| Revision as of 04:52, 4 August 2018 view source2600:1001:b100:7ad7:f82d:1172:4bc3:e8b1 (talk) →AntisemitismTags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit← Previous edit | Revision as of 05:03, 4 August 2018 view source 2600:1001:b100:7ad7:f82d:1172:4bc3:e8b1 (talk) Nonsense, the discussion clearly sees a bias by user Icewhiz who removes sourfes. This is neutral and backed by plenty of sources. Poles clearly are victims and to deny this whatsoever is Holocaust denial.Tags: Replaced Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web editNext edit → | ||
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| {{Use mdy dates|date=July 2017}} | |||
| {{Use American English|date=December 2017}} | |||
| {{Infobox | |||
| |title = The Holocaust<br/>in German-occupied Poland | |||
| |image={{Photomontage | |||
| |color=#ffffff | |||
| |photo1a=Warsaw-Gdansk railway station with Warsaw Ghetto burning, 1943.jpg | |||
| |photo2a=Lodz Ghetto children deportation to Chelmno.jpg | |||
| |photo2b=Einsatzgruppe shooting.jpg | |||
| |photo3a=Stroop Report - Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 10.jpg | |||
| |photo3b=Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg | |||
| |spacing=2 | |||
| |border=0 | |||
| |size=330 }} | |||
| |caption = Top, clockwise: ] burning, May 1943{{•}}'']'' shooting of women from the ], 1942{{•}}Selection of people to be sent directly to the gas chamber right after their arrival at Auschwitz-II ]{{•}}Jews captured in the ] led to the '']'' by ]{{•}}] children deported to ] ], 1942 | |||
| |image2 = ] | |||
| |caption2= Map of the Holocaust in occupied Poland during World War II with six ]s marked with white skulls in black squares: ], ], ], ], ] and ]; as well as remote mass killing sites at ], ], ] and others. Marked with the ] are selected large Polish cities with the ]. Solid red line denotes the ]{{snd}}starting point for ] of 1941. | |||
| |captionstyle = font-size:88%; | |||
| |headerstyle=background:#ddf; | |||
| |header1=Overview | |||
| |label2=Period | |||
| |data2=September 1939 – April 1945 | |||
| |label3=Territory | |||
| |data3=], also present day ] and ] among others | |||
| |header4=Major perpetrators | |||
| |label5=Units | |||
| |data5='']'', '']'', ], ], ], ], ], ]{{r|USHMM1|Snyder2004|Turowski}} | |||
| |label6=Killed | |||
| |data6=three million ]{{r|IPN2009}}, scholars disagree on the classification of three million ] victims<ref name="ColumbiaGuide">{{cite book |author1=Donald L. Niewyk |author2=Francis R. Nicosia |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzJAXkfozW8C&pg=PT73 |date=24 July 2012 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-52878-8 |page=73 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225950/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzJAXkfozW8C&pg=PT73 |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| |label7=Survivors | |||
| |data7=50,000–120,000;{{r|Lukas1989}} or 210,000–230,000;{{r|Engel2005}} or a total of 350,000.{{r|Schudrich}} | |||
| |header8=Armed resistance | |||
| |label9=] | |||
| |data9=], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| }} | |||
| '''The Holocaust in German-occupied Poland''' was the last and most lethal phase of Nazi Germany's "]" (''Endlösung der Judenfrage''), marked by the construction of death camps on German-occupied Polish soil. The ]'s ] ], known as ], took the lives of three million ].{{r|IPN2009}} Scholars disagree on whether to also classify up to three million ] victims of German genocide as Holocaust victims.<ref name="ColumbiaGuide"/> | |||
| The extermination camps played a central role in Germany's systematic destruction of over 90% of ] ].{{r|Berenbaum104}} | |||
| Every branch of the sophisticated German bureaucracy was involved in the killing process, from the Interior and Finance Ministries to German firms and ].{{r|trains}}{{r|Gigliotti55}} German companies bid for contracts to build crematoria in ] run by ] in the ] and in other areas of occupied Poland and beyond.{{r|Berenbaum104|AJC}} | |||
| During the German occupation, many ethnic ], at the greatest risk to themselves and their families, succeeded in saving Jews from the Germans. Polish rescuers represent the greatest number of persons, of any nationality, who saved Jews during the Holocaust.{{r|Lukas1989}}{{r|YV Stats}}. The State of ] has recognized {{Polish Righteous count}} individuals as ].{{r|YV Stats}} | |||
| A small percentage of ] survived World War II within ] or escaped east, beyond reach of the Germans, into the ] in 1939,<ref>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|loc=Preface.}}</ref> only to be deported to forced labor in ] along with up to 1 million of Poland's non-Jewish citizens.{{r|Levin347}}<ref name=Szarota2009>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009|loc=''Source:'' ] (1991), p. 95. {{ISBN|0850652103}}.}}</ref> | |||
| ==Background== | |||
| {{main|Occupation of Poland (1939–45)|Nazi crimes against the Polish nation|War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II}} | |||
| Following the 1939 ] in accordance with the secret protocol of the ],{{r|Sellars2013}} Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned Poland into ]. Large ] by Germany.{{r|Eber25-29}} The Soviets had attempted to deceive the Poles into believing that they had invaded eastern Poland to help Poland fight Germany{{r|DGW127}} and took over some 52% of ] territory. The entire '']'' (eastern Poland's borderlands) ] – inhabited by between 13.2 and 13.7 million people,{{r|Eber25-29}}{{r|Tr-Maz}} including majority-Ukrainian and -Belarusin populations and 1,300,000 Jews – was annexed by the Soviet Union in an atmosphere of terror surrounding a ] staged by the ] and the Red Army.{{r|Wegner-74}}{{r|RMoor28}} Within months, ] in the Soviet zone who refused to swear allegiance were deported deep into the Soviet interior along with ethnic Poles. The number of deported Polish Jews is estimated at 200,000–230,000 men, women, and children.{{r|Buwalda}}{{r|Joc/Lew2010}} | |||
| Both occupying powers were hostile to the existence of a sovereign Polish state and endorsed policies of genocide.<ref name="Olsak-Glass">{{cite journal |author=Judith Olsak-Glass |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/199/glass.html |title=Review of Piotrowski's ''Poland's Holocaust'' |publisher=] |date=January 1999 |id=Volume XIX, Number 1 |quote=Both regimes endorsed a systematic program of genocide. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305162014/http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/199/glass.html |archivedate=March 5, 2008 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, Soviet possession was short-lived because the terms of the ], signed earlier in Moscow, were broken when the ] invaded the ] on 22 June 1941 ''(see map)''. From 1941 to 1943 all of Poland was under Germany's control.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Piotr Eberhardt |author-link1=Piotr Eberhardt |author2=Jan Owsinski |year=2003 |title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, Analysis |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |isbn=978-0-7656-0665-5 |pp=199–201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&pg=RA1-PA199&dq=Nowogr%C3%B3dek+province+eberhardt&client=firefox-a}}</ref> The semi-colonial ], set up in central and southeastern Poland, comprised 39 percent of occupied Polish territory.{{r|distrikt}} | |||
| ==Nazi ghettoization policy== | |||
| {{further|Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland|Intelligenzaktion}} | |||
| Prior to World War II, there were 3,500,000 Jews in Poland,<ref name="Schudrich">{{harvp|Cherry|Orla-Bukowska|2007|p=137|loc=}}</ref> living predominantly in the cities; about 10% of the general population. Database of the ] provides information on 1,926 Jewish communities across the country.{{r|statistics}} Following the conquest of Poland, and the 1939 ],<ref>{{citation |first=Maria |last=Wardzyńska |title=The Year was 1939: Operation of German Security Police in Poland. Intelligenzaktion |work=(Był rok 1939. Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion) |year=2009 |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf |publisher=] |ISBN=978-83-7629-063-8 |id=PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB |language=pl |at=pp. 8–10 in current document |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129035451/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYLROK1939.pdf |archivedate=November 29, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> the first German anti-Jewish measures involved the policy of expulsion of Jews from the ].<ref>{{citation |title=The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy |first=Martin |last=Gilbert |publisher=Collins |year=1986 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRJnAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22the%20trapping%20of%20Polish%20Jewry%22 |pages=84–85}}.</ref> The westernmost provinces of ] and ] were turned into brand new German '']e'' named ] and the ],<ref name="Łuczak">{{cite book |author=] |title=Położenie ludności polskiej w Kraju Warty 1939–1945. Dokumenty niemieckie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gksNAAAAIAAJ |publisher=Wydawn. Poznańskie |location=] |year=1987 |pages=V-XIII |id=Google Books |isbn=83-210-0632-9}}</ref> with the intention of their complete ] through settler colonialism ('']'').<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/learn/students/learning-materials-and-resources/poles-victims-of-the-nazi-era |id= |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003002131/http://www.ushmm.org/learn/students/learning-materials-and-resources/poles-victims-of-the-nazi-era |archivedate=October 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Annexed directly to the new ''Warthegau'' district, the city of ] absorbed the influx of some 40,000 Polish Jews forced out from the surrounding areas.<ref name="jewishgen/timeline">{{cite web |url=http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lodz/statistics.htm |title=Lodz Ghetto Deportations and Statistics |publisher=JewishGen Home Page |work=Timeline |date=2007 |accessdate=26 March 2015 |first=Shirley |last=Rotbein Flaum |quote=''Source:'' Encyclopedia of the Holocaust (1990), Baranowski, Dobroszycki, Wiesenthal, Yad Vashem Timeline of the Holocaust, others. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321021602/http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lodz/statistics.htm |archivedate=March 21, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> A total of 204,000 Jewish people passed through the ]. Initially, they were to be expelled to the '']''.<ref>{{cite web |first=Jennifer |last=Rosenberg |year=2006 |title=The Łódź Ghetto |quote=Sources: ''Lodz Ghetto: Inside a Community Under Siege'' by Adelson, Alan and Robert Lapides (ed.), New York, 1989; ''The Documents of the Łódź Ghetto: An Inventory of the Nachman Zonabend Collection'' by Web, Marek (ed.), New York, 1988; ''The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry'' by Yahil, Leni, New York, 1991. |url=http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/aa070897.htm |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060430213432/http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/aa070897.htm |archivedate=April 30, 2006 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="JVL">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/lodz.html |title=The Lódz Ghetto (1939–1945) |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |work=History & Overview |orig-year=1998 |year=2015 |accessdate=19 March 2015 |first=Jennifer |last=Rosenberg |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120747/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/lodz.html |archivedate=April 2, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, the ultimate destination of the massive removal of Jews was left open until the ] was set in motion two years later.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Moishe |last1=Postone |first2=Eric L. |last2=Santner |year=2003 |title=Catastrophe and Meaning: The Holocaust and the Twentieth Century |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-67610-2 |pp=75–6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGKOH1XxK8UC&q=measures+ghettoization |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGKOH1XxK8UC&q=measures+ghettoization |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| ], addressed to the ] ]]] | |||
| Persecution of Polish Jews by the German occupation authority began immediately after the invasion particularly in major urban areas. In the first year and a half, the Nazis confined themselves to stripping the Jews of their valuables and property for profit,{{r|Berenbaum104}} ], and forcing them into ] for public works and the war economy.<ref>{{citation |title=Jewish Forced Labor Under the Nazis: Economic Needs and Racial Aims, 1938–1944 |first=Wolf |last=Gruner |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |quote=By the end of 1940, the forced-labor program in the ] had registered over 700,000 Jewish men and women who were working for the German economy in ghetto businesses and as labor for projects outside the ghetto; there would be more. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJqIqwj_P70C&q=1940+forced-labor+700%2C000 |pages=249–250 |ISBN=0521838754}}</ref> During this period, the Germans ordered Jewish communities to appoint Jewish Councils ('']'') to administer the ghettos and to be "responsible in the strictest sense" for carrying out orders.<ref name="Trunk1972">{{cite book |author-link=Isaiah Trunk |first=Isaiah |last=Trunk |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC |title=Judenrat: the Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe under Nazi Occupation |id=with an introduction by Jacob Robinson |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |year=1972 |isbn=0-8032-9428-X |pages=5, 172, 352}}</ref> Most ghettos were set up in cities and towns where Jewish life was well organized. For logistical reasons, the Jewish communities in settlements without railway connections in occupied Poland were dissolved.<ref name="holocaustchronicle">{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustchronicle.org/staticpages/176.html |title=1939: The War Against the Jews |author=Louis Weber, Contributing Writers |publisher=Publications International |date=April 2000 |work=The Holocaust Chronicle: A History in Words and Pictures |via=Internet Archive |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320005350/http://www.holocaustchronicle.org/staticpages/176.html |archivedate=March 20, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> In a massive deportation action involving the use of ], all Polish Jews had been segregated from the rest of society in ] (''Jüdischer Wohnbezirk'') adjacent to the existing rail corridors.<ref name="Berenbaum">{{cite book |author=] |title=The World Must Know |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqMWAQAAIAAJ |publisher=] |year=2006 |page=114}}</ref> The food aid was completely dependent on the '']''.<ref name="holocaust-education.dk">{{citation |authors=Peter Vogelsang, Brian Larsen |url=http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/ghettoer.asp |title=The Ghettos of Poland |publisher=''The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies'' |year=2002 |via=Internet Archive |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306055255/http://www.holocaust-education.dk/holocaust/ghettoer.asp |archivedate=March 6, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Initially, the Jews were legally banned from baking bread;<ref name="Edelman-upenn">{{cite web |url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/warsaw-uprising.html |title=The Ghetto Fights |publisher=Literature of the Holocaust, at the University of Pennsylvania |work=The Warsaw Ghetto: The 45th Anniversary of the Uprising |author=Marek Edelman |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125114636/http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/warsaw-uprising.html |archivedate=November 25, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> they were sealed off from the general public in an unsustainable manner.{{r|holocaust-education.dk}} | |||
