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#REDIRECT ]
{{Use Indian English|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = 1947 Poonch Rebellion
| date = June 1947 - October 1947
| place = Poonch
| result = Maharaja ] losing his control over the region. Formation of ].
| combatant1 = People of Poonch and Mirpur; ].
backed by Pakistan
| combatant2 = Maharaja ] and his ] forces.
}}
]
] in Indian ]; with ] territory to its left.]]
In Spring 1947, an uprising against the Maharaja ] of ] broke out in the ], an area bordering the ] of ] and the ] of the ] in the future Pakistan. Starting as a local affair, it eventually led to the ] fought between India and Pakistan, and the formation of ]. The Poonch jagir has since been divided across the Pakistan-administered ] and the Indian-administered state of ].<ref name="india-seminar">{{Cite web |last=Snedden |first=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Snedden |url=http://www.india-seminar.com/2013/643/643_christopher_snedden.htm |title=The forgotten Poonch uprising of 1947 |website=India-seminar }}</ref>

== Background ==
] was originally an internal ''jagir'' (autonomous principality), governed by an alternative family line of Maharaja ].{{efn|Poonch and Mirpur (Chibhal) districts were originally granted by Maharaja ] to Raja Dhyan Singh, the brother of Raja ]. After the death of Ranjit Singh, Dhyan Singh was murdered in palace ingrigues. Subject to the terms of the ], Gulab Singh, who became the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, reinstated these territories as ''jagirs'' to Dhyan Singh's sons. While Mirpur was subsequently absorbed by Gulab Singh, Poonch remained with the descendants of Dhyan Singh until 1940.}} The Muslims of Poonch suffered from small landholdings and high taxation and nursed their grievances since 1905. They had also campaigned for the principality to be absorbed into the ] of British India. In 1938, a notable disturbance occurred for religious reasons, but a settlement was reached. From then on, Poonch remained garrisoned by a battalion of State troops.<ref>{{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|pp=30–31}}; {{harvtxt|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=8}}</ref>

After the death of Raja Jagatdev Singh of Poonch in 1940, Maharaja Hari Singh appointed a chosen guardian for his minor son, Shiv Ratandev Singh, and used the opportunity to integrate the Poonch ''jagir'' into the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Poonch came to be administered by the officers of Jammu and Kashmir as a district of the ]. This resulted in loss of autonomy for Poonch and subjected its people to the increased taxation of the Kashmir state, both of which were resented by the people.<ref>{{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|pp=237-238}}; {{harvtxt|McLeod, India and Pakistan: Friends, Rivals or Enemies?|2008|pp=74-75}}; {{harvtxt|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}}</ref>

The Poonchis had a tradition of military service. During the Second World War, over 60,000 Muslims from the Poonch and Mirpur districts enrolled in the British Indian Army.{{sfnp|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005|p=143}}{{efn|60,000 Muslims from Poonch and Mirpur, were out of a total of nearly 72,000 citizens who enrolled from the entire princely state.{{sfnp|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}}}} After the war, many of them retained their arms while returning.{{sfnp|Moore, Making the new Commonwealth|1987|p=48}} The Maharaja did not (or could not) absorb them into the State forces.{{efn|Jammu and Kashmir State Forces had 9 battalions numbering 9,000 men. Absorbing even a small fraction of the ex-servicemen into the forces would have been a tall order.}}
The absence of employment prospects coupled with high taxation caused displeasure among the Poonchis in 1947.{{sfnp|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}}

=== The context of Partition ===
] shown as "Punjab" and the NWFP shown as "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa". ] to the south of Kashmir is unmarked.]]
<!-- ], adjoining the Poonch and Muzaffarabad districts of Kashmir in the south.]] -->
<!-- ] (in pink) and ] (in cream) bordering ] (Muzaffarabad, Poonch and Mirpur districts).]] -->

At the beginning of 1947, the ] provinces of ], to the south and southwest of Kashmir, and ] (NWFP) to the northwest of Kashmir, were two of the most important provinces of the would-be Pakistan. However, the ] was not in power in either of them. Punjab was held by the ], and the NWFP by ]<ref>{{citation |last=Talbot |first=Ian |title=Pakistan: A Modern History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs0HdpKuaQC |year=1998 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |ISBN=978-0-312-21606-1 |ref={{sfnref|Talbot, Pakistan: A Modern History|1998}}|pp=73,&nbsp;85}}</ref> Undeterred, the Muslim League decided to bring down both the governments, with the help of its private militia ] in Punjab,{{sfnp|Hiro, The Longest August|2015|loc=Chapter 6}} and its leaders ] and Khan ] in the NWFP.{{sfnp|Rajmohan Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan|2008|pp=171–172,&nbsp;224}} These efforts exacerbated Hindu-Sikh-Muslim communal tensions in the two provinces. The trauma was especially acute in the ], a Muslim League stronghold, which directly bordered the Poonch and Muzaffarabad districts,. Between November 1946 and January 1947, Hindu and Sikh refugees poured into Kashmir, with some 2,500 of them under the State care. The plight of these refugees did much to influence the Maharaja's future actions.{{sfnp|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=61,&nbsp;170}}

On 2 March 1947, the Unionist government in Punjab fell. Immediately, communal fires were set ablaze in ], ], ] of ] and ] of ], spreading to ], ], ] and ] in West Punjab.<ref>{{citation |last=Jalal |first=Ayesha |authorlink=Ayesha Jalal |title=Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA482 |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |ISBN=978-1-134-59937-0 |ref={{sfnref |Jalal, Self and Sovereignty |2002}}|p=513}}</ref> In the NWFP, the ] and ] districts were affected.<ref name=Rittenberg>{{citation |last=Rittenberg |first=Stephen Alan |title=Ethnicity, nationalism, and the Pakhtuns: the independence movement in India's North-West Frontier Province |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wFM8AAAAMAAJ |year=1988 |publisher=Carolina Academic Press |ISBN=978-0-89089-277-0 |p=221,&nbsp;227–228}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rajmohan Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan|2008|pp=170–171}}

