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Atheism is the disbelief in the existence of deities, and more specifically in the monotheistic Judeo-Christian God. It is most commonly defined as the explicit, positive rejection of theism; however, numerous atheistic philosophers and groups prefer to define atheism as the simple absence of belief in deities (cf. nontheism), thus designating people who have never heard of God, such as newborn children, as atheists as well. Theological agnosticism is commonly contrasted with the former, narrower definition, as a position of uncertainty or indecision between atheism and theism; on the other hand, under the latter, broader definition, many agnostics qualify as atheists. The former defines atheism positively, as the belief that no gods exist; the latter, however, defines atheism negatively, as the lack of belief in gods. In recent years, some atheists have adopted the terms strong atheism for the former and weak atheism for the latter to clarify whether they consider their stance one of positive belief or of negative unbelief.

Although many self-described atheists share common skeptical concerns regarding empirical evidence for spiritual or supernatural claims, citing a lack of evidence for the existence of deities, explicit atheism is inspired by a variety of rationales, ranging from the personal to the philosophical to the social to the historical. Additionally, while there is a tendency among those who identify themselves as atheists toward secular philosophies such as humanism, naturalism and materialism, there is no single ideology that all atheists adhere to, nor does atheism have any institutionalized rituals or behaviors.

Although atheism is very often equated with irreligion or nonspirituality in Western culture, not all atheists are necessarily irreligious or nonspiritual. Some religious and spiritual beliefs, such as several forms of Buddhism, have even been described by outside observers as atheistic (under the broader, negative definition of atheism) due to their lack of any participating deities. Atheism is also sometimes erroneously equated with antitheism (opposition to theism) or antireligion (opposition to religion), despite many atheists not holding such views.

Etymology

In early Ancient Greek, the adjective atheos (from privative α- + θεος "god") meant "without gods". The word acquired an additional meaning in the 5th century BC, severing relations with the gods; that is, "denying the gods, godless, ungodly", with more active connotations than asebēs, or "impious". Modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate atheos as "atheistic". As an abstract noun, there was also atheotēs ("atheism"). Cicero transliterated atheos into Latin. The term found frequent use in the debate between early Christians and pagans, with each side attributing it, in the pejorative sense, to the other.

A.B. Drachmann (1922) notes:

"Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said atheos and atheotes; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, atheos was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed."

In English, the term atheism was adopted from the French athéisme in about 1587. The term atheist in the sense of "one who denies or disbelieves" predates atheism in English, being first attested in about 1571; the phrase Italian atheoi is recorded as early as 1568. Atheist in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in 1577. The French word is derived from athée ("godless, atheist"), which in turn comes from the Greek atheos. The words deist and theist entered English after atheism, being first attested in 1621 and 1662, respectively, and followed by theism and deism in 1678 and 1682, respectively. Deism and theism changed meanings slightly around 1700, due to the influence of atheism. Deism was originally used as a synonym for today's theism, but came to denote a separate philosophical doctrine.

The Oxford English Dictionary also records an earlier, irregular formation, atheonism, dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to 1611 and 1612, respectively.

History

Although the term itself originated in 16th-century France, ideas that would be recognized today as atheistic existed before the advent of Classical antiquity. Eastern philosophy has a long history of nontheistic belief, starting with Laozi and Siddhartha Gautama in the 6th century BC. The 5th-century BC Greek philosopher Diagoras is known as the "first atheist", and strongly criticized religion and mysticism. Epicurus was an early philosopher to dispute many religious beliefs, including the existence of an afterlife or a personal deity.

Atheists have been subject to significant persecution throughout history. Atheism has been a criminal offense in many parts of the world, and in some cases a "wrong belief" was equated with "unbelief" in order to condemn someone with differing beliefs as an "atheist". For example, despite having expressed belief in various divinities, Socrates was called an atheos and ultimately sentenced to death for impiety on the grounds that he inspired questioning of the state gods. During the late Roman Empire, many Christians were executed for "atheism" because of their rejection of the Roman gods, and "heresy" and "godlessness" were serious capital offenses following the rise of Christianity.