| {{quote|The ] contained more Jews than all of France; the ] more Jews than all of the Netherlands. More Jews lived in the ] than in all of Italy, and virtually any medium-sized town in Poland had a larger Jewish population than all of Scandinavia. All of southeast Europe – Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Greece – had fewer Jews than the original four districts of the ].<ref name="CRB/Path">{{cite book |last=Browning |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Browning |title=The Path to Genocide: Essays on Launching the Final Solution |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d9Wg4gjtP3cC&q=Warsaw%2BCracow%2BItaly |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-521-55878-5 |ref=harv |page=194}}</ref>}} | |||
| The plight of Jews in war-torn Poland could be divided into stages defined by the ]. Before their formation,<ref name="Gutman12">{{cite book |last=Gutman |first=Yisrael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4U_OcvXvhF4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22Warsaw%27s%20conditions%20of%20surrender%22&f=false |title=The First Months of the Nazi Occupation |publisher=Indiana University Press |work=The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1943: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt |date=1989 |author-link=Yisrael Gutman |page=12 |isbn=0-253-20511-5}}</ref> the escape from persecution did not involve extrajudicial punishment by death.{{r|ringelblum}} Once the ghettos were sealed off from the outside, death by starvation and disease became rampant, alleviated only by the smuggling of food and medicine, described by ] as "one of the finest pages in the history between the two peoples".{{r|ringelblum}} In Warsaw, up to 80 percent of food consumed in ] was brought in illegally. The food stamps introduced by the Germans, provided 9 percent of the calories necessary for survival.<ref name=Laqueur>{{citation |title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |authors=Walter Laqueur, Judith Tydor Baumel |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC&q=Warsaw+caloric+rations |pages=260–262 |ISBN=0300138113}}</ref> In two and a half years, between November 1940 and May 1943, some 100,000 Jews died in the Warsaw Ghetto of starvation and disease; and around 40,000 in the Łódź Ghetto in the four-and-a-quarter years between May 1940 and August 1944.{{r|Laqueur}} By the end of 1941, most ghettoized Jews had no savings left to pay the ''SS'' for further bulk food deliveries.{{r|Laqueur}} The 'productionists' among the German authorities – who attempted to make the ghettos self-sustaining by turning them into enterprises – prevailed over the 'attritionists' only after the German attack on the Soviet positions in ], codenamed ].<ref name=Browning2005>{{citation |title=Before the “Final Solution”: Nazi Ghettoization Policy in Poland (1940–1941) |author-link=Christopher Browning |first=Christopher |last=Browning |publisher=Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2005 |url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |at=pp. 13–17 of 175 in current document |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222011246/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |archivedate=December 22, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> The most prominent ghettos were stabilized through the production of goods needed ],{{r|holocaust-education.dk}} and death rates among the Jewish population began to decline (at least temporarily).{{r|Browning2005}} | |||
| ==Holocaust by bullets== | |||
| {{further|Einsatzgruppen|Schutzmannschaft|Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II}} | |||
| ] shot face-down in an open pit near ]]] | |||
| Following the German attack on the USSR in June 1941, ] assembled a force of some 11,000 men to pursue, for the first time, a program of physical annihilation of Jews.<ref>{{harvp|Browning|2004|p= 229|ps=.}}</ref> Also during Operation Barbarossa, the ''SS'' had recruited ] from among Soviet nationals.{{r|USHMM1|Piotrowski1998_217}} The local '']'' provided Germany with manpower and critical knowledge of local regions and languages.<ref>{{cite book |title=Auxiliary Police Units in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–43 |first=Meredith M. |last=Meehan |publisher=USNA |year=2010 |url=https://www.usna.edu/History/_files/documents/Honors-Program/2010/Meehan_Honors_Thesis.pdf |page=1 |quote=Without the auxiliaries, the Nazis' murderous intentions toward the Jewish population on the Eastern Front would not have been nearly as deadly. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160606073313/http://www.usna.edu/History/_files/documents/Honors-Program/2010/Meehan_Honors_Thesis.pdf |archivedate=June 6, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> In what became known as the "Holocaust by bullets", the ] (''Orpo''), '']'', ], and special-task '']'', along with Ukrainian and Lithuanian ], operated behind front lines, systematically shooting tens of thousands of men, women, and children, independently of the army.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/special-focus/desbois |title=Holocaust by Bullets |author=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811060650/https://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/special-focus/desbois |archivedate=August 11, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| Massacres were committed in over 30 locations across the formerly Soviet-occupied parts of Poland,<ref>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=209|loc=}}</ref> including in ], ], and ], as well as in prewar provincial capitals of ], ], ], and ] (see ]).<ref name="Headland">Ronald Headland (1992), '''' Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, pp. 125–126. {{ISBN|0-8386-3418-4}}.</ref> The survivors of mass killing operations were incarcerated in the new ghettos of economic exploitation,<ref name="distrikt">{{cite book |last=Paczkowski |first=Andrzej |author-link=Andrzej Paczkowski |translator-first=Jane |translator-last=Cave |title=The Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom |year=2003 |publisher=] Press |isbn=0-271-02308-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54 |pages=54, 55–58 |via=Google Books |quote=Further Reading: |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=WoKQWem2yl4C&pg=PA54&lpg=PA54 |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> and starved slowly to death by ] at the whim of German authorities.<ref name="Browning121">{{harvp|Browning|2004|pp=121–130|loc=}}</ref> Because of sanitation concerns, the corpses of people who had died as a result of starvation and mistreatment were buried in mass graves in the tens of thousands.<ref name=ITF>{{cite journal |title=Report: Mass graves and killing sites in the Eastern part of Europe |url=http://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/MMWG_Killing_Sites.pdf |publisher=''Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education and Research'' (ITF) |author=Tal Bruttmann, Mémorial de la Shoah |year=2010 |location=Grenoble |quote=Mass graves resulting from deaths in the ghettos and various places of detention due to mistreatment, starvation ... concern the fate of several hundred thousand Jews. In the Warsaw ghetto alone, more than 100,000 Jews died and were buried in various places. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160811034810/http://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/MMWG_Killing_Sites.pdf |archivedate=August 11, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Gas vans were made available in November 1941.{{r|Rhodes255}} By December, over 439,800 Jewish people had been murdered, both in the eastern half of Poland and in the Soviet westernmost republics. The 'war of destruction' policy in the east against 'the Jewish race' became common knowledge among the Germans at all levels.{{r|LYah1991}} Within two years, the total number of shooting victims in the east had risen to between 618,000 and 800,000 Jews.<ref>{{harvp|Browning|2004|p=244|ps=: ''For the global events at the end of 1941, see ].''}}</ref>{{r|Thacker}} Entire regions behind the ] were ] to be ''"]"''.{{r|YBau5}} | |||
| ==Final Solution and liquidation of Ghettos== | |||
| {{further|Final Solution|German camps in occupied Poland during World War II|Extermination through labour}} | |||
| ], published in London in 1942 by ].]] | |||
| On January 20, 1942, during the ] near Berlin, State Secretary of the Government General, ], urged ] to begin the proposed "] to the Jewish question" as soon as possible.<ref>{{citation |title=Minutes of the Conference |place=discovered in ]'s files after the war |url=http://www.oradour.info/appendix/wannsee1.htm |publisher=''Selected Documents.'' Vol. 11: The Wannsee Protocol. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803214838/http://www.oradour.info/appendix/wannsee1.htm |archivedate=August 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The industrial killing by exhaust fumes was already tried and tested over several weeks at the ] in the ], under the guise of resettlement.<ref>{{citation |title=Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust |author=Richard Rhodes |page=233 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday |year=2007 |ISBN=0307426807 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAQ94hR-YxQC&q=December+1941+vans}}</ref> All condemned Ghetto prisoners, without exception, were told they were going to labour camps, and asked to pack a carry-on luggage.<ref>{{citation |title=The Train Journey: Transit, Captivity, and Witnessing in the Holocaust |author=Simone Gigliotti |publisher=Berghahn Books |page=45 |year=2009 |ISBN=1571812687 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rS8YwPZHNrEC&q=going+somewhere+better |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=rS8YwPZHNrEC&q=going+somewhere+better |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Many Jews believed in the transfer ruse, since deportations were also part of the ghettoization process.{{r|Lukas1989}} Meanwhile, the idea of mass murder by means of stationary gas chambers was discussed ] already since September 1941. It was a precondition for the newly drafted ] led by ] who ordered the construction of death camps at ], ], and ].<ref name=Cesarani2004>{{citation |work=Holocaust: From the persecution of the Jews to mass murder |editors=David Cesarani, Sarah Kavanaugh |title=The Origins of Operation Reinhard |author=Bogdan Musial |pages=196–197 |ISBN=0415275113 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=va3CMvKMGj0C&q=technical+prerequisite |year=2004}}</ref> At ] and ], the work of the stationary gas chambers began in March and May respectively, preceded by experiments with ].{{r|Cesarani2004}} Between 1942 and 1944, the most extreme measure of the ], the extermination of millions of Jews from Poland and all over Europe was carried out in six ]s. There were no Polish guards at any of the ] camps, despite the sometimes used misnomer ]. All killing centres were designed and operated by the Nazis in strict secrecy, aided by the Ukrainian ].{{r|Cherry2}} Civilians were forbidden to approach them and often shot if caught near the train tracks.<ref>] & Rytel-Andrianik (2011), </ref> | |||
| ] camp I, with gate sign, '']''. ''Bottom'': the real ] at nearby Auschwitz II–Birkenau]] | |||
| Systematic liquidation of the ghettos began across ] in the early spring of 1942. At that point the only chance for survival was escape to the "Aryan side". The German round-ups for the so-called ] were connected directly with the use of top secret extermination facilities built for the ] at about the same time by various German engineering companies including HAHB,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Business of Genocide: The SS, Slave Labor, and the Concentration Camps |author=Michael Thad Allen |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |year=2005 |page=139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOqta5ALLNMC&q=HAHB+Majdanek+Auschwitz}}</ref> ] of ], and C.H. Kori GmbH.{{r|jewishvirtuallibrary}}{{r|umn}}{{r|straightdope}} | |||
| Unlike other ]s where prisoners from all across Europe were exploited for the war effort, German ]s – part of secretive ] – were designed exclusively for the rapid elimination of Polish and foreign Jews, subsisting in isolation. The camp's German overseers reported to ] in ], who kept control of the extermination program, but who delegated the work in Poland to SS and police chief ] of the ].<ref name="Fischel">{{cite book |title=The Holocaust |author=Jack Fischel |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=0-313-29879-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrW-b3Q-3ewC&q=Globocnik+1941+Himmler |page=129}}</ref> The selection of sites, construction of facilities and training of personnel was based on a similar (]) "]" program of mass murder through involuntary euthanasia, developed in Germany.{{r|darkness}}{{r|psychology}} | |||
| ===The "resettlement" program=== | |||