The Pir of Manki Sharif was also reported to have sent agents provocateurs to the frontier districts of Kashmir to prepare their Muslims for a 'holy crusade'.{{sfnp|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=15}} Kashmir responded by sealing the border with the provinces, and sending more troops to the border areas. The stream of Hindu and Sikh refugees coming from the Rawalpindi and Hazara districts also spread unease in the State. Drivers refused to use the Srinagar–Rawalpindi road because of reports of disturbances and raids.{{sfnp|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=15}}{{efn|{{harvtxt|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=15}}: "Webb had reported that ] and ], two villages in the Murree hills in Punjab that were inhabited by Hindus and Sikhs which were less than 10 miles from the ] border, had been burned. The burning houses could be seen for miles and had triggered the flight of around 200 refugees belonging to the two communities across the ] into Kashmir. This had spread uneasiness in Kashmir province. The state government had dispatched a large number of state troops to Kohala and Ramkot on the Domel Abbotabad road to ensure that the armed raiders did not cross the border."}}

Possibly as a result of the defensive measures, the Poonch district came to be militarised.{{sfnp|Copland, The Abdullah Factor|1991|pp=243-244}} A. H. Suharwardy, former Azad Kashmir civil servant, states that a 'Poonch Brigade' was established by the State Army and distributed at various locations in the Poonch district, such as Dothan, ], Tain, Kapaddar, Chirala, ], ], ], ] and Trar Khel, in addition to its headquarters in the ].{{sfnp|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|pp=100–102}}{{efn|According to the State sources, the so-called "Poonch Brigade" was put together from the existing battalions of the State forces. However, to police the long border, a number of "garrison police companies" were raised and equipped from "ancient stocks" of weaponry.{{sfnp|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972|p=151}} ] mentions the figure of new companies as twelve. They were all non-Muslim.{{sfnp|Birdwood, Two Nations and Kashmir|1956|p=212}}}} The militarisation gave rise to many hardships to the local populace and generated resentment. The rigorous restriction on the movement of goods and men between Pakistan and Poonch also generated shortages, causing prices to sky rocket.{{sfnp|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|pp=100–102}}

=== Political environment in the State ===
The Muslims of Jammu and Kashmir were organised under two political parties: the ] led by ], which was allied to the ], and the ] led by ], which was allied to the ]. The National Conference had almost total control in the ] whereas the Muslim Conference was dominant in the ], especially in the western districts of Mirpur, Poonch and Muzaffarabad. Despite their alliances to the all-India parties, both the parties had ambiguous positions on the accession of the state. The National Conference demanded that the power should be devolved to the people and the people should decide on accession. The Muslim Conference was generally inclined to support accession to Pakistan. But in September 1946, they had passed a resolution in favour of an ''Azad Kashmir'' (free Kashmir), though the move was criticised by a lot of people within the party who wanted a clear resolution in support of Pakistan. However, as late as 11 July 1947, ] was advising the leaders of the Muslim Conference to work with the Maharaja and support his position of an independent Kashmir.{{sfnp|Copland, The Abdullah Factor|1991}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=lxsVAQAAIAAJ|title=A Mission in Kashmir|last=Whitehead|first=Andrew|date=2007|publisher=Penguin|isbn=9780670081271|pages=23, 28|language=en}}</ref>

The Hindus, who were mostly confined to the Jammu province, were organised under ''Rajya Hindu Sabha'' led by ], and were allied to the ]. The Jammu Hindus generally regarded the Maharaja as their natural leader and gave him total support.<ref>{{citation |first=Balraj |last=Puri |authorlink=Balraj Puri |title=The Question of Accession |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=11 |pp=4–5 |date=November 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMxJzb7N_8wC&pg=PA4}}</ref>

== Unrest prior to Partition ==

=== Spring 1947 ===
<!-- ] violation: ] (at 32), Leader of the ] in ].]] -->
Sardar ] of the ]{{efn|] was a twenty-three year old local landlord, who returned from having seerved in the British Indian Army. During the World War II, he served in the North Africa and Middle East and imbibed some of the Muslim ideology of the area. He played a crucial role in the Poonch Rebellion and subsequently became the President of Azad Kashmir in 1956.}} is credited with instigating the Poonchis of Bagh and Sudhnoti tehsils in February 1947 not to pay the 'excessive taxes' demanded by the State.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|pp=41–42}}<ref>{{citation |last=Khān |first=Abdulqayyūm |title=The Kashmir case |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zk5uAAAAMAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=S.A.A. Khan |p=1-2}}</ref> This eventually came to be called a 'no tax' campaign.{{sfnp|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005|p=143}}<ref name="Beg1986">{{citation |last=Beg |first=Aziz |title=Jinnah and His Times: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JeVtAAAAMAAJ |year=1986 |publisher=Babur & Amer Publications}}: "The first official mention of this occurs in a Press note of the Kashmir Government which states that 'early in August in Bagh Tehsil and northern part of Sudh Nutti Tehsil of Poonch Jagir, evilly disposed persons launched a violent agitation against the administration of the jagir and in favour of civil disobedience and no-tax campaign...'"</ref> Towards the end of June, the State troops in Poonch ran out of rations and demanded the local populace to provide their supplies. When the populace eventually declared their inability to do so, the Revenue Minister of the State came down to Poonch to collect the tax arrears. This led to renewed repression.{{sfnp|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|p=102,&nbsp;103}}

], the member of Legislative Assembly from ]–], returned to Poonch after attending the Assembly session in March–April. By his own account, he was thoroughly convinced that there was a conspiracy between the State forces and the ] and, so, he advised the people of Poonch to organise themselves politically. As a result of his exhortations, he states, people "got courage, became defiant, and started organising themselves exactly on military lines".{{sfnp|Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga|1990|p=57}} On 15 June, he addressed a meeting in ] attended by 20,000 people, and gave a speech in "most 'seditious' terms". He told his audience that Pakistan, a Muslim state, was coming into being and the people of Jammu and Kashmir could not remain unaffected. After that day, he says, "a strange atmosphere took the place of the usually peaceful life in these parts".<ref>{{harvtxt|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|p=102}}; {{harvtxt|Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga|1990|pp=57–58}}</ref> On 22 June, ], the acting president of the Muslim Conference, visited Rawalakot and initiated secret plans to organise the ex-servicemen of the district for an eventual confrontation with the State Forces.{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|p=83}}