Atheistic sentiment was virtually unknown in medieval Europe, but flourished in the empirical Carvaka school of India. Criticism of religion became increasingly frequent in the 16th century, and the word athéisme originated as a slur—invariably denied by the accused—used against such critics, as well as deists, scientists, and materialists. The first openly atheistic thinkers, such as Baron d'Holbach, appeared in the late 18th century, when expressing disbelief in God became a less dangerous position. Following the French Revolution, atheism rose to prominence under the influence of rationalistic and freethinking philosophies, and many prominent 19th-century German philosophers denied the existence of deities and were critical of religion, including Karl Marx, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Friedrich Nietzsche.

In the 20th century, atheism, though still a minority view, became increasingly common in many parts of the world, often being spread as aspects of other, broader philosophies, such as existentialism, secular humanism, nihilism, moral relativism, and the general scientific and rationalist movement. In some cases, these philosophies became associated with atheism to the extent that atheists were vilified for the broader view, such as when the word "atheist" entered popular parliance in the United States as synonymous with being unpatriotic (cf. "godless commie") during the Cold War. Some Communist states, such as the Soviet Union, promoted state atheism and opposed religion, often by violent means; Enver Hoxha went further than most and officially banned religion in Albania. These policies helped reinforce the negative associations of atheism, especially where anti-communist sentiment was strong, despite the fact that many prominent atheists, such as Ayn Rand, were anti-communist..

Types and typologies of atheism

There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs.

Atheism as absence of theism

The terms implicit atheism and explicit atheism were coined by George H. Smith. Implicit atheism is defined by Smith as 'the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it':

"The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child without the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist."

In accordance, Baron d'Holbach defines atheism in a similar way, making the definition so broad as to incorporate those of no knowledge.

"All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God."

An atheist writer who disagrees with such a broad definition is Ernest Nagel, who thinks atheism is the rejection of theism (which George H. Smith labelled as explicit atheism, or anti-theism):

"Atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief... Thus, a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about God, is not an atheist — for he is not denying any theistic claims."

Weak and strong atheism

Strong or positive atheism is the belief that gods do not exist. It is a form of explicit atheism. A strong atheist consciously rejects theism and may even argue that certain deities logically cannot exist.

Weak or negative atheism is the absence both of the belief that gods exist and of the belief that gods do not exist. In other words, anyone who is neither a theist nor a strong atheist is a weak atheist.

While the terms weak and strong are relatively recent, the concepts they represent have existed for some time. The terms negative atheism and positive atheism have been used in the philosophical literature and (in a slightly different sense) in Catholic apologetics.

Ignosticism

Ignosticism considers the question of the existence of gods meaningless; it sees no verifiable or testable consequences to the question (see scientific method). The term was coined by Rabbi Sherwin Wine, founder of the Society for Humanistic Judaism. Often considered synonymous with theological noncognitivism, ignosticism was popular among logical positivists such as Rudolph Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who held that talk of gods is literally nonsense. According to ignostics, 'Does God exist?' has the same logical status as 'What colour is Saturday?' -- neither has a meaningful answer.

Ignosticism is distinct from apatheism. While ignostics hold questions and discussions of whether deities exist to be meaningless, apatheists hold that even a hypothetical answer to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence.

Many sects of Buddhism, especially Theravada, are ignostic. They believe the Buddha ignored the question of the existence of gods as being unimportant to the pursuit of Enlightenment.

Agnosticism

Agnosticism is the philosophical view that the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural or the divine is inherently unknowable. Therefore, the existence of such powers as deities in our universe is irrelevant to the human condition. The term was coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869, and is also used to describe those who are unconvinced of or uncommited to the existence of deities or the truth of religion in general.

Some agnostics feel that strong atheism is as intellectually flawed as other types of religious belief, requiring faith in an unprovable assertion. For this reason, only weak atheism is logically defensible from their point of view.

The word agnostic comes from the Greek a (without) and gnosis (knowledge). Agnosticism is not to be confused with a view specifically opposing the doctrine of gnosis and Gnosticism—these are religious concepts that are not related to agnosticism.

Antitheism

Antitheism (Anti-theism) typically refers to a direct opposition to theism. However, antitheism is also sometimes used, particularly in religious contexts, to refer to opposition to god or divine things, rather than to the belief in god.

Under the latter definition, it may be possible, or perhaps even necessary, to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist, to oppose god itself and not the idea of god. This position is seldom expressed, though opponents of atheism often claim that atheists hate god.

Antitheists may believe that theism is harmful to human progression, or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as irrational. Strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist, but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates opposition.