| The scale of the ] would not have been possible without the '']''.<ref>{{citation |title=German railways admits complicity in Holocaust |authors=Kate Connolly, Susanne Kill |location=Berlin |date=January 23, 2008 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/23/secondworldwar.germany |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903120826/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/23/secondworldwar.germany |archivedate=September 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The extermination of Polish and foreign Jews depended on the railways as much as on the secluded killing centres. The ]s sped up the scale and duration over which the extermination took place; and, the enclosed nature of ] also reduced the number of troops required to guard them. Rail shipments allowed the Nazi Germans to build and operate bigger and more efficient death camps and, at the same time, openly lie to the world – and to their victims – about a "resettlement" program.{{r|trains}}{{r|faqs}} In one telephone conversation ] informed ] about the Jews already exterminated in Poland, to which Bormann screamed in response: "They were not exterminated, only evacuated, evacuated, evacuated!"{{r|Enghelberg63}} | |||
| ], March 1943. Families walk to ] railway station for "resettlement". Destination: ].]] | |||
| Unspecified number of deportees died in transit during Operation Reinhard from suffocation and thirst. No food or water was supplied. The ''Güterwagen'' boxcars were only fitted with a bucket ]. A small barred window provided little ventilation, which oftentimes resulted in multiple deaths.<ref name="jewishsf11">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/25615/edition_id/498/format/html/displaystory.html |title=Holocaust survivor gives teens the straight story |publisher=Jewish news weekly of Northern California |date=April 22, 2005 |accessdate=April 15, 2015 |author=Joshua Brandt |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126224024/http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/25615/edition_id/498/format/html/displaystory.html |archivedate=November 26, 2005}}</ref> A survivor of the ] testified about one such train, from ]. When the sealed doors flew open, 90 percent of about 6,000 Jewish prisoners were found to have suffocated to death. Their bodies were thrown into smouldering mass grave at the "]".<ref>{{harvp|Kopówka|Rytel-Andrianik|2011|loc=}}</ref> Millions of people were transported in similar ] to the extermination camps under the direction of the German Ministry of Transport, and tracked by ], until the official date of closing of the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex in December 1944.{{r|upenn}}{{r|USHMM8}} | |||
| Death factories were just one of a number of ways of mass extermination. There were secluded killing sites set up further east. At ] (the Bronna Mount, now Belarus) 50,000 Jews died in execution pits; delivered by the Holocaust trains from ] in ], ], ], ], ], ] and other locations along the western border of '']''. Explosives were used to speed up the digging process.<ref name="sztetl.org">{{cite web |author=AŻIH |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/bronna-gora/13,sites-of-martyrdom/23737,bronna-gora-bronnaja-gora-miejsce-masowych-egzekucji |title=Bronna Góra – Holocaust mass murder site |trans-title=Bronna Góra – miejsce masowych egzekucji |publisher=] '']'' |year=2014 |quote=Testimony of B. Wulf, Docket nr 301/2212, Archives of the ] in Warsaw. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803212045/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/bronna-gora/13,sites-of-martyrdom/23737,bronna-gora-bronnaja-gora-miejsce-masowych-egzekucji/ |archivedate=August 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="jewishgen.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishgen.org/databases/Belarus/brest.htm |work=The Brest Ghetto Passport Archive |title=Monument at Bronnaya Gora |publisher=JewishGen |year=2014 |first1=John |last1=Garrard |first2=Carol |last2=Garrard |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201031105/https://www.jewishgen.org/databases/Belarus/brest.htm |archivedate=December 1, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="cemeteryproject">{{cite web |url=http://www.iajgsjewishcemeteryproject.org/belarus/antopol.html |title=Antopal: Brest. The Antopol Ghetto |work=The ghetto liquidation 'Aktion' |quote=Deportations to Bronna Gora lasted four days beginning October 15, 1942 |publisher=International Jewish Cemetery Project, with links to resources |accessdate=November 26, 2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804113242/http://www.iajgsjewishcemeteryproject.org/belarus/antopol.html |archivedate=August 4, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> At the Sosenki Forest on the outskirts of ] in prewar ], over 23,000 Jews were shot, men, women, and children.<ref>{{citation |title=Holocaust in Rovno: The Massacre at Sosenki Forest, November 1941 |first=Jeffrey |last=Burds |publisher=Northeastern University. Sponsored by the YIVO Institute of Jewish Research, New York |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/rovno2/files/Rovno_Burds.pdf |at=p. 2 (19 of 151 in current document) |ISBN=9781137388391 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803215817/http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/rovno2/files/Rovno_Burds.pdf |archivedate=August 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> At the Górka Połonka forest ''(see map)'' 25,000 Jews forced to disrobe and lay over the bodies of others were shot in waves; most of them were deported there via the ].<ref>{{citation |title=Połonka Mount, place of executions and the Holocaust mass grave |trans-title=Górka-Połonka – miejsce egzekucji i zbiorowy grób ofiar Zagłady |publisher=] |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/luck/13,sites-of-martyrdom/45483,gorka-polonka-miejsce-egzekucji-i-zbiorowy-grob-ofiar-zaglady/ |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804012451/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/luck/13,sites-of-martyrdom/45483,gorka-polonka-miejsce-egzekucji-i-zbiorowy-grob-ofiar-zaglady/ |archivedate=August 4, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Polonka">Yad Vashem, {{YouTube |id=Q87bYVp0EGA |title=Mass-murder of Łuck Jews at Gurka Polonka in August 1942}} ''Note:'' village Połonka ({{lang-pl|Górka Połonka}} or its {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720074205/http://www.wolyn.ovh.org/opisy/gorka_polonka-07.html |date=July 20, 2008 }} subdivision) is misspelled in the documentary, with testimony of eyewitness ].</ref> The execution site for the ] inmates was arranged near ], with 35,000–40,000 Jewish victims killed and buried at the Piaski ravine.<ref name=Kerenji>{{cite book |title=The Holocaust in the East: Local Perpetrators and Soviet Responses |authors=Marina Sorokina, Tarik Cyril Amar |series=Pitt Series in Russian and East European Studies |ISBN=978-0-8229-6293-9 |url=http://filercosmin.com/books/download/asin=0822962934&type=full |year=2014 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |pages=124, 165, 172, 255 |via=direct download 13.6 MB |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014034941/http://filercosmin.com/books/download/asin%3D0822962934%26type%3Dfull |archivedate=October 14, 2017 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in:'' {{cite book |title=Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1942–1943 |first=Emil |last=Kerenji |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXDYBAAAQBAJ&q=Janowska+100%2C000+DAW |year=2014 |ISBN=1442236272 |pages=69–70, 539}}</ref> | |||
| While the Order Police performed liquidations of the ], loading prisoners into railcars and shooting those unable to move or attempting to flee, the ] were used as a means of inflicting terror upon the Jewish people by conducting large-scale massacres in the same locations.<ref name="Browning">{{cite book |title=Arrival in Poland |last=Browning |first=Christopher |author-link=Christopher Browning |year=1998 |url=http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf |orig-year=1992 |publisher=Penguin Books |work=Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland |pages=52, 77, 79, 80, 135 |id=PDF file, direct download 7.91 MB complete |quote=''Also:'' |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010164107/http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf |archivedate=October 10, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="ARC">{{cite web |url=http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/erntefest.html |title=Erntefest |publisher=ARC |work=Occupation of the East |year=2004 |accessdate=2013-04-26 |author=ARC |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130118102221/http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/erntefest.html |archivedate=January 18, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> They were deployed in all major killing sites of Operation Reinhard (terror was a primary aim of their SS training).{{r|B&G30}} The Ukrainian ] formed into units took an active role in the extermination of Jews at Belzec, Sobibór, Treblinka II; during the ] (on three occasions, see ]), ], ], ], ], ], ] (twice), ], ], the ] itself,{{r|USHMM1}} and the remaining subcamps of KL Lublin/Majdanek camp complex including ], ], ], and also during massacres in ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and all other locations, augmented by members of the SS, ], ], as well as the ] from ] (each, responsible for annihilation of thousands of Jews).{{r|EC55}} Mass executions of Jews (as in ]) was part of regular training of the ] soldiers from the '']'' {{nobreak|troop-training}} base in ] in south-eastern Poland.<ref name="Heidelager">{{cite web |url=http://pustkow.republika.pl/historia.html |title=HL-Heidelager: SS-TruppenÜbungsPlatz |author=Mirek Kusibab |publisher=Pustkow.Republika.pl |id=Historia poligonu Heidelager w Pustkowie |year=2013 |work=History of the Range with photographs |language=pl |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418040914/http://pustkow.republika.pl/historia.html |archivedate=April 18, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Goldsworthy">{{cite book |title=Valhalla's Warriors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KPsZGCesO0C&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=Szebnie+%22POW%22&source=bl&ots=_KfRmDRHL1&sig=R5C0vHkrPiXR-MJ2DX5Ai_YIumE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Mq7XUa6WBqOXiAKZ8YDgDg&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBDgU#v=onepage&q=Szebnie%20%22POW%22&f=false |publisher=Dog Ear Publishing |work=A History of the Waffen-SS on the Eastern Front 1941–1945 |year=2010 |author=Terry Goldsworthy |page=144 |via=Google Book preview |isbn=1-60844-639-5}}</ref> In the north-east, ] of ] trained ] in murder expeditions with the help of ].<ref name="Wilson113">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZJntMQtkSYC&q=%28BKA%29 |title=Belarus: The Last European Dictatorship |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2011 |accessdate=6 February 2015 |last=Wilson |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Wilson (historian) |pages=109, 110, 113 |isbn=0-300-13435-5 |ref=harv}}</ref> By the ] in May 1945, over 90% of Polish Jewry perished.{{r|Lukas1989}} | |||
| ===Death camp at Chełmno=== | |||
| ], forced to abandon their bundles along the way. ''Here:'' loading of victims being sent from ], 1942]] | |||
| The ] ({{lang-de|Kulmhof}}) was built as the first-ever, following Hitler's launch of ]. It was a pilot project for the development of other extermination sites. The experiments with exhaust gases were finalized by murdering 1,500 Poles at ].<ref name="soldau">{{citation |author=The Simon Wiesenthal Center |year=1997 |url=http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&b=394667 |title=Responses to Revisionist Arguments |chapter=Part 5 |publisher=Museum of Tolerance. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403232419/http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&b=394667 |archivedate=April 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in:'' {{citation |author=] |year=1995 |url=http://www.lbihs.at/FriedlanderFromEuthanasia.pdf |title=From Euthanasia to the Final Solution |at=pp. 18–21 in current copy |publisher=LBIHS |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418234913/http://www.lbihs.at/FriedlanderFromEuthanasia.pdf |archivedate=April 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}; {{citation |author=International Tracing Service ''Catalogue'' |origyear=1949 |url=http://www.warrelics.eu/forum/konzentrationslagers/brief-chronology-konzentrationslager-system-356265/ |title=Brief Chronology Of the Konzentrationslager System |publisher=War Relics |year=2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728235135/http://www.warrelics.eu/forum/konzentrationslagers/brief-chronology-konzentrationslager-system-356265/ |archivedate=July 28, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The killing method at Chełmno grew out of the ] program in which busloads of unsuspecting hospital patients were gassed in air-tight shower rooms at ], ] and ].<ref>{{harvp|Browning|2004|pp=191–192|loc=}}</ref> The killing grounds at Chełmno, {{convert|50|km|mi}} from ], consisted of a vacated manorial estate similar to Sonnenstein, used for undressing (with a truck-loading ramp in the back), as well as a large forest clearing {{convert|4|km|mi}} northwest of Chełmno, used for the mass burial as well as open-pit cremation of corpses introduced some time later.<ref name="Montague-1">{{citation |last=Montague |first=Patrick |year=2012 |title=Chełmno and the Holocaust: The History of Hitler's First Death Camp |publisher=] |publication-place=Chapel Hill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02ABWyc_Ks0C&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=Walter+Piller,+Hermann+Gielow,+SS-Sonderkommando+Kulmhof&source=bl&ots=3-lUGRISPS&sig=PY1Y-U8wOGDkYi6gYaVp0wLhwIk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3OWUUfPSHY-byAHlyYGADQ&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Walter%20Piller%2C%20Hermann%20Gielow%2C%20SS-Sonderkommando%20Kulmhof&f=false |isbn=0-8078-3527-7 |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| All Jews from the '']'' district of '']'' were deported to Chełmno under the guise of 'resettlement'. At least 145,000 prisoners from the ] perished at Chełmno in several waves of deportations lasting from 1942 to 1944.<ref>{{cite web |year=2015 |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – The Jews of Lodz |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005071 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150419003302/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005071 |archivedate=April 19, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="lodz-ghetto">{{cite web |url=http://www.lodz-ghetto.com/introduction.html,1 |title=Litzmannstadt Ghetto, Lodz |publisher=Litzmannstadt Ghetto homepage |work=Traces of the Litzmannstadt Getto. A Guide to the Past: Introduction |date=2015 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |author=Michal Latosinski |isbn=83-7415-000-9 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223102917/http://www.lodz-ghetto.com/introduction.html,1 |archivedate=December 23, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Additionally, 20,000 foreign Jews and 5,000 Roma were brought in from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia.<ref name="kehilalinks.jewishgen">{{cite web |url=http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lodz/statistics.htm |title=Lodz Ghetto Deportations and Statistics |publisher=Łódź ShtetLinks · JewishGen |work=Sources: Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Baranowski, Dobroszycki, Wiesenthal, Yad Vashem Timeline |date=2007 |accessdate=12 April 2015 |author=Shirley Rotbein Flaum, Roni Seibel Liebowitz |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321021602/http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/lodz/statistics.htm |archivedate=March 21, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> All victims were killed with the use of mobile ]s (''Sonderwagen''), which had exhaust pipes reconfigured and poisons added to gasoline (see ] for supplementary data). In the last phase of the camp's existence, the exhumed bodies were cremated in open-air for several weeks during ]. The ashes, mixed with crushed bones, were trucked every night to the ] in sacks made from blankets, to remove the evidence of mass murder.<ref name="JTA">{{cite web |url=http://www.jta.org/1963/01/22/archive/jewish-survivors-of-chelmno-camp-testify-at-trial-of-guards |title=Jewish Survivors of Chelmno Camp Testify at Trial of Guards |publisher=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |work=Internet Archive |date=January 22, 1963 |accessdate=2013-06-14 |author=JTA |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220122211/http://www.jta.org/1963/01/22/archive/jewish-survivors-of-chelmno-camp-testify-at-trial-of-guards |archivedate=February 20, 2014}}</ref><ref name="Lichtenstein">{{cite web |url=http://www.fluchschrift.net/verbrech/november/011141.htm |title=01.11.1941. Errichtung des ersten Vernichtungslagers in Chelmno |publisher=Fluchschrift – Deutsche Verbrechen |work=Heiner Lichtenstein, Daten aus der Zeitgeschichte, in: Tribüne Nr. 179/2006 |year=2013 |accessdate=2013-06-14 |author=Fluchschrift |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517003801/http://www.fluchschrift.net/verbrech/november/011141.htm |archivedate=May 17, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| ===Auschwitz-Birkenau=== | |||
| ] prisoners]] | |||
| The ] was the largest of the German Nazi extermination centers. Located {{convert|40|mi|km|order=flip}} west of ],<ref>{{citation |title=Auschwitz: The Nazi Solution |author=Andrew Rawson |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2015 |page=121 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTagBwAAQBAJ&q=Auschwitz+forty+miles |ISBN=1473827981}}</ref> Auschwitz processed an average of 1.5 ] per day.<ref name="Enghelberg63">{{cite book |url=https://www.amazon.com/HOLOCAUST-transport-companies-agreement-operation-ebook/dp/B004C44N58/ref=sr_1_10?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1391784099&sr=1-10#reader_B004C44N58 |title=The trains of the Holocaust |publisher=Kindle Edition |author=Hedi Enghelberg |year=2013 |page=63 |isbn=978-1-60585-123-5 |quote= from Enghelberg.com.}}</ref> The overwhelming majority of prisoners deported there were murdered within hours of their arrival.<ref name="auschwitz.org/jews">{{cite web |url=http://auschwitz.org/en/history/categories-of-prisoners/jews-in-auschwitz/auschwitz-as-a-center-for-the-extermination-of-the-jews |title=Auschwitz as a center for the extermination of the Jews |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and State Museum |work=Jews in Auschwitz |date=2015 |accessdate=13 April 2015 |author=Memorial and Museum |quote=Countries of origin, Selection in the camp, Treatment. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320095238/http://auschwitz.org/en/history/categories-of-prisoners/jews-in-auschwitz/auschwitz-as-a-center-for-the-extermination-of-the-jews |archivedate=March 20, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The camp was fitted with the first permanent ] in March 1942. The extermination of Jews with ] as the killing agent began in July.{{r|Fritsch}} At Birkenau, the four killing installations (each consisting of coatrooms, multiple gas chambers and ]) were built in the following year.<ref name="gascamp">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/gascamp.html |title=Gassing Victims in the Holocaust: Background & Overview |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |work=Extermination camps in occupied Poland |author=Institut Fuer Zeitgeschicthe (Institute for Contemporary History) |year=1992 |location=Munich, Germany |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529061418/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/gascamp.html |archivedate=May 29, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> By late 1943, Birkenau was a killing factory with four so-called 'Bunkers' (totaling over a dozen gas chambers) working around the clock.<ref>{{citation |title=The Fallacy of Race and the Shoah |authors=Naomi Kramer, Ronald Headland |page=254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sg6pDAAAQBAJ&q=Killing+facilities+extended |publisher=University of Ottawa Press |year=1998 |ISBN=0776617125}} ''Also in:'' {{citation |title=The Destruction of the European Jews |author=Raul Hilberg |pages=948–949 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |ISBN=0300095929 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HinIpmliz2MC&q=barely+175%2C000+Jews}}</ref> Up to 6,000 people were gassed and cremated there each day, after the ruthless 'selection process' at the ''Judenrampe''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Gassing Operations |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005220 |accessdate=15 June 2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208103605/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005220 |archivedate=February 8, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>{{r|AuschwitzEng}} Only about 10 percent of the deportees from transports organized by the Reich Main Security Office (]) were registered and assigned to the Birkenau barracks.<ref name="AuschwitzEng">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/ForgottenCamps/Camps/AuschwitzEng.html |title=Auschwitz-Birkenau Death Factory |publisher=The Forgotten Camps |date=2006 |accessdate=13 April 2015 |author=Vincent Châtel & Chuck Ferree |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403092308/http://www.jewishgen.org/ForgottenCamps/Camps/AuschwitzEng.html |archivedate=April 3, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| Auschwitz II extermination program resulted in the death of 1.3 to 1.5 million people.<ref name="piper/museum">{{cite web |url=http://auschwitz.org/en/history/the-number-of-victims/number-of-deportees-by-ethnicity |title=Number of deportees by ethnicity |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and State Museum |work=Ilu ludzi zginęło w KL Auschwitz. Liczba ofiar w świetle źródeł i badań, Oświęcim 1992, tables 14–27 |date=2015 |accessdate=14 April 2015 |author=] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919192817/http://auschwitz.org/en/history/the-number-of-victims/number-of-deportees-by-ethnicity |archivedate=September 19, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Over 1.1 million of them were Jews from across Europe including 200,000 children.{{r|auschwitz.org/jews}}{{r|auschwitz}} Among the registered 400,000 victims (less than one-third of the total Auschwitz arrivals) were 140,000–150,000 non-Jewish Poles, 23,000 Gypsies, 15,000 Soviet ]s and 25,000 others.{{r|piper/museum}}<ref name="faq">{{cite report |title=How many people were registered as prisoners in Auschwitz? |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum |url=http://auschwitz.org/en/museum/auschwitz-prisoners/faq |work=History of KL Auschwitz |section=The Number and Origins of the Victims |year=2015 |sectionurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030420205757/http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/html/eng/historia_KL/liczba_narodowosc_ofiar_ok.html |author=Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802041145/http://auschwitz.org/en/museum/auschwitz-prisoners/faq |archivedate=August 2, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Auschwitz received a total of about 300,000 Jews from occupied Poland,<ref>{{citation |title=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin |author=Timothy Snyder |publisher=Basic Books |year=2012 |ISBN=0465032974 |page=314 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maEfAQAAQBAJ&q=about+300%2C000+Polish |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=maEfAQAAQBAJ&q=about+300%2C000+Polish |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> shipped ] from liquidated ghettos and transit camps,{{r|auschwitz2}} beginning with ] (February 15, 1942), ] (three days of June), ] (in August), ] and ] (November),<ref>{{citation |title=The Scrolls of Auschwitz |authors=Ber Mark, Isaiah Avrech |publisher=Am Oved |year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WjlnAAAAMAAJ&dq=Ciechanow |pages=71, 260 |id=Hometown of ].}}</ref> then ] (March 13, 1943),{{r|Gutman232}} ], ], ] (June–August 1943),{{r|jewishgen}} and several dozen other metropolitan cities and towns,<ref name="statistics">The statistical data compiled on the basis of {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208215116/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/selectcity/ |date=February 8, 2016 }} by '']'' ], as well as , and Comparative range. Accessed March 14, 2015.</ref> including the last ghetto left standing in occupied Poland, liquidated in August 1944 at ].{{r|jewishvirtuallibrary3}} Auschwitz-Birkenau gas chambers and crematoria were blown up on November 25, 1944, in an attempt to destroy the evidence of mass killings, by the orders of SS chief Heinrich Himmler.{{r|USHMM4}} | |||
| ===Treblinka=== | |||
| ] burning during prisoner uprising, 2 August 1943: barracks and petrol tank set ablaze. Clandestine photo by ]]] | |||
| Designed and built for the sole purpose of killing people, ] was one of only three such facilities in existence; the other two were Bełżec and Sobibór.<ref>{{harvp|Browning|2004|p=374|loc=}}</ref> All of them were situated in wooded areas away from population centres and linked to the Polish rail system by a ]. They had transferable ''SS'' staff.<ref name="Arad1999">{{cite book |title=Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YglnAAAAMAAJ |pages=152–153 |first=Yitzhak |last=Arad |author-link=Yitzhak Arad |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1999 |orig-year=1987 |isbn=978-0-253-21305-1 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=YglnAAAAMAAJ |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> There was a railway platform constructed alongside the tracks, surrounded by 2.5 m (8 ft) high barbed-wire fencing. Large barracks were built for storing belongings of disembarking victims. One was disguised as a ] complete with a fake wooden clock and signage to prevent new arrivals from realizing their fate.{{r|Yeger}} Passports and money were collected for "safekeeping" at a cashier's booth set up by the "Road to Heaven", a fenced-off path leading into the gas chambers disguised as communal showers. Directly behind were the burial pits, dug with a crawler excavator.<ref name="Smith103">{{Cite book |ref=harv |last=Smith |first=Mark S. |title=Treblinka Survivor: The Life and Death of Hershl Sperling |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HBc7AwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Himmelstrasse&f=false |publisher=The History Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7524-5618-8 |via=Google Books preview |pages=103–107 |quote=''See Smith's book excerpts at:'' by David Adams, and the book summary at by Tony Rennell. |accessdate=9 April 2015}}</ref> | |||
| Located {{convert|50|mi|order=flip}} northeast of ],{{r|treblinka}} Treblinka became operational on July 24, 1942, after three months of ] by expellees from Germany.<ref>Kopówka & Rytel-Andrianik (2011), chapt. 3:1, p. 77.</ref> The shipping of Jews from the ] – plan known as the '']'' – began immediately.{{r|YV}}{{r|BE-B}}{{r|BE-B2}} During two months of the summer of 1942, about 254,000 ] inmates were exterminated at Treblinka (by some other accounts, at least 300,000).{{r|USHMM_War}} On arrival, the transportees were made to disrobe, then the men – followed by women and children – were forced into double-walled chambers and gassed to death in batches of 200, with the use of exhaust fumes generated by a tank engine.<ref name="JVL-Reinhard5">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/reinhard.html#5 |title=The Construction of the Treblinka Extermination Camp |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library.org |work=Yad Vashem Studies, XVI |year=1984 |accessdate=3 November 2013 |author=McVay, Kenneth |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905055409/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/reinhard.html#5 |archivedate=September 5, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>{{r|urteilsbegr}}{{r|nizkor}} The gas chambers, rebuilt of brick and expanded during August–September 1942, were capable of killing 12,000 to 15,000 victims every day,<ref name="Ainsztein">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=XWW2UrfyGNjtoASaw4HgDA&id=L-1mAAAAMAAJ&dq=Treblinka+maximum+gassing+capacity&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Treblinka+25%2C000%22 |title=Jewish Resistance in Nazi-Occupied Eastern Europe |publisher=University of Michigan (reprint) |origyear=1974 |year=2008 |accessdate=21 December 2013 |author=Ainsztein, Reuben |page=917 |isbn=0-236-15490-7 |via=Google Books snipet view |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503040505/https://books.google.com/books?ei=XWW2UrfyGNjtoASaw4HgDA&id=L-1mAAAAMAAJ&dq=Treblinka+maximum+gassing+capacity&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Treblinka+25,000%22 |archivedate=May 3, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> with a maximum capacity of 22,000 executions in twenty-four hours.{{r|Sumler}} The dead were initially buried in large mass graves, but the stench from the decomposing bodies could be smelled up to ten kilometers away.{{r|DC278}} As a result, the Nazis began burning the bodies on open-air grids made of concrete pillars and railway tracks.{{r|perpetrators}} The number of people killed at Treblinka in about a year ranges from 800,000 to 1,200,000, with no exact figures available.{{r|Kopówka}}{{r|generalgouvernement1}} The camp was closed by Globocnik on October 19, 1943 soon after the ],{{r|indianapolis}} with the murderous Operation Reinhard nearly completed.<ref name="Kopówka">{{harvp|Kopówka|Rytel-Andrianik|2011|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| ===Bełżec=== | |||