By the end of July, the Government had clamped ] of the Criminal Procedure Code (prohibiting the assemly of five or more persons) and ordered all the Muslims of Poonch to surrender their arms.<ref>{{harvtxt|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|p=103}}; {{harvtxt|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003|p=41}}</ref>{{efn|Under the Jammu and Kashmir Arms Act of 1940, the possession of all fire arms was prohibited in the state. The Dogra Rajputs were however exempted from this restriction.<ref>{{citation |last=Parashar |first=Parmanand |title=Kashmir and the Freedom Movement |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0fUEZDsvqoC&pg=PA178 |date=2004 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-514-1 |pp=178-179}}</ref>}}{{efn|Though the disarming started in some villages during July–August, it was systematically done in many places only in September.{{sfnp|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|pp=23-24}}}} Muslims complained that the arms deposited by them were distributed by the police to Hindu and Sikh families for self-defence, raising communal fears and tensions.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=41}}
Sardar Ibrahim, back in Srinagar, was confined to the city.{{sfnp|Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga|1990|p=58}}

=== August 1947 ===
Sometime in August 1947, the first signs of trouble broke out in ], about which diverging views have been received.{{sfnp|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|loc=Chapters 1–2}}

According to state government sources, the demobilised soldiers were moved by the state government's failure to pay them remunerations promised by New Delhi. Rebellious militias gathered in the Palandri–Nowshera–Anantnag area, attacking the state troops and their supply trucks. The state troops were at this time thinly spread escorting refugees between India and Pakistan. A reserve battalion of Sikh troops was dispatched to Poonch, which cleared the roads and dispersed the militias. It also cut off Poonch from Pakistan by sealing the Jhelum river bridge for fear that the Pakistanis might come to aid the Poonch militias.{{sfnp|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=9}} The Army's Chief of Staff ] also narrated an event towards the end of August, where a band of 30 Muslims from Pakistan entered Poonch and incited the ]s to march to the capital city ], demanding accession to Pakistan.{{efn|{{harvnb|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|pp=18–19}}: "Gen. Scott, the commander of state forces, was at pains to point out that their main purpose was to air, local grievances, mainly the high prices of foodstuffs. The distress of the people was not surprising. As Webb had reported from Srinagar at the time, the winter of 1946-47 had been unusually severe, and had caused food shortages and pushed up prices. Add to that the disruption of supplies that had taken place in spring and summer because of the communal violence in Punjab, and it was hardly surprising that the people of Poonch, as elsewhere in Kashmir, were in considerable distress."}} About 10,000 Poonchies gathered mainly to air grievances regarding high prices, and wanted to pass through the town of ]. The local officials at Bagh barred them from entering the town. Then the protesters surrounded the town and made attempts to attack it. Reinforcements of State troops were sent from Srinagar, which dispersed the protesters. The total casualties would not have exceeded 20 Muslim protesters, about a dozen Hindus and Sikhs and a few state troopers, according to Scott.{{sfnp|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010|p=47}}

On the other hand, the Muslim Conference sources narrate that hundreds of people were killed in ] during flag hoisting around 15 August and that the Maharaja unleashed a 'reign of terror' on 24 August. Local Muslims also told ], a British Quaker relief worker, that the army fired on crowds, and burnt houses and villages indiscriminately.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=42}} When a public meeting was held in August 1947 at Nila Bat, a village near ], to support the demand for accession of the state to Pakistan, the Maharaja is said to have sent his forces to quell the unrest. The forces opened fire on the gathering. On 27 August, Sardar ], a local ''zamindar'' (landlord), is said to have led an attack on a police-cum-military post in Dhirkot and captured it. The event then led the Maharaja to unleash the full force of his Dogra troops on the population. It is said that this created enmity between the Hindu ruler and the Muslim population. Villages were reportedly attacked and burned.{{sfnp|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=119}}

According to the Assistant British High Commissioner in northern Pakistan, H. S. Stephenson, "the Poonch affair... was greatly exaggerated".{{sfnp|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010|p=9}} Henry Lawrence Scott's report on 31 August states that the army action targeted persons known or suspected of "rioting, looting, murder or inciting", but "exaggerated reports of events in Poonch circulated in these Pakistan districts in which State troops are cited as the aggressors."{{sfnp|Government of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir|1948|p=2}}

Scholar Srinath Raghavan states that, after the protests turned violent, the state carried out a "brutal crackdown" and the developing revolt was quickly "snuffed out".{{sfnp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}

== Politics of accession ==
] of ]]]
With the impending independence of ] and ] in August 1947, the Maharaja indicated his preference to remain independent of the new dominions. All the major political groups of the state supported the Maharaja's decision, except for the Muslim Conference, which eventually declared in favour of accession to Pakistan on 19 July 1947, after its earlier hesitations.<ref>{{citation |first=Balraj |last=Puri |authorlink=Balraj Puri |title=The Question of Accession |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=11 |pp=4–6 |date=November 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMxJzb7N_8wC&pg=PA4 |quote="Eventually they agreed on a modified resolution which 'respectfully and fervently appealed to the Maharaja Bahadur to declare internal autonomy of the State... and accede to the Dominion of Pakistan... However, the General Council did not challenge the maharaja's right to take a decision on accession, and it acknowledged that his rights should be protected even after acceding to Pakistan."}}</ref> The Muslim Conference was popular in the Jammu province of the state, with especial strength in the Poonch and Mirpur districts. It was closely allied with the ], which was set to inherit Pakistan.

By the time of the independence of the new dominions, it is said that, many people in Poonch were identifying themselves with Pakistan. They reportedly raised Pakistan flags and supported the Muslim Conference's pro-Pakistan stance.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=41}} Several Muslim officers of the State Army had conspired to overthrow the Maharaja's government on 14 August 1947. Chief among them was Captain ] posted at ] (Mirpur district), who claimed to have been elected as the chairman of a "revolutionary council".{{sfnp|Dani, History of Northern Areas of Pakistan|2001|pp=338,&nbsp;366|ps=: "Hasan Khan and Major Mohammad Afzal Khan agreed that the Dogra regime should be toppled in Kashmir. Later they contacted Captain Mohammad Mansha Khan, Major Mohammad Sher Kiyani, Major Sayyid Ghazanfar Ali Shah and Major Mohammad Din in Srinagar. They all agreed to support the proposal. Later Major Mohammad Aslam Khan was also contacted and was entrusted to work in Jammu... Then a military council was set up and the members vowed to act simultaneously by attacking and occupying military cantonments on 14th August 1947."}} Major General ], the State's Army Chief, transferred the officers to new posts prior to that date, which foiled their attempts.{{sfnp|Dani, History of Northern Areas of Pakistan|2001|p=366}}