Reasons for atheism

Atheists assert various reasons for their position, including a lack of empirical evidence for deities, or the conviction that the non-existence of deities (in general or particular) is better supported rationally.

Lack of reason or default position

Many atheists will point out that in philosophy, the default position on any matter is a lack of belief. If an argument is not presented in a manner in which it can be accepted as true, then the argument should not be believed, although it may not be invalid or false. Therefore, one reason atheists may give for not being theists is that they remain unconvinced by theistic arguments. A theist may demand that the atheist prove that a god does not exist, but the burden of proof is on the believer.

Philosophical and logical reasons

Some atheists argue that their position is based on a more active logical analysis, and subsequent rejection, of theistic claims. The arguments against the existence of deities aim at showing that some particular conception of a god either is inherently meaningless, contradictory, or contradicts known scientific or historical facts, and that therefore a god thus described does not exist.

"Within the framework of scientific rationalism one arrives at the belief in the nonexistence of God, not because of certain knowledge, but because of a sliding scale of methods. At one extreme, we can confidently rebut the personal Gods of creationists on firm empirical grounds: science is sufficient to conclude beyond reasonable doubt that there never was a worldwide flood and that the evolutionary sequence of the Cosmos does not follow either of the two versions of Genesis. The more we move toward a deistic and fuzzily defined God, however, the more scientific rationalism reaches into its toolbox and shifts from empirical science to logical philosophy informed by science. Ultimately, the most convincing arguments against a deistic God are Hume's dictum and Occam's razor. These are philosophical arguments, but they also constitute the bedrock of all of science, and cannot therefore be dismissed as non-scientific. The reason we put our trust in these two principles is because their application in the empirical sciences has led to such spectacular successes throughout the last three centuries."

Other arguments include:

• The problem of evil, which Christian apologist William Lane Craig has called atheism's killer argument. The argument is that the presence of evil in the world disproves the existence of any god that is simultaneously benevolent and omnipotent, because any benevolent god would want to eliminate evil, and any omnipotent god would be able to do so.

• The related argument from nonbelief, also known as the argument from divine hiddenness, states that if an omnipotent god existed and wanted to be believed and praised by all, it would prove its existence because it would invariably be able to do so. Since there are unbelievers, either no god exists or no god influences mankind. Either way, belief in such a god is not required.

• Theological noncognitivism which is the argument that religious language, and specifically words like "God" (capitalized), are not cognitively meaningful.

• The Transcendental argument for the non-existence of God (TANG) was first intended as a reply to the Transcendental argument for the existence of God, which argues that logic, science and morality can only be justified by appealing to the theistic worldview. TANG, however, argues that the reverse is true.

• Nearly all cultures have their own creation myths and gods. Claiming that a certain god (e.g., Yahweh) has a special status above gods that are now accepted as myth (e.g., Zeus), or that one culture's god is more correct than another's, is illogical.

Scientific reasons

Science is based on the observation that the universe is governed by natural laws that can be tested and replicated through experiment. It serves as a reliable and rational basis for predictions and engineering. Like scientists, scientific skeptics use critical thinking (cf. the true-believer syndrome) to decide claims based on verifiability and falsifiability. They do not base claims on faith or other unfalsifiable categories.

Most theistic religions teach that mankind and the universe were created by one or more deities and that this deity continues to act in the universe. Many people, including atheists and theists, feel that this view conflicts with both the discoveries of modern science (especially in cosmology, astronomy, biology and quantum physics) and the fundamental principles of science - that science and theistic religions are mutually exclusive philosophies. Many believers in the validity of science, seeing such a contradiction, do not believe the existence of a deity or deities actively involved in the universe.

Science presents a vastly different view of humankind's place in the Universe from many theistic religions. For example, evolutionary science describes complex life developing through natural selection on random mutations; it asserts that all life on this planet, including humans, are products of this genetic algorithm. Modern humans arose only 200,000 years ago in a universe that is 13.7 billion years old and on a planet that orbits an undistinguished star among billions in the Milky Way, which itself is merely one galaxy among billions of others. It is also now known that humans share 98% of our genetic code with bonobo chimpanzees, 90% with mice, 21% with roundworms, and fully 7% with the bacterium E. coli. This scientific perspective is quite different from that of most theistic religions. In some Abrahamic religions, for instance, humans are thought to be created "in God's image" and to be qualitatively different than the "beasts of the Earth".