| ], ], 1942]] | |||
| The ], set up near the railroad station of Bełżec in the ], began operating officially on March 17, 1942, with three temporary gas chambers later replaced with six made of brick and mortar, enabling the facility to handle over 1,000 victims at one time.{{r|bay/kola}} At least 434,500 Jews were exterminated there. The lack of verified survivors however, makes this camp much less known.{{r|USHMM_Belzec}} The bodies of the dead, buried in mass graves, swelled in the heat as a result of ] making the earth split, which was resolved with the introduction of crematoria pits in October 1942.{{r|brezezinka}} | |||
| ] from '']'', supplying ] from ] during the Holocaust,<ref name="Y357">{{cite book |title=The Holocaust: The fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_aRvKpLUf0C&pg=PA351&hl=en#v=onepage&q=Kurt%20Gerstein&f=false |year=1991 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=356–357 |isbn=978-0-19-504523-9 |last1=Yahil |first1=Leni |last2=Friedman |first2=Ina |last3=Galai |first3=Hayah |accessdate=2015-04-15}}</ref> wrote after the war in his ] for ] that on August 17, 1942 at ], he had witnessed the arrival of 45 wagons with 6,700 prisoners of whom 1,450 were already dead inside.{{r|Gerstein}} That train came with the Jewish people of the ],{{r|Gerstein}} less than a hundred kilometers away.<ref>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Belzec: Chronology |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007206 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420082849/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007206 |archivedate=April 20, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The last shipment of Jews (including those who had already died in transit) arrived in Bełżec in December 1942.{{r|Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps}} The burning of exhumed corpses continued until March.<ref name="arc-belzec">{{cite web |author=ARC contributing authors |title=Belzec Camp History |publisher=Aktion Reinhard Camps |url=http://www.deathcamps.org/belzec/belzec.html |date=26 August 2006 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225034440/http://www.deathcamps.org/belzec/belzec.html |archivedate=December 25, 2005 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The remaining 500 '']'' prisoners who dismantled the camp, and who bore witness to the extermination process,{{r|USHMM_Belzec}} were murdered at the nearby ] in the following months.{{r|archeologists}}{{r|jewishgen6}} | |||
| ===Sobibór=== | |||
| ]" confirms at least 101,370 ] to ] in 1942]] | |||
| The ], disguised as a railway transit camp not far from ], began mass gassing operations in May 1942.{{r|destruction}} As in other extermination centers, the Jews, taken off the Holocaust trains arriving from liquidated ghettos and transit camps (], ]) were met by an SS-man dressed in a medical coat. ''Oberscharführer'' Hermann Michel gave the command for prisoners' "disinfection".<ref>{{harvp|Schelvis|2014|p=70 |loc=}}</ref> | |||
| New arrivals were forced to split into groups, hand over their valuables, and disrobe inside a walled-off courtyard for a bath. Women had their hair cut off by the ''Sonderkommando'' barbers. Once undressed, the Jews were led down a narrow path to the gas chambers which were disguised as showers. Carbon monoxide gas was released from the exhaust pipes of a gasoline engine removed from a Red Army tank.<ref name="project.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ar/arperpsspeak.html |title=Former Members of the SS-Sonderkommando Sobibor describe their experiences in the Sobibor death camp in their own words |publisher=H.E.A.R.T |work=Belzec, Sobibor & Treblinka Death Camps |date=2007 |accessdate=16 April 2015 |author=Chris Webb, C.L. |quote=It was a heavy Russian benzine engine – presumably a tank or tractor motor at least 200 horsepower V-motor, 8 cylinders, water cooled (''SS-Scharführer'' ]). |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906021944/http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/ar/arperpsspeak.html |archivedate=September 6, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Their bodies were taken out and burned in open pits over iron grids partly fueled by human body-fat. Their remains were dumped onto seven "ash mountains". The total number of Polish Jews murdered at Sobibór is estimated at a minimum of 170,000.<ref name="Sobibór">{{harvp|Schelvis|2014|p=110}}.<br>{{space|2}}{{cite web |title=History of the Sobibór extermination camp |author=Sobibór branch of the ] |year=2016 |url=http://www.sobibor-memorial.eu/en/history/history_of_the_camp/3# |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118214522/http://www.sobibor-memorial.eu/en/history/history_of_the_camp/3 |archivedate=January 18, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}<br>{{space|2}}{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Sobibor |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005192 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529020902/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005192 |archivedate=May 29, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Heinrich Himmler ordered the camp dismantled following a ] on October 14, 1943; one of only two successful uprisings by Jewish ''Sonderkommando'' inmates in any extermination camp, with 300 escapees (most of them were recaptured by the SS and killed).{{r|schelvis}}{{r|holocaustresearchproject}} | |||
| ===Lublin-Majdanek=== | |||
| ] ]s, ]]] | |||
| The ] ] camp located on the outskirts of Lublin (like Sobibór) and closed temporarily during an ], was reopened in March 1942 for Operation Reinhard; first, as a storage depot for valuables stolen from the victims of gassing at the killing centers of Belzec, Sobibór, and Treblinka,{{r|USHMM_LubMaj}} It became a place of extermination of large Jewish populations from south-eastern Poland (], ], ], ]) after the gas chambers were constructed in late 1942.{{r|about}} {{pb}}The gassing of Polish Jews was performed in plain view of other inmates, without as much as a fence around the killing facilities.{{r|jewishvirtuallibrary7}} According to witness's testimony, "to drown the cries of the dying, tractor engines were run near the gas chambers" before they took the dead away to the crematorium. Majdanek was the site of death of 59,000 Polish Jews (from among its 79,000 victims).{{r|Kranz}}{{r|Reszka}} By the end of Operation '']'' (Harvest Festival) conducted at Majdanek in early November 1943 (the single largest German massacre of Jews during the entire war),{{r|Browning}} the camp had only 71 Jews left.{{r|WarCriminals:Nuremberg}} | |||
| ==Armed resistance and ghetto uprisings== | |||
| {{further|Ghetto uprising|Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|Jewish resistance in German-occupied Europe}} | |||
| ].<br>'']'' caption: "'']'' women captured with weapons." Malka Zdrojewicz ''(right)'' survived ].]] | |||
| There is a popular misconception among the general public that most Jews went to their deaths passively.{{r|Bauer2000}} Nothing could be further from the truth.{{r|Henry23}} Jewish resistance to the Nazis comprised not only their armed struggle but also spiritual and cultural opposition which gave the Jews dignity despite the inhumane conditions of life in the ghettos.{{r|Tot-Fein/Gersh}}<ref>{{citation |author=] |title=Raul Hilberg |work=Yad Vashem Studies |publisher=Wallstein Verlag |year=2001 |pages=9–10 |ISSN=0084-3296 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOWtjeac3mYC&q=Yehuda+Bauer+Unanswered}}</ref> Many forms of resistance were present, even though the elders were terrified by the prospect of mass retaliation against the women and children in the case of anti-Nazi revolt.<ref name=Trunk>{{citation |title=Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation |author=] |pages=464–466, 472–474 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |year=1972 |quote=The highest degree of cooperation was achieved when chairmen, or other leading ] members themselves, actively participated in preparing and executing acts of resistance, particularly in the course of liquidations of ghettos. ], ], Radomsko, Pajęczno, Sasów, ], Mołczadź, Iwaniska, ], Nieśwież, Zdzięcioł (see: ]), Tuczyn (Równe), and Marcinkańce (]) among others] |ISBN=080329428X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC&q=Council+smuggling+arms |chapter=The Attitude of the Councils toward Physical Resistance |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103084453/http://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC |archivedate=January 3, 2014 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in:'' {{citation |title=The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy |author=] |publisher=Collins |year=1986 |page=828 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRJnAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=brutalizing}}</ref> As the German authorities undertook to liquidate the ghettos, armed resistance was offered in over 100 locations on either side of Polish-Soviet ], overwhelmingly in eastern Poland.<ref name=ushmm2011>{{citation |title=Jewish Resistance |author=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2011 |via=Internet Archive. |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005213 |id= |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126200522/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005213 |archivedate=January 26, 2012 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in:'' {{citation |title=Armed Resistance |author=Shmuel Krakowski |publisher=YIVO |year=2010 |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Armed_Resistance |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602091431/http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Armed_Resistance |archivedate=June 2, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The uprisings erupted in 5 major cities, 45 provincial towns, 5 major concentration and extermination camps, as well as in at least 18 forced labor camps.<ref name=LermanCenter>{{citation |title=Resistance during the Holocaust |author=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |publisher=The Miles Lerman Center for the Study of Jewish Resistance |at=p. 6 of 56 in current document |url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20000831-resistance-bklt.pdf |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829054516/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20000831-resistance-bklt.pdf |archivedate=August 29, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> Notably, the only rebellions in ] were Jewish.<ref name=Bauer2000>{{citation |title=An Interview With Prof. Yehuda Bauer |author=Yad Vashem |publisher=Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies |year=2000 |at=pp. 28–30 of 58 in current document |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203856.pdf |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320161945/http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%203856.pdf |archivedate=March 20, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> | |||
| The ] Ghetto insurgents in eastern Poland fought back on July 22, 1942. The ] revolt erupted on September 3. On October 14, 1942, the ] followed suit. The ] ] of January 18, 1943, led to the ] launched on April 19, 1943. On June 25, the Jews of the ] rose up. At ], the '']'' prisoners armed with stolen weapons attacked the guards on August 2, 1943. A day later, the ] and ] ghetto revolts broke out. On August 16, the ] erupted. The ] extermination camp occurred on October 14, 1943. At ], the insurgents blew up one of Birkenau’s crematoria on October 7, 1944.{{r|ushmm2011}}{{r|LermanCenter}} Similar resistance was offered in ], ], ], ], and in ].<ref>{{citation |title=Resistance in the Vilna Ghetto |author=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005173 |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=2017 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803220421/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005173 |archivedate=August 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| == Poles and the Jews == | |||
| ]'s '']'' against killing of Jews, distributed in German-occupied Poland, 28 August 1942]] | |||
| {{further|Polish Righteous among the Nations|Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust|Żegota}} | |||
| Only 10 percent of Poland's Jews survived the genocide, less than in any other country. However, Polish nationals account for the majority of rescuers with the title of ']'', honored by ]. According to ] it is probable that these 5,000 recognized Poles only "represent only the tip of the iceberg" of Polish rescuers.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} Some Jews received organized help from ] )The Council to Aid Jews) an underground organization of ] in ].<ref name="Shoa">] Shoa Resource Center, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020062021/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%206392.pdf |date=October 20, 2013 }}, page 4/34 of the Report.</ref> | |||
| On November 10, 1941, ] was extended by ] to Poles who helped Jews "in any way: by taking them in for a night, giving them a lift in a vehicle of any sort", or "feeding runaway Jews or selling them foodstuffs."{{r|Paldiel}} The law was publicized with posters distributed in all major cities. Similar regulations were issues by the Germans in other territories they controlled in the Eastern Front.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511150037/https://books.google.co.il/books?id=oVmSAAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=poland+death+penalty+helping+jews&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVg8muh_3aAhVFiqQKHdZ9BHEQ6AEIIzAA |date=May 11, 2018 }}, Jan Grabowski, page 55, Indiana University Press</ref> Capital punishment meted out to ] was the most draconian penalty ever imposed.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} Over 700 ] received that recognition posthumously, having been murdered by the Germans for aiding or sheltering their Jewish neighbors.{{r|holocaustforgotten}} Many of the ] awarded by ] came from the capital. In his work on Warsaw's Jews, ] demonstrated that despite the much harsher conditions, Warsaw's Polish citizens managed to support and hide the same percentage of Jews as did the citizens of cities in reportedly ''safer'' German-occupied countries of Western Europe.{{r|hnetradz}} | |||