Scholar Srinath Raghavan states that the "gathering head of steam" in Poonch was utilised by the local Muslim Conference led by ] to further its campaign for accession to Pakistan.{{sfnp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}{{efn|], or Sardar Ibrahim, was the elected representative of the Poonch district in the State's Legislative Assembly and a Muslim Conference leader. According to ], he traveled throughout the State, arousing the spirit of the people since June 1947, and narrowly escaped arrest in Srinagar in August.<ref>{{citation |last=Korbel |first=Josef |authorlink=Josef Korbel |title=Danger in Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |edition=second |year=1966 |origyear=first published 1954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Q7WCgAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Korbel, Danger in Kashmir|1966}} |p=67}}</ref>}}

Towards the end of August, Muslim League activists from Pakistan joined to strengthen the protests.{{sfnp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}} General Scott's report on 4 September stated that 500 hostile tribesmen in green and khaki uniforms entered Poonch and they were joined by 200–300 Sattis from ] and ]. Their purpose appeared to be to loot the Hindu and Sikh minorities in the district. Scott lodged a protest with the British commander of the Pakistan's 7th Infantry Division and the Government of Kashmir also followed it up with request to Government of Pakistan to prevent the raids.{{sfnp|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|p=23}}

Scholar ] states that the Maharaja had decided, as early as April 1947, that he would accede to India if it was not possible to stay independent.<ref>{{citation|last=Jha|first=Prem Shankar|title=Response (to the reviews of ''The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947'')|date=March 1998|number=1|authorlink=Prem Shankar Jha|journal=Commonwealth and Comparative Politics|volume=36|DOI=10.1080/14662049808447762|subscription=yes|pp=113–123}}</ref>{{rp|115}} The rebellion in Poonch possibly unnerved the Maharaja. Accordingly, on 11 August, he dismissed his pro-Pakistan Prime Minister,{{sfnp|Snedden, Understanding Kashmir and Kashmiris|2015|p=155}} ], and appointed a pro-India,{{sfnp|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010|p=45, 47, 49}} retired Major ] in his place. On 25 August, he sent an invitation to Justice ], with known ties to the Indian National Congress, to come as the Prime Minister.<ref>{{harvtxt|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|p=44}}; {{harvtxt|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=46}}</ref> On the same day, the Muslim Conference wrote to the Pakistani Prime Minister ] warning him that "if, God forbid, the Pakistan Government or the Muslim League do not act, Kashmir might be lost to them".{{sfnp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=103,&nbsp;106}} The acting president Chaudhry Hamidullah sent word to the NWFP premier, Khan Abdul Qayyum Khan, to arrange for the Kashmir borders to be attacked from Pakistan to draw out State Forces, so that the Poonch rebels can advance to Srinagar.{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|p=85}}

Jha believes that the Maharaja made up his mind to accede to India around 10 September, as reported by the '']'' later in the month.<ref>{{harvnb|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|p=47–48}}; {{harvnb|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=50}}: "On 26 September, the ''Pakistan Times'', whose owner was ... a prominent member of the Muslim League, published a report on its front page, datelined Srinagar, stating that 'Kashmir has decided to join the Indian Union'. Its Srinagar correspondent said that the decision had been taken two weeks earlier. The report, which appeared almost speculative at the time, was almost entirely accurate."</ref>

== Entry of Pakistan (September 1947) ==
], overlooking Kashmir]]
At the end of August, Sardar Ibrahim had escaped to West Punjab, along with dozens of rebels, and established a base in ] across the border from Poonch in northern Punjab, which also served as a ] for Punjab's civil and army officers. Ibrahim attracted a core group of supporters, including retired military officers and the former members of the ] (INA). From Murree, the rebels attempted to acquire arms and ammunition for the rebellion and smuggle them into Kashmir.<ref>{{harvtxt|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=105-106}}; {{harvtxt|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=119–120}}</ref> Attempts were also made to purchase weapons from the neighbouring ] arms bazaars.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=44}}

Before settling to work in Murree, Sardar Ibrahim went to Lahore to seek the help of Pakistan. Jinnah refused to see him, for he did not wish to be involved in the happenings of the state at that moment. However, Ibrahim was able to get the attention of ], a Punjab politician serving as the Minister for Refugee Rehabilitation. Ibrahim told him that the Muslims of Kashmir were facing grave danger from the Maharaja's administration and they needed Pakistan's help. Iftikhar promised to make enquiries.{{sfnp|Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga|1990|pp=68–70}} According to other accounts, Pakistan Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan asked Iftikharuddin to go to Srinagar and explore Pakistan's prospects for Kashmir's accession.{{sfnp|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}

On his way to Kashmir, Iftikharuddin stopped in Murree and met Colonel ], one of a handful of high-ranking Pakistani military officers, who was vacationing in the hill station. According to Akbar Khan's account, Iftikharuddin asked him to prepare a plan for action by Pakistan in case he was to find the political situation in Kashmir unpromising. He told him, however, that the action had to be "unofficial" in nature and not involve the senior British officers in the Army.<ref>{{harvtxt|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}; {{harvtxt|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=119–120}}</ref>

Fortuitously, Sardar Ibrahim found his way to Akbar Khan and requested arms from the military. Ibrahim thought that "the time for peaceful negotiations was gone because every protest was being met with repressions and, therefore, in certain areas the people were virtually in a state of revolt...if they were to protect themselves and to prevent the Maharaja from handing them over to India, they needed weapons." The quantity of weapons requested was 500 rifles.<ref>{{harvtxt|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=105-106}}; {{harvtxt|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=119–120}}</ref>

Akbar Khan discussed the issues with Ibrahim and others, and returned to Rawalpindi to develop a plan. Titled ''Armed Revolt inside Kashmir'', his plan involved diverting to the Poonch rebels, 4000 rifles which were being given by the Army to the Punjab police. Condemned ammunition, scheduled to be discarded, would be diverted to the rebels. Colonel Azam Khanzada, in charge of the Army stores, promised cooperation. The plan strategised for irregular warfare, assuming that 2000 Muslim troops of the State Army (out of a total 9000) would join the rebels. It proposed that, in addition, former officers of the ] (INA) be used to provide military leadership to the rebels. The armed action was to focus on severing the road and air links between Kashmir and India (the road link near Jammu and the airport at Srinagar). Akbar Khan made 12 copies of his plan and gave it to Mian Iftikharuddin, who returned from Kashmir with the assessment that the National Conference held strong and it did not support accession to Pakistan.<ref>{{harvtxt|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|p=105}}; {{harvtxt|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=119, 120}}; {{harvtxt|Bhattacharya, What Price Freedom|2013|p=26}}; {{Citation |last=Joshi |first=Manoj |title=Kashmir, 1947-1965: A Story Retold |publisher=Indian Research Press|location=New Delhi|pages=56 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uAT3oENcxDgC&pg=PA56 |ISBN=}}</ref>