Scientific progress has, some claim, continually eroded the basis for religion. Historically, many religions have involved supernatural entities and forces linked to unexplained physical phenomena. In Ancient Greece, for instance, Helios was the god of the sun, Zeus the god of thunder, and Poseidon the god of earthquakes and the sea. In the absence of a credible scientific theory, people attributed these natural objects and phenomena to supernatural forces. Science has been eliminating the need for such explanations. The idea that the role of deities is to fill in the remaining "gaps" in scientific understanding has come to be known as God of the gaps.

Personal and social reasons

Some atheists have found social, psychological, practical, and other personal reasons for their beliefs. Some believe that it is more conducive to living well, or that it is more ethical and has more utility than theism. Such atheists hold that searching for explanations in natural science is more beneficial than doing it through supernatural means. They believe that atheism allows, perhaps even requires, people to take personal responsiblity for their actions. In contrast, they feel that many religions blame bad deeds on extrinsic factors and require punishments or faith to keep a person moral and socially acceptable.

Some atheists dislike the restrictions religious codes of conduct place on their personal freedoms. From their point of view, morality is subjective and arbitrary.

Some atheists find it difficult to accept that faith could be more important than good works: While a murderer can go to heaven simply by accepting Jesus in certain Christian sects, a farmer in a remote Asian countryside will go to hell for not hearing the "good news". Furthermore, some find hell to be the epitome of cruel and unusual punishment, and some may find the knowledge of such a place to be unbearable even if they themselves can go to heaven. (However, some liberal Catholics believe that good atheists go to heaven because they value works over faith.)

Some atheists argue that theism eases one's conscience or can promote immorality. Much violence -- e.g., warfare, executions, murders and terrorism -- has been brought about, condoned or justified by religious beliefs and practices. The wealth of various religious organizations also often specifically contravenes the teachings of the founders of their religion, and may be inseparable from the nature of the organization itself.

Just as some people of faith come to their faith based upon perceived spiritual or religious experiences, some atheists base their view on an absence of such an experience. Although they may not foreclose the possibility of a supernatural world, unless and until they believe through experience that such a world exists they refuse to accept a belief system based upon blind faith.

Some atheists grow up in environments where atheism is relatively common, just as people who grow up in a predominantly Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, or Christian country or culture tend to adopt the prevalent religion there. Also, some believe that religions have been socially constructed and should be analyzed with an objective, historic viewpoint (see development of religion).

Criticisms of atheism

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Atheists and atheism have received much criticism, opposition, and persecution, chiefly from theistic sources, throughout human history.

Some criticisms include:

• That atheism is logically equivalent to all other religious positions, requiring faith in an unprovable assertion.
• That the lack of belief in a deity who administers justice may lead to poor morals or ethics.
• That atheism makes life meaningless and miserable. Blaise Pascal made this argument in 1670 in his book Pensées.
• That atheism doesn't exist. This claim is based on the hypothesis that all people believe in a god or gods and that atheists are in denial.
• "There are no atheists in foxholes."
• A recent telephone survey suggests that atheists are the least trusted group in America, ranking "below Muslims, recent immigrants, homosexuals and other groups".

Atheism and religion

The historical context of how each theistic sect has defined and dealt with atheism is significant. Although atheism is often accompanied by a total lack of spiritual beliefs, this is not an aspect, or even a necessary consequence, of atheism. Indeed, some atheists believe in a spiritual realm (see afterlife) and may belong to a religious group. Atheists can also be found in several sects of Buddhism and Taoism that do not have theism as a doctrine, and even in religions in which theism has been taught as doctrine.

Demographics

It is difficult to quantify the number of atheists in the world. Different people interpret "atheist" and related terms differently, and it can be hard to draw boundaries between atheism, non-religious beliefs, and non-theistic religious and spiritual beliefs. Furthermore, atheists lack a unified belief system and may suffer from social stigma, discrimination, and persecution in certain regions.

Despite these problems, atheism is known to be more common in Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, former and present Communist states, and to a lesser extent, the United States. A 1995 survey attributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica indicates that the non-religious make up about 14.7% of the world's population, and atheists around 3.8%.

Atheist gatherings

• In 2002, a group of people organized what they called the "Godless Americans March on Washington" as an attempt to bring attention to their cause. Though it was broadcast on C-SPAN, the march was not well attended and received little or no press coverage.