| ===Antisemitism=== | |||
| Polish antisemitism was politically rooted, as opposed to racially; with two common motifs: claims of defilement of the ] faith; and ] (“Judaeo-Communism”). During the 1930s, Catholic journals in the Polish press paralleled western European social-Darwinist antisemitism and the German press. However, church doctrine ruled out violence. Unlike German antisemitism, Polish antisemitism rejected the idea of genocide or pogroms of the Jews, advocating mass emigration instead<ref>''This last statement is based on the fact that Polish antisemitism, even during the war, was not murderous in nature and did not speak in terms of outright liquidation except on its outermost fringes. It expressed extreme messages and unequivocal conclusions–the imperative of mass Jewish emigration from Poland–but did not advocate pogroms or genocide''Were These Ordinary Poles? | |||
| Daniel Blatman {{cite web |url=https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/academic/were-these-ordinary-poles.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2018-05-19 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520055802/https://www.yadvashem.org/articles/academic/were-these-ordinary-poles.html |archivedate=May 20, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Polish viewpoint was based on the notion of ] and hatred of the Polish nation. The '']'' practice of extorting and denouncing Jews to the German authorities was also carried out by some Poles who were acting the traditional "other" who were outside the national consensus. The ] considered ''szmalcownictwo'' an act of ] with the occupying Germans. The ] (''Armia Krajowa'') punished it with death as a criminal act of ].<ref>Źródło: ''Żydzi polscy'', zeszyt 24, "Sprawiedliwi wśród narodów" str. 11 artykuł "Śmierć dla szmalcowników" dodatek do Rzeczpospolitej z 23 września 2008</ref> Blackmailers were sentenced to death by Polish Underground ] for crimes perpetrated against Polish citizens. A decree of 31 August 1944 of '']'' (the Polish Committee of National Liberation) also condemned such acts as collaboration with ]. This decree remains valid law in Poland, and anyone convicted of ''szmalcownictwo'' during the war may face ]. | |||
| A group of 40 Poles alongside German ] being present attacked and killed Jews in the 1941 ]<ref name="events">, Polin Museum, 09 July 2016; accessed 2 April 2018</ref><ref>, ''Holocaust Encyclopedia'', US Holocaust Memorial Museum</ref>. Debated is the additional involvement of German ]<ref>The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland edited by Antony Polonsky, Joanna B. Michlic p.338</ref> and '']'' paramilitary forces, especially '']'' '']''.<ref name="ipn"/><ref name="Zimmerman67"/><ref name="google"/><ref name="Rossino"/> Some sources claim the massacre was instigated by the Soviet-backed Communist security corps, for propaganda purposes, attempting to discredit Poland's anti-Communist stance and to maintain totalitarian control over the country. As the top-secret case files were destroyed, the academic inquiry is ongoing with regard to possible secret coordination with the ] by the Moscow-Communist-controlled 'Polish' authorities.<ref name="angora">Interview with Krzysztof Kąkolewski, Also available with purchase at , '']'', Łódź, 29/2006 (839); section Kultura, p. 56. Copy available at , and at {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307050134/http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=9290 |date=7 March 2012 }}, 7 June 2016. {{pl icon}}</ref><ref name="McFarland-136">Tadeusz Piotrowski, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180214085659/https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0-dk7vpM8C&pg=PA136&dq=%22responsible+for+orchestrating+the+Kielce+pogrom%22+%22the+chief+of+the+UB%22+%22Soviet+intelligence+officer%22 |date=2018-02-14 }} McFarland, p. 136; {{ISBN|0-7864-0371-3}}.</ref> | |||
| ===Rescue and aid=== | |||
| {{further|World War II casualties of Poland}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The vast majority of Polish Jews were a "visible minority" by modern standards, distinguishable by language, behavior, and appearance.{{r|StopnHe65}} In the 1931 Polish national census, only 12 percent of Jews declared Polish as their first language, while 79 percent listed ] and the remaining 9 percent ] as their mother tongue.<ref name="GUS1931">{{cite book |title=Drugi Powszechny Spis Ludności, 9.XII.1931 |work=]. Table 10, page 30 in current document |url=http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a22_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf |author=Główny Urząd Statystyczny |location=Warsaw |year=1938 |id=PDF file, direct download |language=pl |quote=Religion and Native Language (total). Section, Jewish: 3,113,933 with Yiddish: 2,489,034 and Hebrew: 243,539 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402143415/http://statlibr.stat.gov.pl/exlibris/aleph/a22_1/apache_media/VUNVGMLANSCQQFGYHCN3VDLK12A9U5.pdf |archivedate=April 2, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> In the labour market of many cities and ], including Poland's provincial capitals, the presence of such large, mostly non acculturated minority,{{r|StopnHe65}} was a source of competitive tension.<ref>{{citation |title=] |at=(Polish edition), Second volume, pp. 512–513 |author=] |year=1979}}; {{citation |title=Economic Change and the National Question in Twentieth-century Europe |authors=], Herbert Matis, Jaroslav Pátek |year=2000 |pages=342–344 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UVxY-8Xk-sC&q=minorities+Nowogrodek}}; {{citation |title=Business environment in 1926–1929 |work=Jewish history of Radom |authors=Gedeon & Marta Kubiszyn |publisher=] |language=pl |at=page 2 of 6 |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/radom/5,historia/?action=view&page=1 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811055134/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/radom/5,historia/?action=view&page=1 |archivedate=August 11, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}; {{citation |title=Lubartow during the Holocaust in occupied Poland |url=http://www.jhi.pl/en/gminy/miasto/423.html |publisher=Taube Foundation for Jewish Life and Culture |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216021119/http://www.jhi.pl/en/gminy/miasto/423.html |archivedate=February 16, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> Here is where the temptation to jump to conclusions with regard to Polish-Jewish relations in wartime should be resisted, wrote Gunnar Paulsson: "leaving aside acts of war and Nazi perfidy, a Jew's chances of survival in hiding were no worse in Warsaw, at any rate, than in the Netherlands" once the Holocaust began.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} | |||
| Toward the end of the ghetto-liquidation period, the largest number of Jews managed to escape to the "Aryan" side,{{r|GSPau-JHE}} and to survive with the aid of their Polish helpers. During the Nazi occupation, most ethnic Poles were themselves engaged in a desperate struggle to survive. They were in no position to impede the German extermination of Jews. Between 1939 and 1945, nearly 2.8 million ] Poles died at the hands of the Nazis, and 150,000 due to Soviet repressions.<ref name="Materski&Szarota">{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009|loc=page 9.}}</ref> About one fifth of the prewar population of Poland perished.<ref name="Piotrowski305">{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|pp=305–|loc=}}</ref> Their deaths were the ],<ref>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009|loc=page 16.}}</ref> mass murder, incarceration in concentration camps, forced labor, malnutrition, disease, kidnappings, and expulsions.<ref>{{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009|loc=page 28. Some 800,000 Poles perished in concentration camps and mass murders.}}</ref> There were, however, many Poles who risked death to hide entire Jewish families or otherwise help Jews on compassionate grounds.{{r|Żarski}} Polish rescuers of Jews were sometimes exposed by those very Jews if the Jews were found by the Germans, resulting in the murder of entire helper networks in the General Government.<ref name="WZaj:152–201"/> The number of Jews hiding with gentile Poles, quoted by Żarski-Zajdler, was about 450,000.<ref name="Żarski">{{cite book |last=Żarski-Zajdler |first=Władysław |year=1968 |title=Martyrologia ludności żydowskiej i pomoc społeczeństwa polskiego |trans-title=Martyrdom of the Jewish people and their rescue by the Polish society |location=Warsaw |publisher=ZBoWiD |page=16 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2S-ZAkAy7EC&q=Zajdler+Martyrologia |id= Lucas (2013), p.14. Note 21 to "Introduction."}}</ref> Possibly a million gentile Poles aided their Jewish neighbors.{{r|HG}} Historian ]{{r|Lukas1989}} gives an estimate as high as three million Polish helpers; an estimate similar to those cited by other authors.<ref name="Goldberg2012">{{cite book |title=Needle in the Bone: How a Holocaust Survivor and a Polish Resistance Fighter Beat the Odds and Found Each Other |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2yWClrSYL0C&pg=PA6 |author=Caryn Mirriam-Goldberg |year=2012 |quote=Approximately 3 million Poles rescued, hid, or otherwise helped Jews during the war, and fewer than a thousand denounced Jews to the Nazis. |isbn=1612345689 |page=6}}</ref><ref name="Kwiatkowski2016">{{cite book |title=The Country That Refused to Die: The Story of the People of Poland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L57TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT347 |author=Richard Kwiatkowski |year=2016 |isbn=1524509159 |quote=The number of Poles estimated to be actively involved in the rescue of Jews is estimated between one and three million. |page=347}}</ref><ref name="Marshall2000">{{cite book |title=Moral geographies: ethics in a world of difference |page=112 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9SwSAQAAIAAJ&q=Poles+involved |author=David Marshall Smith |year=2000 |quote=It has been estimated that a million or more Poles were involved in helping Jews.}}</ref><ref name="Lukas2013">{{harvp|Lukas|1989|page=13}} – Recent research suggests that a million Poles were involved, but some estimates go as high as three million. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2S-ZAkAy7EC&pg=PA13 |date=July 5, 2018 }} {{ISBN|0813143322}}.</ref> | |||
| ], 1943, for helping Jews]] | |||
| {{further|Rescue of Jews by Polish communities during the Holocaust}} | |||
| The ] was the first (in November 1942),{{r|Note to the Governments of the United Nations – December 10th, 1942}} to reveal the existence of German-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews. The genocide was reported to ] by Lieutenant ], as well as Captain ] who volunteered to be imprisoned at ] in order to gather intelligence and subsequently wrote ] of over 100 pages for the West.{{r|JPaw2008}} | |||
| In September 1942, with financial assistance from the Underground State, the ] was founded (''Tymczasowy Komitet Pomocy Żydom'') on the initiative of ], for the purpose of rescuing Jews. It was superseded by the Council for Aid to Jews known by the code-name ] (''Rada Pomocy Żydom'') chaired by ]. It is not known how many Jews were helped by Żegota, but at one point in 1943 it had 2,500 Jewish children under its care in ] alone under ]. Żegota was granted nearly 29 million ]s (over $5 million) from 1942 onwards for relief payments to thousands of extended Jewish families in Poland.{{r|google12}} The government in exile also provided special assistance – funds, arms and other supplies – to ] like ] and ].{{r|stola}} | |||
| ===Opportunism and collaboration=== | |||
| {{further|Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II#Poland}} | |||
| ] warning about death sentence for ]s of Jews to the Nazis.]] | |||
| No Polish ] was ever formed ].{{r|JC}} As noted by Piotrowski, the "] never produced either a ] or any specifically Polish SS divisions. In contrast, almost all other European countries provided Nazi Germany with both."<ref>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=84|loc=}}</ref> The ] strongly opposed collaboration in anti-Jewish persecutions and threatened death to all informers against them, on behalf of the Polish military tribunals of the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Polacy ratujący Żydów w latach II wojny światowej |trans-title=Poles rescuing Jews during World War II |publisher=] |work=Zeszyty IPN, Wybór Tekstów |date=2008 |location=Warsaw |editor1=Piotr Chojnacki |editor2=Dorota Mazek |pp=7, 18, 23, 31 |quote=Kierownictwo Walki Cywilnej w "Biuletynie Informacyjnym" ostrzega "szmalcowników" i denuncjatorów przed konsekwencjami grożącymi im ze strony władz państwa podziemnego.<sup> </sup> Ot, widzi pan, sprawa jednej litery sprawia ogromną różnicę. Ratować i uratować! Ratowaliśmy kilkadziesiąt razy więcej ludzi, niż uratowaliśmy. – ]<sup> </sup>}}</ref> However, the ] led to the breakdown of traditional social norms and values.{{r|MP159}}<ref name="Piotrowski-66">{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|loc=}}</ref> There were people who betrayed Jews in hiding along with the Poles who protected them.{{r|Grab}} The number of notorious blackmailers is estimated at around several thousand, based on the number of death sentences for treason by Poland's ].<ref name="Lukas">{{cite book |first=Richard C. |last=Lukas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C&pg=PA13&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=1989 |page=13 |ISBN=0813116929}} ''Also in:'' {{cite book |first=Richard C. |last=Lukas |title=The Forgotten Holocaust: The Poles Under German Occupation, 1939–1944 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=1986 |ISBN=0781809010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv1mAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Special+Courts |page=120}}</ref> Gunnar S. Paulsson in his comment stated that he would probably tag 20,000 Poles with "monstrous deeds".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://isurvived.org/4Debates/paulsson_supplement.html |title=Dr. Paulsson’s Commentary in Refuting the Editor's "Hate Poles" Campaign |website=isurvived.org|access-date=2018-06-07 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141040/http://isurvived.org/4Debates/paulsson_supplement.html |archivedate=June 12, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The Holocaust testimonies confirm that, trapped in the ghettos, some Jews took advantage of inside information about the socio-economic standing of other Jews as well (see ]).