen 2002)
- (R. Hahn 2001)
Further reading
- Euler, Wolfram (2013). Das Westgermanische - von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert - Analyse und Rekonstruktion (West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, Verlag Inspiration Un Limited, London/Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-9812110-7-8.
- Maurer, Friedrich (1942), Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde, Strasbourg: Hünenburg.