• Each year the James Randi Educational Foundation has a conference that it calls The Amaz!ng Meeting, typically held in Las Vegas, NV, during which a critical eye is cast on various forms of supernatural phenomena including religion.

• Each year The Skeptics Society holds a conference at Caltech (California Institute of Technology) in Pasadena, CA. Again, subjects of skepticism, including religion, are often discussed.

• The CSER (Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion) holds annual conferences questioning the validity of religion.

List of atheists

See also

Related concepts

Organizations

Satire

Atheist people

• List of atheists
• WP entries in the "Atheists" category

External links

Web sites

• Associations
  • American Atheists
  • Atheist Alliance
  • Atheist Foundation of Australia
  • The Brights
  • Freedom From Religion Foundation
  • Idaho Atheists
  • The Infidels.org Site and Forum
  • National Secular Society (UK)
  • Positive Atheism
  • Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science
  • The Scottish Atheist Council (UK)
  • Secular Coalition for America
  • Secular Student Alliance
  • Danish Atheist Society
  • Atheist Alliance International]

Articles

• History of
  • A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization
• Definitions
  • AllRefer atheism article of polemic usage
  • "Atheism and Agnosticism"
  • "Definition of Atheism"
  • "Types of Atheistic Belief"
  • "What Is Atheism?" from Positive Atheism Magazine
• Defence
  • The End of Faith by Sam Harris
  • Atheism defended
  • Atheism: The Capital Man
  • Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right
  • Lecture on Atheism
  • The Philosophy of Atheism by Emma Goldman
  • Why Atheism?
  • Understanding Delusion
  • An Atheist Manifesto by Sam Harris
• Criticism
  • Catholic Encyclopedia: "atheism"
  • The Twilight of Atheism by Alister McGrath
  • Theism, Atheism, and Rationality by Alvin Plantinga
  • Intellectual Sophistication and Basic Belief in God by Alvin Plantinga
• Statistics
  • Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns by Phil Zuckerman
  • BBC Religion
  • Atheism growing
  • A collection of Atheist and non-believer stats

Notes

1. The Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2006.
2. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition, 2000.
3. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition, 2006.
4. In part because of its wide use in monotheistic Western society, atheism is often described as "disbelief in God", rather than more generally as "disbelief in deities". A clear distinction is rarely drawn in modern writings between these two definitions, but some archaic uses of atheism encompassed only disbelief in the singular God, not in polytheistic deities. It is on this basis that the obsolete term adevism was coined in the late 19th century to describe an absence of belief in plural deities. Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, 1910.
5. "Unlike agnosticism, which leaves open the question of whether there is a God, atheism is a positive denial." Britannica Concise Encyclopædia
6. "Atheism is fundamentally a rejection of belief in any God. It is more than a simple lack of belief, as children and some members of tribal societies may not believe out of ignorance." Lyngzeidetson, Albert (2003). Comparative Religions: A Guide to World Religions academic outline. QuickStudy: BarCharts, Inc. ISBN 1572227443.
7. ^ Thiry, Baron d'Holbach, Paul Henri (1772). Good Sense.
8. More on Definitions of Atheism. Internet Infidels.
9. Cline, Austin (2006). "What Is the Definition of Atheism?"
10. Cline, Austin (2006). "Strong Atheism vs. Weak Atheism: What's the Difference?"
11. Baggini, Julian (2003). Atheism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804243.
12. "Atheism, however, casts a wider net and rejects all belief in “spiritual beings,” and to the extent that belief in spiritual beings is definitive of what it means for a system to be religious, atheism rejects religion. So atheism is not only a rejection of the central conceptions of Judeo-Christianity and Islam, it is, as well, a rejection of the religious beliefs of such African religions as that of the Dinka and the Nuer, of the anthropomorphic gods of classical Greece and Rome, and of the transcendental conceptions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Generally atheism is a denial of God or of the gods, and if religion is defined in terms of belief in spiritual beings, then atheism is the rejection of all religious belief." Encyclopædia Britannica: "Atheism as rejection of religious beliefs".
13. Cline, Austin (2005). "Buddhism and Atheism".
14. Drachmann, A. B. (1922). Atheism in Pagan Antiquity. Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1977 ("an unchanged reprint of the 1922 edition"). p. 5. ISBN 0-89005-201-8.
15. Plato. Apology.
16. Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. The Gulag Archipelago. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. ISBN 0060007761.
17. Rafford, R.L. (1987). "Atheophobia - an introduction". Religious Humanism. 21 (1): 32–37. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help)
18. Smith, George H. (1979). Atheism: The Case Against God. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus. p. 14. ISBN 0-87975-124-X.
19. Nagel, Ernest (1965). A Defence of Atheism. in Edwards, Paul and Pap, Arthur (eds), A Modern Introduction to Philosophy: readings from classical and contemporary sources. New York: Free Press. Rev ed. pp.460-472. (p.460-461)
20. Maritain, Jacques (1949). "On the Meaning of Contemporary Atheism". The Review of Politics. 11 (3): 267–280. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
21. "Personal Gods, Deism, & the Limits of Skepticism". Retrieved 2006-03-05.
22. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/02/0216_050216_omo.html
23. http://www.colszoo.org/animalareas/aforest/bonobo.html
24. "Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-1995". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2006-03-05.

