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The '''Breast Tax''' (or ''Mulakkaram'') was a tax imposed on the untouchable caste women irrespective of the religion. It was one of the many inhumane taxes imposed on the Dalit Bahujan population of Kerala. Some of the other taxes include thalakkaram(tax for head), anikkaram, thalavari, valakkaram,tharikkaram, noolkaram, thiruva, padappanam, vivahakkaram, azha, Kozha, kazhcha, pizha, ponnarippu, menipponnu, chethupattom, panthallkaram, mechilkaram, kottupattukkaram,abharanakkaram, ankakkaram, adimakkaram, vannarappattom, thallarappattom, rupavari, and rajabhogom. Women who belonged to the untouchable castes had to pay mulakkaram (breast tax). According to this law, all the avarna women were to pay tax to the Government for their breasts from the very time of their girlhood, when they start developing breasts. This infamous law that was in force in Travancore until as late as the first quarter of the 20th century. <ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41285286|title=Sree Narayana Guru, a critical study|last=Vijayalayam.|first=Jayakumar,|date=1999|publisher=D.K. Printworld|year=|isbn=8124601208|location=New Delhi|pages=14|oclc=41285286}}</ref> <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=K.S.|first=Manilal|date=15 November 2012|title=SIKHISM IN KERALA Forgotten Chapter in the Social History of the State|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxjcmlrc2NzYW1hZ3JhfGd4OjE5OTc0YzhhNWRlN2Y2MDM|journal=SAMAGRA (Centre for Research in Indigenous Knowledge Science and Culture (CRIKSC)|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore, 1806-1908|last=Yesudas|first=R. N.|publisher=Kerala Historical Society|year=1980|isbn=|location=|pages=19}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=JOURNAL of KERALA STUDIES|last=RAVINDRAN|first=T.K.|publisher=University of Kerala|year=1975|isbn=|location=Trivandrum|pages=387}}</ref> The '''Breast Tax''' (or ''Mulakkaram'') was a tax imposed on the untouchable caste women irrespective of the religion. It was one of the many inhumane taxes imposed on the Dalit Bahujan population of Kerala. Some of the other taxes include thalakkaram(tax for head), anikkaram, thalavari, valakkaram,tharikkaram, noolkaram, thiruva, padappanam, vivahakkaram, azha, Kozha, kazhcha, pizha, ponnarippu, menipponnu, chethupattom, panthallkaram, mechilkaram, kottupattukkaram,abharanakkaram, ankakkaram, adimakkaram, vannarappattom, thallarappattom, rupavari, and rajabhogom. Women who belonged to the untouchable castes had to pay mulakkaram (breast tax). According to this law, all the avarna women were to pay tax to the Government for their breasts from the very time of their girlhood, when they start developing breasts. This infamous law that was in force in Travancore until as late as the first quarter of the 20th century. <ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/41285286|title=Sree Narayana Guru, a critical study|last=Vijayalayam.|first=Jayakumar,|date=1999|publisher=D.K. Printworld|year=|isbn=8124601208|location=New Delhi|pages=14|oclc=41285286}}</ref> <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=K.S.|first=Manilal|date=15 November 2012|title=SIKHISM IN KERALA Forgotten Chapter in the Social History of the State|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxjcmlrc2NzYW1hZ3JhfGd4OjE5OTc0YzhhNWRlN2Y2MDM|journal=SAMAGRA (Centre for Research in Indigenous Knowledge Science and Culture (CRIKSC)|volume=8|pages=|via=}}</ref>.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore, 1806-1908|last=Yesudas|first=R. N.|publisher=Kerala Historical Society|year=1980|isbn=|location=|pages=19}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=JOURNAL of KERALA STUDIES|last=RAVINDRAN|first=T.K.|publisher=University of Kerala|year=1975|isbn=|location=Trivandrum|pages=387}}</ref>