<ref name="MP159">{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Mark |title=Patterns of Cooperation, Collaboration and Betrayal: Jews, Germans and Poles in Occupied Poland during World War II |date=September 2015 |journal=Glaukopis |series=Foreign language studies |at=159/344 in PDF |url=http://www.glaukopis.pl/images/artykuly-obcojezyczne/Collaboration.pdf |accessdate=25 February 2016 |quote=The Jewish looters knew better than anyone else "where to dig for valuables." Testimonies of Anzel Daches, Majer Gdański, Laja Goldman, Mojżesz Klajman, Chana Kohn, Jakub Libman, and Izrael Szerman, dated October 13, 1947; the ] Archive, record group 301, number 2932. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303071056/http://www.glaukopis.pl/images/artykuly-obcojezyczne/Collaboration.pdf |archivedate=March 3, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| The phenomenon of Polish collaboration was described by ] and ] as marginal, when seen against the backdrop of European and world history.{{r|JC}} The crossing of moral boundaries had first occurred under the Soviets with the participation of the Jewish militia (so-called ''opaskowcy'') armed by the NKVD, in the ] of Polish families from the east to Siberia in 1940 and 1941 after ],{{r|HDoP}}{{r|B-C-S}}{{r|TSts}}{{r|pacwashmetrodiv}} and again, at the onset of the ], when over 300 Jews ] on July 10, 1941, locked in a barn set on fire by a group of Polish men in the presence of German '']'' (] Final Findings).{{r|Jedwabne Tragedy: Final Findings}} The circumstances surrounding the incident in ] are still debated, and include the ominous presence of the '']'' under '']'' ] deployed in '']'',<ref name="Rossino">{{cite journal |author-link=Alexander B. Rossino |first=Alexander B. |last=Rossino |url=http://myinternetarchive-recovery.blogspot.ca/2011/04/polish-neighbors-and-german-invaders.html |title=Polish 'Neighbors' and German Invaders: Contextualizing Anti-Jewish Violence in the Białystok District during the Opening Weeks of Operation Barbarossa |journal=Polin: Studies in Polish Jewry |volume=16 |date=2003 |id=''References:'' №58. ''The Partisan: From the Valley of Death to Mount Zion'' by Yitzhak Arad; №59. ''The Lesser of Two Evils: Eastern European Jewry under Soviet Rule, 1939–1941'' by Dov Levin; and №97. Abschlussbericht, 17 March 1964 in ZStL, 5 AR-Z 13/62, p. 164 |via=Internet Archive |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222014730/http://myinternetarchive-recovery.blogspot.ca/2011/04/polish-neighbors-and-german-invaders.html |archivedate=February 22, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Wrobel">{{cite book |title=Polish-Jewish Relations |first=Piotr |last=Wróbel |author-link=Piotr Wróbel |publisher=] |year=2006 |pages=391–396 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=--fhfkLjI8AC&pg=PA392&dq=%22It+is+unfortunate%22+%22that+Jan+Gross+neglected+the+German+part+of+his+research%22 |work=]: Lessons and Legacies: The Holocaust in international perspective |isbn=0-8101-2370-3}}</ref> as well as German Nazi pressure, but also widespread resentment over the Jewish warm welcome given to the Red Army in 1939.{{r|HDoP}}<ref name="B-C-S">{{cite book |title=Shared History, Divided Memory: Jews and Others in Soviet-occupied Poland, 1939–1941 |first1=Elazar |last1=Barkan |first2=Elizabeth A. |last2=Cole |first3=Kai |last3=Struve |ISBN=3865832407 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_BbvQbiaqAEC&q=warmly+welcomed+aggression |pages=136, 151 |year=2007 |publisher=Leipziger Universitätsverlag |quote=In dozens of towns and settlements, attacks were carried out by "militias", "self-defence groups" and ''opaskowcy'' (called such for the red armbands they wore), which were made up primarily of Jews and Belarussians.<sup></sup>}}</ref>{{r|TSts}}{{r|pacwashmetrodiv}} | |||
| According to politician ], some members of the ] (NSZ), participated in executions of Jews who belonged to the pro-Soviet underground.{{r|Piotrowski1998_95}} Historians Richard Lukas and Tadeusz Piotrowski wrote that NSZ units rendered assistance to the Jews and included them in their ranks along with ].{{r|Piotrowski1998_96}} The NSZ ] rescued 280 Jewish women among some 1,000 persons from the concentration camp in ]. A Jewish partisan from NSZ, Feliks Parry, suggested that most of them "didn't have the slightest notion of the ideological underpinnings of their organization" and didn't care, focused only on resisting the Nazis.{{r|Piotrowski1998_977142}} In postwar Poland, the ] routinely tortured the NSZ insurgents in order to force them to confess to killing Jews among other alleged crimes. This was most notably the case with the 1946 trial of 23 officers of the NSZ in Lublin. The torture of ]s by the ] did not stop when the interrogations were concluded. Physical torture was also ordered if they retracted in court their forced confessions of "killing Jews".{{r|polak}} | |||
| ==Ethnic Poles as victims of the Holocaust== | |||
| The Nazis' ] for eastern Europe included the ] of Poland, which would have resulted by their estimates in the death of some 85% of the Poles.<ref name="WFF">{{cite web |title=Generalplan Ost (General Plan East). The Nazi evolution in German foreign policy. Documentary sources |author=Various authors |publisher=World Future Fund |work=Versions of the GPO |year=2003 |location=Alexandria, VA |url=http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/GPO/gpo%20sources.htm#Versions%20of%20the%20GPO |id=Resources: Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz Leszczynski, ''Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe. Ibid.'' |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070102104440/http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/GPO/gpo%20sources.htm#Versions%20of%20the%20GPO |archivedate=January 2, 2007 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> By war's end these plans were mostly unfulfilled. | |||
| According to ] and ], whether to include the Poles and other Slavic groups depends on the question of whether the Holocaust should be defined based on the Nazis' motives, or the degree to which they managed to realize their racial agenda. Those who take the first position argue that the Nazi atrocities in Poland, the Ukraine, Byelorussia and the USSR were "a direct result of Nazi contempt for the 'subhuman'"{{r|ColumbiaGuide|pp=49}}; those who take the second position note that these deaths "were far more selective than was the case with Jews, Gypsies, and the handicapped", and that it is difficult to distinguish between "racially motivated killings of Poles and Soviet citizens, those that resulted directly or indirectly from German military actions."{{r|ColumbiaGuide|pp=49}} Niewyk and Niocosia take the second approach.{{r|ColumbiaGuide|pp=52}} | |||
| ==National minorities' role in the Holocaust== | |||
| {{Jewish Polish history}} | |||
| {{Main|Volksdeutsche|Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle|Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz|Sonderdienst}} | |||
| The Republic of Poland was a multicultural country before the Second World War broke out, with almost a third of its population originating from the minority groups: 13.9 percent Ukrainians; 10 percent Jews; 3.1 percent Belarusians; 2.3 percent Germans and 3.4 percent Czechs, Lithuanians and Russians.{{r|ePWN}} Soon after the 1918 reconstitution of an independent Polish state, about 500,000 refugees from the Soviet republics came to Poland in the first spontaneous flight from persecution especially in Ukraine (see, ]) where up to 2,000 pogroms took place during the Civil War.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sharman Kadish |title=Bolsheviks and British Jews: The Anglo-Jewish Community, Britain, and the Russian Revolution |publisher=Routledge |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhkA1VpX5KQC&q=Civil+War+pogroms |isbn=0-7146-3371-2}}</ref> In the second wave of immigration, between November 1919 and June 1924 some 1,200,000 people left the territory of the USSR for new Poland. It is estimated that some 460,000 refugees spoke Polish as the first language.<ref name="ePWN">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyklopedia PWN |title=Rosja. Polonia i Polacy |first=Stanisław |last=Gregorowicz |url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rosja-Polonia-i-Polacy;4575227.html |publisher=] |series=Online |year=2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406045946/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/Rosja-Polonia-i-Polacy;4575227.html |archivedate=April 6, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name=JM>{{cite book |first=Joseph |last=Marcus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=82ncGA4GuN4C&q=national+minorities |title=Social and political history of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939 |pages=17–19 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1983 |isbn=90-279-3239-5 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022215605/https://books.google.com/books?id=82ncGA4GuN4C |archivedate=October 22, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Between 1933 and 1938, around 25,000 ] fled ] to sanctuary in Poland.<ref name="Gilbert-1">{{cite book |title=The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust |first=Martin |last=Gilbert |author-link=Martin Gilbert |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2002 |at=p. 23, Map 15: Jewish Refugees Find Haven in Europe, 1933–1938 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnE6TXjt4hkC&q=HAVENS+1933-1938 |isbn=0-415-28146-6 |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| About one million Polish citizens were members of the German minority.<ref>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Poland 1945-1996 |first=Piotr |last=Wróbel |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |page=108 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xcm2AgAAQBAJ&q=Before+1939+colonization |ISBN=1135926948 |author-link=Piotr Wróbel}}</ref> Following the invasion of 1939, additional 1,180,000 German speakers came to occupied Poland either ] or from the east with ] (the '']'').<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-rrAAAAMAAJ&q=1,180,+000+persons |title=Demographic developments in Eastern Europe |publisher=Praeger |year=1977 |p=314 |first=Leszek A. |last=Kosiński}}</ref> Many hundreds of ethnically German men in Poland joined the Nazi '']'' as well as '']'' formations launched in May 1940 by '']'' ] stationed in occupied ].<ref name="Roszkowski">{{cite web |first=Wojciech |last=Roszkowski |url=http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html |title=History: The Zero Hour |trans-title=Historia: Godzina zero |publisher=Tygodnik.Onet.pl weekly |date=4 November 2008 |accessdate=18 May 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512015340/http://tygodnik.onet.pl/1,16768,druk.html |archivedate=May 12, 2012}}</ref><ref name="Yad Vashem">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcDXaeukt4sC&q=1942+%22Minsk+Mazowiecki%22 |title=Yad Vashem Studies |publisher=Wallstein Verlag |year=2001 |author=The Erwin and Riva Baker Memorial Collection |pages=57– |ISSN=0084-3296}}</ref> Likewise, among some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists who fled to '']'', thousands joined the ''pokhidny hrupy'' ] as saboteurs, interpreters, and civilian militiamen, trained at the German bases across '']''.<ref name="Getter">{{cite journal |publisher=Kantor Program Papers |others=Roni Stauber, Beryl Belsky |date=June 2012 |title=Honoring the Collaborators – The Ukrainian Case |first=Irena |last=Cantorovich |url=http://kantorcenter.tau.ac.il/sites/default/files/ukraine-collaborators_3.pdf |quote=When the Soviets occupied eastern Galicia, some 30,000 Ukrainian nationalists fled to the General Government. In 1940 the Germans began to set up military training units of Ukrainians, and in the spring of 1941 Ukrainian units were established by the Wehrmacht. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510065038/http://kantorcenter.tau.ac.il/sites/default/files/ukraine-collaborators_3.pdf |archivedate=May 10, 2017 |df=mdy-all}} ''See also:'' {{cite web |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/150069634/Marek-Getter-1996-Policja-Polska-w-Generalnym-Gubernatorstwie-1939-1945-Przegl%C4%85d-Policyjny-nr-1-2-Wydawnictwo-Wy%C5%BCszej-Szko%C5%82y-Policji-w-Szczytni |title=Policja w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939–1945 |publisher=Przegląd Policyjny nr 1-2. Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły Policji w Szczytnie |year=1996 |author=Marek Getter |pages=1–22 |id=WebCite cache |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Hen2CZJW?url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/150069634/Marek-Getter-1996-Policja-Polska-w-Generalnym-Gubernatorstwie-1939-1945-Przegl%C4%85d-Policyjny-nr-1-2-Wydawnictwo-Wy%C5%BCszej-Szko%C5%82y-Policji-w-Szczytni |archivedate=June 26, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis |first=Richard |last=Breitman |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |ISBN=0521617944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GnkBYN8ipYcC&q=recruit+Ukrainians+1940 |page=249}}</ref> | |||
| The existence of ''Sonderdienst'' formations constituted a grave danger to the Catholic Poles who attempted to help ghettoised Jews in the cities which had a sizable German and pro-German minorities, as in the case of the ] or ] and the ]s among numerous others. Anti-Semitic attitudes were particularly visible in the eastern provinces which had been occupied by the Russians following the ] of ]. Local people had witnessed the repressions against their own compatriots, and mass deportations ],{{r|Szarota2009}}{{r|HDoP}} conducted by the ] with some of the local Jews forming militias, taking over key administrative positions,<ref>{{harvp|Lukas|2001|loc=}}</ref> and collaborating with the NKVD. Others assumed that, driven by vengeance, ] had been prominent in betraying the ethnically Polish and other non-Jewish victims.{{r|pacwashmetrodiv}}{{r|archive}} | |||
| ===German-inspired massacres=== | |||
| {{further|Ponary massacre|Lviv pogroms|Stanislawow Ghetto massacre}} | |||