=== 12 September meeting ===
], Prime Minister of Pakistan]]
{{Location map+
|Azad Kashmir
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|caption = Key locations
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|places =
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=33.76|N |long=74.09|E |label=Poonch |position=right |link=Poonch |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=33.16|N |long=74.24|E |label=Nowshera |position=right |link=Nowshera, Jammu and Kashmir |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.71|N |long=74.86|E |label=Jammu |position=right |link=Jammu |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.385|N |long=75.517|E |label=Kathua |position=right |link=Kathua |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.57|N |long=75.12|E |label=Samba |position=right |link=Samba |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=34.36|N |long=73.47|E |label=Muzaffarabad |position=right |link=Muzaffarabad |mark=Blue pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=34.18|N |long=73.24|E |label=Abbottabad |position=top |link=Abbottabad |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=33.91|N |long=73.39|E |label=Murree |position=right |link=Murree |mark=Green pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.58|N |long=74.07|E |label=Gujrat |position=left |link=Gujrat City |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=6 |label_size=70}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.9425|N |long=73.7256|E |label=Jhelum |position=left |link=Jhelum |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=32.4925|N |long=74.5311|E |label=Sialkot |position=left |link=Sialkot |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=4 |label_size=0}}
{{location map~ |Azad Kashmir |lat=33.58|N |long=73.05|E |label=Rawalpindi |position=bottom |link=Rawalpindi |mark=Red pog.svg |marksize=6 |label_size=70}}
}}

On 12 September, the Pakistan Prime Minister held a meeting with Mian Iftikharuddin, Colonel Akbar Khan, West Punjab Minister ] and Muslim League National Guard's chief ]. The finance minister ] and other officials were also present. In addition to Akbar Khan's plan, Shaukat Hayat Khan had another plan involving the ] (MLNG) and the former soldiers of the ] (INA). The Prime Minister approved both the plans, and allocated responsibilities.<ref>{{harvtxt|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010|pp=105-106}}; {{harvtxt|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008|p=120}}</ref> In the eventual shape of the action, two major forces from Pakistan were to be organised, a northern force led by Khurshid Anwar from ], which would attack the Kashmir Valley via ], and a southern force led by former INA officer Major General ] operating from ], which would attack Poonch and ] valley.<ref>{{harvtxt|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=30}}; {{harvtxt|Effendi, Punjab Cavalry|2007|p=152}}</ref> General Kiani proposed a three-tier plan: (1) preparation of armed bands in Poonch who were to advance to Srinagar, (2) organisation of a network of underground movements in the Kashmir Valley to rise at an appropriate time, and (3) harassment of the ]-] road in order to inhibit potential aid from India. Colonel Akbar Khan too emphasised the importance of the Kathua road. General Kiani also recommended the appointment of Khawaja Abdur Rahim as the Divisional Commissioner of ] in order to control the border districts of ], ] and ].{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|p=149}}

Chaudhry Hamidullah, the acting president of the Muslim Conference, was specially summoned from Srinagar for the 12 September meeting. He was made part of a committee comprising himself, ], ] and Mian Iftikharuddin for drafting a "Declaration of Freedom". He was asked to inform ] about the invasion plan.{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|pp=148–150}}

=== GHQ Azad ===
By 23 September, General Kiani established a headquarters at ], which came to be called 'GHQ Azad'. Brigadier ] served as the Chief of Staff (both former INA officers). This command post was responsible for directing all the fighters in Poonch.{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=113}} Several sectoral headquarters were also established: (i) one at Rawalpindi for supporting operations in Poonch, headed by Col. Taj Muhammad Khanzada, (ii) one at ] for supporting operations in Mirpur, headed by Col. R. M. Arshad, and (iii) one at ] for supporting operations in Jammu, headed by Col. Kiani. The 4000 rifles promised by Akbar Khan via Punjab Police were made available a few days later. However, it is said that the Punjab Police substituted the Army rifles by Frontier-made rifles, which were inferior. General Kiani approached ] of ], ], the head of Ahamdiyyas, and other officials in Lahore for providing supplies like shoes, haversacks, water bottles and other provisions.{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|p=172–173}}

By 2 October, Col. Kiani, in charge of the Sialkot sector, started operations south of ].{{sfnp|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015|p=173}} State Forces have described these operations as "hit-and-run raids by Pakistani gangs", armed with rifles, bren guns and light automatics running 5 to 10 miles into the state. They engaged in burning of villages, looting towns, molesting and killing civilians.{{sfnp|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972|p=246}}

=== Operation Gulmarg ===
According to Indian military sources, the Pakistani Army prepared a plan called ] as early as 20 August, apparently independently of the political leadership. On that day, orders were issued via demi-official letters to various brigade headquarters in the North-West Pakistan to operationalise the plan. According to the plan, 20 ''lashkars'' (tribal militias), consisting of 1000 Pashtun tribesmen each, were to be recruited and armed at various brigade headquarters in the North-West Pakistan. Ten lashkars were to be launched into the Kashmir Valley via ] and another ten lashkars were to join the rebels in Poonch, Bhimber and ] with a view to advance to ]. The plan also consisted of detailed arrangements for the military leadership and armaments.{{sfnp|Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987 |pp=17–19}}<ref>{{citation|last=Kalkat|first=Onkar S.|title=The Far-flung Frontiers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWO5AAAAIAAJ|year=1983|publisher=Allied Publishers|pp=40–42}}</ref> Scholar Robin James Moore states that, during September–October, there is "little doubt" that Pashtuns were involved in border raids all along the Punjab border, from the Indus to the Ravi.{{sfnp|Moore, Making the new Commonwealth|1987|p=49}}