As per some historians, The Breast Tax was a tax imposed on lower caste Hindu women if they wanted to cover their breasts in public in the ], now apart of ], ]. They also state that Thalakkaram and Mulakkaram were basically one and the same thing and was a revenue term only differentiated with gender. <ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Kerala Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UjkVHi_cJoC|accessdate=13 October 2017|year=2011|publisher=University of Kerala.|page=93|quote=One of the many social ills that is worth mentioning to high- light the plight of a person in those times is the breast tax or 'Mulakkaram”. The lower caste women were proscribed by their high caste masters from covering their upper part of the …}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kattackal|first1=Jacob|title=Comparative Religion|date=1990|publisher=Oriental Institute of Religious Studies, India|page=144|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=O_MnAAAAYAAJ|language=en|quote='low-caste' men had to pay a 'head-tax', and the 'low-caste women' had to pay a 'breast tax' ('tala-karam' and 'mula-karam') to the government treasury.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.homesciencejournal.com/archives/2017/vol3issue3/PartF/3-3-84-673.pdf | title=Rani Gowry Lakshmi Bai: Abolition of slavery in Travancore | author=Renjini P and Dr. C Natarajan | journal=International Journal of Home Science | year=2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/nation-world/nine-weird-taxes-from-around-the-world/really-absurd/slideshow/56516222.cms | title=Nine weird taxes from around the world | publisher=] | date=13 January 2017 | accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyphillipserb/2016/03/08/remembering-one-womans-ultimate-tax-protest-on-international-womens-day/#48ec66f7124f | title=Remembering One Woman's Ultimate Tax Protest On International Women's Day | publisher=] | work=Kelly Phillips Erb | date=8 March 2016 | accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.676.8762&rep=rep1&type=pdf | title=ROLE OF MISSIONARIES IN UPPER CLOTH RIOT IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT | author=DR. A. VANAJA | journal=Paripex - Indian Journal Of Research | date=February 2015 | volume=4 | issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/womens-caste-struggle-359751-2016-12-27 | title=History of women's caste struggle removed by CBSE | publisher=India Today | date=27 December 2016 | accessdate=28 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1998">{{cite book|author=K. G. Daniel|title=Let the Hills Rejoice: The Conversion of the Hill Arrians of Kerala and Its Effect on Evangelism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XfXAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=28 April 2018|date=1 January 1998|publisher=ISPCK|isbn=978-81-7214-416-6|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/001946466800500205 | title=The Breast-Cloth Controversy: Caste Consciousness and Social Change in Southern Travancore | author=Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. | journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review | year=1968 | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=176}}</ref> Indifferet to this viewpoint, other historians allege that this is an attempt to whitewash inhumane nature of the tax. And that first of such attempts were made on the book Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1 by L.A. Krishna Iyer where an attempt is taken to disown this inhumane caste as related to one Puniat Raja of Mundapalli. They allege that this misrepresentation is not naive but an attempt to conceal the fact that it was a tax that existed in the ]. Mr. Iyer's book was printed by the Superintendent of Government Press Trivandrum and thus clearly associated with the Kingdom of Travancore <ref>{{Cite book|title=Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1|last=Iyer|first=L.A. Krishna|publisher=Government Press Trivandrum|year=1937|isbn=|location=Trivandrum|pages=165}}</ref> The Mulakkaram was indeed a tax that was imposed on the breasts of the untouchable women and not for covering the breasts.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> As per some historians, The Breast Tax was a tax imposed on lower caste Hindu women if they wanted to cover their breasts in public in the ], now apart of ], ]. They also state that Thalakkaram and Mulakkaram were basically one and the same thing and was a revenue term only differentiated with gender. <ref>{{cite book|title=Journal of Kerala Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UjkVHi_cJoC|accessdate=13 October 2017|year=2011|publisher=University of Kerala.|page=93|quote=One of the many social ills that is worth mentioning to high- light the plight of a person in those times is the breast tax or 'Mulakkaram”. The lower caste women were proscribed by their high caste masters from covering their upper part of the …}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kattackal|first1=Jacob|title=Comparative Religion|date=1990|publisher=Oriental Institute of Religious Studies, India|page=144|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=O_MnAAAAYAAJ|language=en|quote='low-caste' men had to pay a 'head-tax', and the 'low-caste women' had to pay a 'breast tax' ('tala-karam' and 'mula-karam') to the government treasury.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://www.homesciencejournal.com/archives/2017/vol3issue3/PartF/3-3-84-673.pdf | title=Rani Gowry Lakshmi Bai: Abolition of slavery in Travancore | author=Renjini P and Dr. C Natarajan | journal=International Journal of Home Science | year=2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/slideshows/nation-world/nine-weird-taxes-from-around-the-world/really-absurd/slideshow/56516222.cms | title=Nine weird taxes from around the world | publisher=] | date=13 January 2017 | accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kellyphillipserb/2016/03/08/remembering-one-womans-ultimate-tax-protest-on-international-womens-day/#48ec66f7124f | title=Remembering One Woman's Ultimate Tax Protest On International Women's Day | publisher=] | work=Kelly Phillips Erb | date=8 March 2016 | accessdate=10 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.676.8762&rep=rep1&type=pdf | title=ROLE OF MISSIONARIES IN UPPER CLOTH RIOT IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT | author=DR. A. VANAJA | journal=Paripex - Indian Journal Of Research | date=February 2015 | volume=4 | issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/womens-caste-struggle-359751-2016-12-27 | title=History of women's caste struggle removed by CBSE | publisher=India Today | date=27 December 2016 | accessdate=28 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="Daniel1998">{{cite book|author=K. G. Daniel|title=Let the Hills Rejoice: The Conversion of the Hill Arrians of Kerala and Its Effect on Evangelism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XfXAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=28 April 2018|date=1 January 1998|publisher=ISPCK|isbn=978-81-7214-416-6|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/001946466800500205 | title=The Breast-Cloth Controversy: Caste Consciousness and Social Change in Southern Travancore | author=Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. | journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review | year=1968 | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=176}}</ref> Indifferet to this viewpoint, other historians allege that this is an attempt to whitewash inhumane nature of the tax. And that first of such attempts were made on the book Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1 by L.A. Krishna Iyer where an attempt is taken to disown this inhumane tax as related to one Puniat Raja of Mundapalli. They allege that this misrepresentation is not naive but an attempt to conceal the fact that it was a tax that existed in the ]. Mr. Iyer's book was printed by the Superintendent of Government Press Trivandrum and thus clearly associated with the Kingdom of Travancore <ref>{{Cite book|title=Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1|last=Iyer|first=L.A. Krishna|publisher=Government Press Trivandrum|year=1937|isbn=|location=Trivandrum|pages=165}}</ref> The Mulakkaram was indeed a tax that was imposed on the breasts of the untouchable women and not for covering the breasts.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />


==See also== ==See also==

Revision as of 17:43, 28 April 2018

The Breast Tax (or Mulakkaram) was a tax imposed on the untouchable caste women irrespective of the religion. It was one of the many inhumane taxes imposed on the Dalit Bahujan population of Kerala. Some of the other taxes include thalakkaram(tax for head), anikkaram, thalavari, valakkaram,tharikkaram, noolkaram, thiruva, padappanam, vivahakkaram, azha, Kozha, kazhcha, pizha, ponnarippu, menipponnu, chethupattom, panthallkaram, mechilkaram, kottupattukkaram,abharanakkaram, ankakkaram, adimakkaram, vannarappattom, thallarappattom, rupavari, and rajabhogom. Women who belonged to the untouchable castes had to pay mulakkaram (breast tax). According to this law, all the avarna women were to pay tax to the Government for their breasts from the very time of their girlhood, when they start developing breasts. This infamous law that was in force in Travancore until as late as the first quarter of the 20th century. .

As per some historians, The Breast Tax was a tax imposed on lower caste Hindu women if they wanted to cover their breasts in public in the Kingdom of Travancore, now apart of Kerala, India. They also state that Thalakkaram and Mulakkaram were basically one and the same thing and was a revenue term only differentiated with gender. Indifferet to this viewpoint, other historians allege that this is an attempt to whitewash inhumane nature of the tax. And that first of such attempts were made on the book Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1 by L.A. Krishna Iyer where an attempt is taken to disown this inhumane tax as related to one Puniat Raja of Mundapalli. They allege that this misrepresentation is not naive but an attempt to conceal the fact that it was a tax that existed in the Kingdom of Travancore. Mr. Iyer's book was printed by the Superintendent of Government Press Trivandrum and thus clearly associated with the Kingdom of Travancore The Mulakkaram was indeed a tax that was imposed on the breasts of the untouchable women and not for covering the breasts.

See also

References

  1. ^ Vijayalayam., Jayakumar, (1999). Sree Narayana Guru, a critical study. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld. p. 14. ISBN 8124601208. OCLC 41285286.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ K.S., Manilal (15 November 2012). "SIKHISM IN KERALA Forgotten Chapter in the Social History of the State". SAMAGRA (Centre for Research in Indigenous Knowledge Science and Culture (CRIKSC). 8.
  3. ^ Yesudas, R. N. (1980). The History of the London Missionary Society in Travancore, 1806-1908. Kerala Historical Society. p. 19.
  4. ^ RAVINDRAN, T.K. (1975). JOURNAL of KERALA STUDIES. Trivandrum: University of Kerala. p. 387.
  5. Journal of Kerala Studies. University of Kerala. 2011. p. 93. Retrieved 13 October 2017. One of the many social ills that is worth mentioning to high- light the plight of a person in those times is the breast tax or 'Mulakkaram". The lower caste women were proscribed by their high caste masters from covering their upper part of the …
  6. Kattackal, Jacob (1990). Comparative Religion. Oriental Institute of Religious Studies, India. p. 144. 'low-caste' men had to pay a 'head-tax', and the 'low-caste women' had to pay a 'breast tax' ('tala-karam' and 'mula-karam') to the government treasury.
  7. Renjini P and Dr. C Natarajan (2017). "Rani Gowry Lakshmi Bai: Abolition of slavery in Travancore" (PDF). International Journal of Home Science.
  8. "Nine weird taxes from around the world". The Economic Times. 13 January 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
  9. "Remembering One Woman's Ultimate Tax Protest On International Women's Day". Kelly Phillips Erb. Forbes. 8 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2018.
  10. DR. A. VANAJA (February 2015). "ROLE OF MISSIONARIES IN UPPER CLOTH RIOT IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT". Paripex - Indian Journal Of Research. 4 (2).
  11. "History of women's caste struggle removed by CBSE". India Today. 27 December 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
  12. K. G. Daniel (1 January 1998). Let the Hills Rejoice: The Conversion of the Hill Arrians of Kerala and Its Effect on Evangelism. ISPCK. p. 10. ISBN 978-81-7214-416-6. Retrieved 28 April 2018.
  13. Robert L. Hardgrave, Jr. (1968). "The Breast-Cloth Controversy: Caste Consciousness and Social Change in Southern Travancore". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 5 (2): 176.
  14. Iyer, L.A. Krishna (1937). Travancore Tribes and Castes Volume 1. Trivandrum: Government Press Trivandrum. p. 165.
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