References

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• Altizer, Thomas J.J. (1967). The Gospel of Christian Atheism. London: Collins. Electronic Text
• Armstrong, Karen (1999). A History of God. London: Vintage. ISBN 0-09-927367-5
• Ayer, A. J. (1966). What I Believe. in Humanist, Vol 81 (8) August 1966, p.226-228.
• Baggini, Julian (2003). Atheism: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280424-3.
• Berman, David (1990). A History of Atheism in Britain: from Hobbes to Russell. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04727-7.
• Berman, David (1983). David Hume and the Suppression of Atheism. in Journal of the History of Philosophy, Vol. 21 (3), July 1983, p.375-387.
• Berman, David (1982). The Repressive Denials of Atheism in Britain in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. 82c, (9), p.211-246.
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  • complete text (pdf)
  • complete text (html)
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• Evolution and Religion Can Coexist, Scientists Say
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  • Note: Chapter 8, The Meaning of Contemporary Atheism (p.103-117, Electronic Text) is reprinted from Review of Politics, Vol. 11 (3) July 1949, p. 267-280 Electronic Text. A version also appears The Listener, Vol. 43 No.1102, 9 March 1950. pp.427-429,432.
• Martin, Michael (1990). Atheism: A philosophical justification. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-943-0.
• Martin, Michael, & Monnier, R. (Eds.) (2003). The impossibility of God. New York: Prometheus.
• McGrath, A. (2005). The Twilight of Atheism : The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World. ISBN 0-385-50062-9
• McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1927). The Nature of Existence. Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• McTaggart, John & McTaggart, Ellis (1930). Some Dogmas of Religion. London: Edward Arnold & Co., new edition.
• Mills, D. (2004). Atheist Universe, Xlibris, ISBN 1-4134-3481-9.
• Müller, F. Max (1889). Natural Religion: The Gifford Lectures, 1888. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
• Nielsen, Kai (1985). Philosophy and Atheism. New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0-87975-289-0.
• Nielsen, Kai (2001). Naturalism and religion. New York: Prometheus.
• Reid, J.P. (1967). Atheism. in New Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: McGraw-Hill. p.1000-1003.
• Rizzuto, Ana-Maria (1998). Why did Freud reject God?: A psychoanalytic interpretation. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07525-1.
• Robinson, Richard (1964). An Atheist's Values. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Sharpe, R.A. (1997). The Moral Case Against Religious Belief. London: SCM Press. ISBN 0-334-02680-6.
• Smith, George H. (1990). Atheism, Ayn Rand, and Other Heresies. New York: Prometheus.
  • Excerpt: Defining atheism (html)
  • Excerpt: The Scope of Atheism (html)
• Sobel, Jordan H. (2004). Logic and theism: Arguments for and against beliefs in God. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Soltis, P.S. et al. (1995) Genetic variation in Tragopogan Species: Additional Origins of Allotetraploids T. mirius and T. miscellus (Compositae). American Journal of Botany.
• Stenger, Victor J. (2003). Has science found God?. New York: Prometheus.
• Stein, G. (Ed.) (1984). The Encyclopaedia of Unbelief (Vols. 1-2). New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0-87975-307-2.
• Thrower, James (1971). A Short History of Western Atheism. London: Pemberton. ISBN 0-301-71101-1.
• Vitz, Paul (1999). Faith of the fatherless: the psychology of atheism. Dallas, Texas: Spence. ISBN 1-890626-12-0.

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