== Rebellion (October 1947) ==
The pro-Pakistan Muslim Conference leaders of the western districts of Muzaffarabad, Poonch and Mirpur proclaimed a provisional ] government in ] on 3 October 1947. The proclamation of a similar provisional government of ] in Bombay is said to have provided the impetus.<ref>{{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=58}}; {{harvtxt|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|p=100}}</ref>{{efn|According to scholar Shams Rehman, "if we accept the claims by such writers as Zahir Ud Din, it appears that indeed it was formed under the instructions of Pakistan government to oust Maharaja and take Kashmir like India took Junagarh. A closer look at the details of Junagarh case supports the claim made here that the Azad Kashmir government of 4th October that was reorganized on 24th October in fact was set up by Pakistan in reaction to the provisional government of Junagarh declared on 25th of September 1947."<ref name=Rehman>{{citation |first=Shams |last=Rehman |url=http://drshabirchoudhry.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/azad-kashmir-government-birth-and.html |title=Azad Kashmir Government: Birth and Growth |website=Shabir Choudhry blogspot |date=31 July 2013 |ref={{sfnref|Shams Rehman, Azad Kashmir Government: Birth and Growth|2013}}}}</ref>}} Khwaja Ghulam Nabi Gilkar took on the post of president under the assumed name "Mr. Anwar". Sardar Ibrahim Khan was chosen as the prime minister.{{efn|Other members of the provisional government were Ghulam Haider Jandalvi, the minister for defence; Nazir Hussain Shah, the minister for finance; and two other ministers for education and industry under assumed names.{{sfnp|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012|p=233}}}} The headquarters of the government was declared to be in Muzaffarabad. However, this government quickly fizzled out with the arrest of Gilkar in Srinagar.<ref>{{harvtxt|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012}}; {{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=59}}</ref> Sardar Ibrahim continued to provide political leadership to the rebels. Thousands of rebels were organised into a people's militia known as the 'Azad Army'.<ref name="india-seminar" />{{sfnp|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005|p=143}}

On or around 6 October, an armed rebellion started in the Poonch district.<ref name="ul-Hassan">{{citation |last=ul-Hassan |first=Syed Minhaj |title=Qaiyum Khan and the War of Kashmir, 1947-48 AD. |journal=FWU Journal of Social Sciences |volume=9 |number=1 |year=2015 |p=1–7 |url=http://www.sbbwu.edu.pk/journal/Journal%20June%202015/1.%20Qaiyum%20Khan%20and%20the%20War%20of%20Kashmir,%20proof%20reading%20and%20APA.pdf |ref={{sfnref|ul Hassan, Qaiyum Khan and the War of Kashmir|2015}}}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Sumit |last=Ganguly |title=Wars without End: The Indo-Pakistani Conflict |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=541 |date=September 1995 |pp=167-178 |publisher=Sage Publications |JSTOR=1048283 |ref={{sfnref|Ganguly, Wars without End|1995}}}}</ref>
The fighting elements consisted of "bands of deserters from the State Army, serving soldiers of the Pakistan Army on leave, ex-servicemen, and other volunteers who had risen spontaneously."{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=113}} The rebels quickly gained control of almost the entire Poonch district. The State Forces garrison at Poonch came under heavy siege.<ref>{{harvtxt|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003|p=100}}; {{harvtxt|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005|p=143}}</ref>

In the Mirpur district, the border posts at Saligram and Owen Pattan on Jhelum river were captured by rebels around 8 October. ] and ] were abandoned by State Forces after attack.<ref>{{harvtxt|Cheema, Crimson Chinar|2015|p=57}}; {{harvtxt|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972|p=162}}</ref>

By 21 October, ], a small town in the liberated area of the Poonch district was nominally designated as the headquarters of the Azad Kashmir provisional government.<ref name=JasbirSingh>
{{cite book |first=Brigadier Jasbir |last=Singh |title=Roar of the Tiger: Illustrated History of Operations in Kashmir by 4th Battalion |publisher=Vij Books India |year=2013 |ISBN=9382652035 |pp=4–5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mcXVjswUrcC&pg=PA4}}
</ref><ref name=Kapoor>
{{citation |last=Kapoor |first=Sindhu |title=Politics of Protests in Jammu and Kashmir from 1925 to 1951 |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/78307 |year=2014 |ref={{sfnref |Kapoor, Politics of Protests in Jammu and Kashmir |2014}} |page=325 |chapter=7 |publisher=University of Jammu/Shodhganga}}
</ref> On 24 October, the provisional government was reconstituted with Sardar Ibrahim as the President.<ref>{{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=61}}; {{harvtxt|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012|p=234}}</ref>{{efn|Other members of this government were Sayid Ali Ahmed Shah, Chaudhri Abdullah Khan Bhalli, Khwaja Ghulam Din Wani, Sayid Nazir Husain Shah and Sonna Ullah Shah.{{sfnp|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012|p=234}} According to Sardar Ibrahim, he was woken up in the dead of night on 23 October by the Divisional Commissioner of Rawalpindi, Khawaja Abdul Rahim, and told that it had become necessary to reconstitute the government with himself as the president.{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=112}}<ref>{{citation |last=Choudhry |first=Shabir |title=Kashmir Dispute: A Kashmiri perspective - Kashmiri struggle transformed in to Jihad, terrorism and a proxy war |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bVGAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |year=2013 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4918-7788-3 |page=47}}</ref>}}
However, in practice, the 'real capital' of the new government continued to be in ].{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=112}}

On 21 October, the Pakistani Army's public relations officer issued a press release to the ] about the impending Pashtun tribal invasion, but instructed that the news be published as coming from the Azad Kashmir headquarters at Pallandri.<ref name=JasbirSingh/><ref name=Kapoor/> On the night of 21 October, Khurshid Anwar crossed into Jammu and Kashmir near Muzaffarabad, heading a lashkar of 4,000 Pashtun tribesmen.<ref>{{harvp|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|p=25}}; {{harvp|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=25}}</ref> In the next few days the tribal force swelled to over 12,000 men.<ref>{{harvp|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996|p=26}}; {{harvp|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003|p=27}}</ref> Facing an impending collapse, the Maharaja acceded to the Indian Union, following which India air-lifted troops to defend Srinagar on 27 October. From this point on the tribal invasion and the Poonch rebelion proceeded in parallel.

]

On 27 October, a ''Kashmir Liberation Committee'' was established, headed by the Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Colonel Akbar Khan, as the military member, and Sardar Ibrahim, as the representative of Azad Kashmir were included, as were the finance officer Ghulam Mohammad and a political officer Major Yusuf. The 'GHQ Azad' of General Kiani was asked to report to this committee.{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=105}} In due course, Justice Din Muhammad, a retired judge of the Lahore High Court, was appointed as a "trusted agent" of the Pakistan government to liaise with the Azad Kashmir government, who also doubled as the chair of the Liberation Committee.{{sfnp|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998|p=114}}

Around 24 October, the State Force garrison at ] was defeated by the Azad Forces.{{sfnp|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983|p=143}} On 7 November, ] was captured.{{sfnp|V. K. Singh, Leadership in the Indian Army|2005|p=160}} The remaining garrisons at Mirpur, Jhangar, ] and Poonch were surrounded.

== Commentary ==
Jammu political activist and journalist ] states that the harsh attempts of Maharaja Hari Singh and his armed forces to crush the rebellion in Poonch turned the political movement into a ].<ref name=Bhasin>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kashmirlife.net/jammu-1947-issue-35-vol-07-89728/|title=Jammu 1947|last=Bhasin|first=Ved|website=Kashmir Life}}</ref><ref>{{citation |first=Anuradha Bhasin |last=Jamwal |title=Prejudice in Paradise |newspaper=Communalism Combat |volume=11 |year=January 2005 |url=http://sabrang.com/cc/archive/2005/jan05/cover.html}}</ref>

Scholar ] opines that the ] motivated some Muslims to join the movement against Maharaja, for self-defence.{{sfnp|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|pp=48, 58}} He also remarked:<ref name="india-seminar"/><blockquote>"The reaction of the ruler’s predominantly Hindu army to Poonch Muslims’ pro-Pakistan activities boosted the anti-Maharaja ‘cause’ in Poonch and incited Poonchis to take further action. In response to incidents around Poonch that invariably involved Muslims, the Maharaja’s army fired on crowds, burned houses and villages indiscriminately, plundered, arrested people, and imposed local martial law. Indeed, because ‘trouble continued … the State forces were compelled to deal with it with a heavy hand’. Until such oppressive actions, the anti-Maharaja cause probably had little backing. ‘Substantial men’ told Symonds that ‘they would never have joined such a rash enterprise’ opposing the Maharaja ‘but for the folly of the Dogras who burnt whole villages where only a single family was involved in the revolt’. Such ‘folly’ motivated some Poonch Muslims to organise a people’s resistance movement."</blockquote>Referring to the events in Poonch, Sheikh Abdullah, according to a New Delhi report circulated by the Associated Press of India, on 21 October said:<ref name="Bhasin" /><blockquote>
The present troubles in Poonch, a feudatory of Kashmir, were because of the policy adopted by the State. The people of Poonch who suffered under the local ruler, and his overlord, the Kashmir durbar, had started a people’s movement to redress their grievances. It was not communal. The Kashmir State sent their troops and there was panic in Poonch. Most of the adult population in Poonch was ex-servicemen of the Indian Army, who had close connections with the people in Jhelum and Rawalpindi. They evacuated their women and children, crossed the frontier and returned with arms supplied to them by willing people. The Kashmir State forces were thus forced to withdraw from certain areas.
</blockquote>

== Aftermath ==
After the Indian forces entered the war, Pakistan officially intervened subsequently. ], with the two areas of control more or less stabilized around what is now known as the "]".

] became a ] administrative division of ]. Poonch District of the ] was divided between ] and ]. The Pakistani part of ] is part of its ] territory, whilst the ] is part of the ] state.

According to scholar Ian Copland, the ] were undertaken by the administration against the Muslims in Jammu, partly out of revenge for the Poonch uprising.{{sfnp|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005|p=143}}

Many Hindus and Sikhs, on and after 25 November 1947 gathered in ] for shelter and protection ] by the Pakistani troops and tribesmen. A 'greatly shocked' Sardar Ibrahim painfully confirmed that Hindus were 'disposed of' in Mirpur in November 1947, although he does not mention any figures.{{efn|{{citation |last1=Ibrahim Khan |first1=Muhammad |title=The Kashmir Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCtuAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Verinag |p=55}}: During the month of November, 1947, I went to Mirpur to see things there for myself. I visited, during the night, one Hindu refugee camp at Ali Baig—about 15 miles from Mirpur proper. Among the refugees I found some of my fellow lawyers in a pathetic condition. I saw them myself, sympathised with them and solemnly promised that they would be rescued and sent to Pakistan, from where they would eventually be sent out to India.... After a couple of days, when I visited the camp again to do my bit for them, I was greatly shocked to learn that all those people whom I had seen on the last occasion had been disposed of. I can only say that nothing in my life pained my conscience so much as did this incident.... Those who were in charge of those camps were duly dealt with but that certainly is no compensation to those whose near and dear ones were killed.}} The death toll was estimated to be over 20,000.<ref>{{harvtxt|Snedden, Kashmir: The Unwritten History|2013|p=56}}; {{harvtxt|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012|p=97}}; {{harvtxt|Hasan, Mirpur 1947|2013}}</ref>

== See also ==
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |author=Rakesh Ankit |title=Henry Scott: The forgotten soldier of Kashmir |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=5 |url=http://documents.mx/documents/epilogue-magazine-may-2010.html |date=May 2010 |page=44-49 |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, Henry Scott|2010}}}}
* {{citation |first=Rakesh |last=Ankit |title=The Problem of Poonch |journal=Epilogue |volume=4 |number=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DpQh00eGEB0C&pg=PA8 |date=August 2010 |page=8–10 |ref={{sfnref|Ankit, The Problem of Poonch|2010}}}}
* {{citation |last=Bhattacharya |first=Brigadier Samir |title=NOTHING BUT!: Book Three: What Price Freedom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HESVAgAAQBAJ |date=2013 |publisher=Partridge Publishing |ISBN=978-1-4828-1625-9 |ref={{sfnref|Bhattacharya, What Price Freedom|2013}}}}
* {{citation |last=Birdwood |first=Christopher Bromhead |authorlink=Christopher Birdwood, 2nd Baron Birdwood |title=Two Nations and Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nzs-AAAAMAAJ |year=1956 |publisher=R. Hale |ref={{sfnref|Birdwood, Two Nations and Kashmir|1956}}}}
* {{citation |first=Sumantra |last=Bose |authorlink=Sumantra Bose |title=Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |ISBN=0-674-01173-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ACMe9WBdNAC |ref={{sfnref|Bose, Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace|2003}}}}
* {{citation |last=Cheema |first=Brig Amar |title=The Crimson Chinar: The Kashmir Conflict: A Politico Military Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qc25BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 |date=2015 |publisher=Lancer Publishers |ISBN=978-81-7062-301-4 |pages=51– |ref={{sfnref|Cheema, Crimson Chinar|2015}}}}
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |chapter=The Abdullah Factor: Kashmiri Muslims and the Crisis of 1947 |editor=D. A. Low |title=Political Inheritance of Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VaeuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |year=1991 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |ISBN=978-1-349-11556-3 |pages=218–254 |ref={{sfnref|Copland, The Abdullah Factor|1991}}}}
* {{citation |last=Copland |first=Ian |title=State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely India, c.&nbsp;1900–1950 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2005 |ISBN=0230005985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=squHDAAAQBAJ |ref={{sfnref|Copland, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India|2005}}}}
* {{citation |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |authorlink=Ahmad Hasan Dani |title=History of Northern Areas of Pakistan: Upto 2000 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOltAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications |ISBN=978-969-35-1231-1 |ref={{sfnref|Dani, History of Northern Areas of Pakistan|2001}}}}
* {{citation |last=Das Gupta |first=Jyoti Bhusan |title=Jammu and Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpTpCAAAQBAJ&pg |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |ISBN=978-94-011-9231-6 |ref={{sfnref|Das Gupta, Jammu and Kashmir|2012}}}}
* {{citation |last=Effendi |first=Col. M. Y. |title=Punjab Cavalry: Evolution, Role, Organisation and Tactical Doctrine 11 Cavalry, Frontier Force, 1849-1971 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeXeAAAAMAAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Karachi |ISBN=978-0-19-547203-5 |ref={{sfnref|Effendi, Punjab Cavalry|2007}}}}
* {{citation |last=Gandhi |first=Rajmohan |authorlink=Rajmohan Gandhi |title=Ghaffar Khan, Nonviolent Badshah of the Pakhtuns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xnTtQrRVNKAC&pg=PA179 |year=2008 |publisher=Penguin Books India |ISBN=978-0-14-306519-7 |ref={{sfnref|Rajmohan Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan|2008}}|p=170–171}}
* {{citation |last=Jha |first=Prem Shankar |authorlink=Prem Shankar Jha |title=Kashmir, 1947: Rival Versions of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBORQgAACAAJ |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563766-3 |ref={{sfnref|Jha, Rival Versions of History|1996}}}}
** {{citation |last=Jha |first=Prem Shankar |title=The Origins of a Dispute: Kashmir 1947 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0kluAAAAMAAJ |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ISBN=978-0-19-566486-7 |ref={{sfnref|Jha, The Origins of a Dispute|2003}}}}
* {{citation |author=Government of India |title=White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obwBAAAAMAAJ |year=1948 |publisher=Government of India |ref={{sfnref|Government of India, White Paper on Jammu & Kashmir|1948}}}}
* {{citation |last=Hasan |first=Khalid |chapter=Mirpur 1947 |editor-last=Gupta |editor-first=Bal K. |title=Forgotten Atrocities: Memoirs of a Survivor of the 1947 Partition of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N2BIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |year=2013 |origyear= |publisher=Lulu.com |ISBN=978-1-257-91419-7 |pages=141–144 |ref={{sfnref|Hasan, Mirpur 1947|2013}}}}
* {{citation |last=Hiro |first=Dilip |title=The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpPCBAAAQBAJ |date=2015 |publisher=Nation Books |ISBN=978-1-56858-503-1 |ref={{sfnref|Hiro, The Longest August|2015}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Ibrahim Khan |first1=Muhammad |title=The Kashmir Saga |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCtuAAAAMAAJ |year=1990 |publisher=Verinag |ref={{sfnref|Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga|1990}}}}
* {{citation |last=McLeod |first=Duncan |title=India and Pakistan: Friends, Rivals Or Enemies? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EqDdfZwSc3EC&pg=PA39 |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |ISBN=978-0-7546-7437-5 |pages=39– |ref={{sfnref|McLeod, India and Pakistan: Friends, Rivals or Enemies?|2008}}}}
* {{citation |last=Moore |first=Robin James |title=Making the new Commonwealth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_l-AAAAIAAJ |year=1987 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-820112-0 |ref={{sfnref|Moore, Making the new Commonwealth|1987}}}}
* {{citation |last1=Prasad |last2=Pal |first1=Sri Nandan |first2=Dharm |title=Operations in Jammu & Kashmir, 1947-48 |url=https://ia801505.us.archive.org/34/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.116302/2015.116302.Operations-In-Jammu-Amp-Kashmir-1947-48.pdf |year=1987 |publisher=History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India |ref={{sfnref |Prasad & Pal, Operations in Jammu & Kashmir |1987}}}}
* {{citation |first=Shuja |last=Nawaz |title=The First Kashmir War Revisited |journal=India Review |volume=7 |number=2 |pp=115–154 |DOI=10.1080/14736480802055455 |date=May 2008 |subscription=yes |ref={{sfnref|Nawaz, The First Kashmir War Revisited|2008}}}}
* {{citation |last=Palit |first=D. K. |title=Jammu and Kashmir Arms: History of the J & K Rifles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KGZDnzqQj2QC |year=1972 |publisher=Palit & Dutt |ref={{sfnref|Palit, Jammu and Kashmir Arms|1972}}}}
* {{citation |last=Raghavan |first=Srinath |title=War and Peace in Modern India: A Strategic History of the Nehru Years |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbtBJb1bsHUC |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-00737-7 |ref={{sfnref|Raghavan, War and Peace in Modern India|2010}}}}
* {{citation |last=Saraf |first=Muhammad Yusuf |authorlink=Muhammad Yusuf Saraf |title=Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2 |year=2015 |origyear=first published 1979 by Ferozsons |publisher=National Institute Kashmir Studies |location=Mirpur |ref={{sfnref|Saraf, Kashmiris Fight for Freedom, Volume 2|2015}}}}
* {{citation |last=Schofield |first=Victoria |authorlink=Victoria Schofield |title=Kashmir in Conflict |publisher=I. B. Taurus & Co |location=London and New York |year=2003 |origyear=First published in 2000 |ISBN=1860648983 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkTetMfI6QkC |ref={{sfnref|Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict|2003}}}}
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* {{citation |last=Suharwardy |first=Abdul Haq |title=Tragedy in Kashmir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjRuAAAAMAAJ |year=1983 |publisher=Wajidalis |ref={{sfnref|Suharwardy, Tragedy in Kashmir|1983}}}}
* {{citation |last=Zaheer |first=Hasan |title=The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy, 1951: The First Coup Attempt in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rjNuAAAAMAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |ISBN=978-0-19-577892-2 |ref={{sfnref|Zaheer, The Times and Trial of the Rawalpindi Conspiracy|1998}}}}
{{Refend}}

{{Kashmir conflict}}

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Revision as of 17:41, 19 December 2017

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