| Many German-inspired massacres were carried out across occupied eastern Poland with the active participation of indigenous people. The guidelines for such massacres were formulated by ],{{r|B-M}} who ordered his officers to induce anti-Jewish pogroms on territories newly occupied by the German forces.{{r|Steinl30}}{{r|P-M}} In the lead-up to the establishment of the ] in the fifth largest city of prewar Poland and a ] (now ], Lithuania),<ref name="JTG">{{cite book |title=Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia |publisher=Princeton University Press |author=Gross, Jan Tomasz |year=2002 |page=3 |isbn=978-0-691-09603-2}}</ref> ] and the ] killed more than 21,000 Jews during the ] in late 1941.<ref name="Snyder">{{cite book |author-link=Timothy Snyder |first=Timothy |last=Snyder |title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-10586-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&q=%28Ypatingas+Burys%29 |via=Google Books, preview |pages=84–89}}</ref> At that time, Wilno had only a small ] minority of about 6 percent of the city's population.<ref name="muller">{{cite book |title=Memory and Power in Post-War Europe: Studies in the Presence of the Past |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author=Müller, Jan-Werner |year=2002 |page=47 |isbn=978-0-521-00070-3}}</ref> In the infamous series of ] committed by the Ukrainian militants in the eastern ] (now Lviv, Ukraine), some 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered in the streets between June 30 and July 29, 1941, on top of 3,000 arrests and mass shootings by ''Einsatzgruppe C''.<ref name="Longerich194">{{cite book |last=Longerich |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Longerich |title=Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford; New York |isbn=978-0-19-280436-5 |pages=194- |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYqYIn73SgC&lpg=PA194&vq=Petljura%20Days&pg=PA194 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170201235512/https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYqYIn73SgC |archivedate=February 1, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Lwów |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005171 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307103305/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005171 |archivedate=March 7, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The ] formed by ] with the blessings of the ] spread terror across dozens of locations throughout south-eastern Poland.<ref name="Grelka2005">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H6cdeIGI8uwC&lpg=PA284&vq=%22ukrainische%20Miliz%22&pg=PA283 |title=Ukrainischen Miliz |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |work=Die ukrainische Nationalbewegung unter deutscher Besatzungsherrschaft 1918 und 1941/42 |year=2005 |author=Dr. Frank Grelka |pages=283–284 |quote=RSHA von einer begrüßenswerten Aktivitat der ukrainischen Bevolkerung in den ersten Stunden nach dem Abzug der Sowjettruppen. |isbn=3-447-05259-7 |location=]}} ''For the German administrative divisions of Polish kresy with prominent Jewish communities destroyed under Nazi occupation, see:'' {{citation |title=The Death of the Shtetl |first=Yehuda |last=Bauer |author-link=Yehuda Bauer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACMyoc07PaQC&q=kresy+Brest+Lutsk+Rowne |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2009 |ISBN=0300152094 |pages=1–6, 65}}</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Long before the ] was set up, and only two days after the arrival of the Wehrmacht, up to 2,000 Jews were killed in the ] (now ], Ukraine),<ref>{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Kuwałek |first2=Eugeniusz |last2=Riadczenko |first3=Adam |last3=Marczewski |year=2015 |title=Tarnopol |others=Translated by Katarzyna Czoków and Magdalena Wójcik |website=] |pp=3–4 |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/tarnopol/5,history/?action=view |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131193503/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/tarnopol/5,history/?action=view |archivedate=January 31, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> one-third of them by ].{{r|YV-Tarnopol}} Some of the victims were decapitated.<ref name="haaretz2009"> Haaretz.com 18 May 2009 via Internet Archive. A horrific page of history unfolded last Monday in Ukraine. It concerned the gruesome and untold story of a spontaneous pogrom by local villagers against hundreds of Jews in a town south of Ternopil in 1941. Not one, but five independent witnesses recounted the tale.</ref> The SS shot the remaining two-thirds, in the same week.<ref name="YV-Tarnopol">{{cite web |title=Tarnopol Historical Background |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/stories/historical_background/tarnopol.asp |publisher=Yad Vashem |id=Archived 9 March 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20140309114003/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/stories/historical_background/tarnopol.asp |archivedate=March 9, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> In ] – another provincial capital in the Kresy ] (now ], Ukraine) – the ] of Polish Jews prior to '']'' was perpetrated on 12 October 1941, hand in glove by ], ] and the ] (brought in from ]); tables with sandwiches and bottles of vodka had been set up about the cemetery for shooters who needed to rest from the deafening noise of gunfire; 12,000 Jews were murdered before nightfall.<ref name="yadvashem-Pohl">{{cite book |first=Dieter |last=Pohl |title=Hans Krueger and the Murder of the Jews in the Stanislawow Region |publisher=Yad Vashem Resource Center |url=http://yad-vashem.org.il/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202292.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812141624/http://yad-vashem.org.il/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202292.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2014 |via=direct download, PDF 95 KB |pages=12/13, 17/18, 21 |quote=It is clear that a massacre of such proportions under German civil administration was virtually unprecedented.}}<br>{{cite web |author=Andrea Löw |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Stanislawów (now Ivano-Frankivsk) |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007236 |accessdate=1 May 2016 |id=From '']'' |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202061403/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007236 |archivedate=February 2, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| A total of 31 deadly pogroms were carried out throughout the region in conjunction with the ], ] and Ukrainian ].<ref>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|loc=}}. ''Also in:'' {{cite web |title=German-Belarusian Alliance |trans-title=Idea sojuszu niemiecko-białoruskiego |work=Okupacja niemiecka na Białorusi |publisher=Związek Białoruski w RP; Katedra Kultury Białoruskiej ] |via=Internet Archive |year=2007 |author=Eugeniusz Mironowicz |url=http://autary.iig.pl/mironowicz_e/knihi07-26.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927221149/http://autary.iig.pl/mironowicz_e/knihi07-26.htm |archivedate=September 27, 2007 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The genocidal techniques learned from the Germans, such as the advanced ], site selection, and sudden encirclement, became the hallmark of the ] ] beginning in March 1943, parallel with the liquidation of the ghettos in ''Reichskommissariat Ostland'' ordered by Himmler.<ref>{{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |year=2003 |title=The Reconstruction of Nations. Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 |publisher=Yale University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&q=UPA+1943+Jews |ISBN=0-300-10586-X |pages=162–170 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603161012/https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC |archivedate=June 3, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust |first1=Shmuel |last1=Spector |first2=Geoffrey |last2=Wigoder |publisher=''NYU Press'' |year=2001 |ISBN=0814793789 |page=1627 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tumlOiOZvSUC&q=Himmler+Ostland+ghettoes+July |volume=Volume III |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231083024/http://books.google.com/books?id=tumlOiOZvSUC |archivedate=December 31, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Thousands of Jews who escaped deportations and hid in the forests were murdered by the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Stepan Bandera: The Life and Afterlife of a Ukrainian Nationalist : Fascism, Genocide, and Cult |first=Grzegorz |last=Rossolinski |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OXJCQAAQBAJ&q=thousand+Jews+forests |year=2014 |ISBN=3838206843 |page=290}}</ref> | |||
| == Rate of survival == | |||
| The question regarding the Jews' real chances of survival once the Holocaust began continues to draw the attention of historians.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} For one, the Germans made it extremely difficult to escape the ghettos just before deportations to death camps deceptively disguised as "resettlement in the East". All passes were cancelled, walls rebuilt containing fewer gates, with policemen replaced by SS-men. Some victims already deported to Treblinka were forced to write ]s back home, stating that they were safe. Around 3,000 others fell into the German ] trap. Many ghettoized Jews did not believe what was going on until the very end, because the actual outcome seemed unthinkable at the time.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} ] suggested also that the weak Jewish leadership might have played a role.{{r|resistance}} Likewise, ] proposed that the Polish Underground might have attacked the camps and blown up the railway tracks leading to them, but as noted by Paulsson, such ideas are a product of hindsight.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} | |||
| ] during the Jewish revolt which erupted in the course of the final Ghetto extermination action. Before the joint German-] in 1939 Słonim was a county seat in the ]. The invading Soviets annexed the city to the ] in an atmosphere of terror.{{r|Wegner-74}}]] | |||
| The exact number of Holocaust survivors is unknown. Possibly as many as 300,000 Polish Jews escaped to the Soviet-occupied zone soon after the war started. Some estimates go even higher than that.{{r|Pinchuk}} Notably, a very high percentage of the Jews fleeing east were men and women without families.<ref name="Pinchuk">{{cite book |title=The Nazi Holocaust. Part 8: Bystanders to the Holocaust, Volume 3 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |pages=1036–1038 |year=1989 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEKCZTMlNoIC&q=fleeing+East+without+families |first=Ben Cion |last=Pinchuk |chapter=Jewish refugees in Soviet Poland |editor-first=Michael Robert |editor-last=Marrus |ISBN=3110968681 |quote=The range of differences in estimates might give us an idea of the problem's complexity. Thus, Avraham Pechenik estimated the number of refugees at 1,000,000.<sup></sup>}}</ref> Thousands of them perished at the hands of ], ] and ] during ], the ] (see ]), and ].{{r|Snyder2004}}{{r|Turowski}} The majority of Polish Jews in the ''Generalgouvernement'' stayed put.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} Prior to the mass deportations, there was no proven necessity to leave familiar places. When the ghettos were closed from the outside, smuggling of food kept most of the inhabitants alive. Escape into clandestine existence on the "Aryan" side was attempted by some 100,000 Jews, and, contrary to popular misconceptions, the risk of them being turned in by the Poles was very small.{{r|GSPau-JHE}} | |||
| It is estimated that about 350,000 Polish Jews survived the Holocaust.{{r|Joc/Lew2010}} Some 230,000 of them survived in the USSR and the Soviet-controlled territories of Poland, including men and women who escaped from areas occupied by Germany.{{r|Joc/Lew2010}}{{r|Tr-Maz}} Right after World War II, over 150,000 Polish Jews (]) or 180,000 (]) were repatriated or expelled back to new Poland along with the younger men conscripted to the Red Army from Kresy in 1940–1941. Their families died in the Holocaust.{{r|Berendt}} ] estimated that 30,000 Polish Jews survived in the labor camps;{{r|GSPau-JHE}} but according to ] as many as 70,000–80,000 of them were liberated from camps in Germany and Austria alone, except that declaring their own nationality was of no use to those who did not intend to return.{{r|Engel2005}} ] estimated that as many as 110,000 Polish Jews were in the Displaced Person camps.{{r|Nazism2000}} According to Longerich, up to 50,000 Jews survived in the forests (not counting Galicia){{r|Long748}} and also among the soldiers who reentered Poland with the pro-Soviet Polish ] formed by Stalin. The number of Jews who successfully hid on the "Aryan" side of the ghettos could be as high as 100,000 wrote ],<ref name="Long748">{{cite book |title=Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews |first=Peter |last=Longerich |author-link=Peter Longerich |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2010 |page=748 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ry-qW0lw2ZAC&lpg=PT748&vq=thousands%20100%2C000%20Paulsson%20conclussion&pg=PT748 |ISBN=0191613479 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521074211/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ry-qW0lw2ZAC |archivedate=May 21, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> although many were killed by the German ''Jagdkommandos''.{{r|Long748}} Not all survivors registered with CKŻP after the war ended. Thousands of so-called Convent children hidden by the non-Jewish Poles and the Catholic Church remained in orphanages run by the ] in more than 20 locations,<ref>{{harvp|Phayer|2000|pp=113, 117–120, 250. |ps= In January 1941 Jan Dobraczynski placed roughly 2,500 children in cooperating convents of Warsaw. Getter took many of them into her convent. During the ] the number of Jewish orphans in their care surged upward.<sup></sup>}}</ref> similar as in other Catholic convents.<ref>{{harvp|Bogner|2012|pp=41–44}}.</ref><ref>{{harvp|Paul|2009|pp=16, 63–71, 98, 185. |ps= Despite the fact that at least several hundred ] risked their lives to rescue Jews, only three of them, Mother ] of Warsaw, Sister Helena Chmielewska of Podhajce, and Sister Celina Kędzierska of Sambor ''(see: ])'' have been decorated by Yad Vashem.<sup></sup>}}.</ref> Given the severity of the German measures designed to prevent this occurrence, the survival rate among the Jewish fugitives was relatively high and by far, the individuals who circumvented deportation were the most successful.{{r|GSPau-JHE}}<ref name="snyder-nyrb">{{cite web |title=Hitler's Logical Holocaust |author-link=Timothy Snyder |first=Timothy |last=Snyder |date=December 20, 2012 |publisher=] |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/dec/20/hitlers-logical-holocaust/ |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121204172810/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2012/dec/20/hitlers-logical-holocaust/ |archivedate=December 4, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| ==Border changes and repatriations== | |||
| {{main|Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II|Aliyah}} | |||
| The Western powers remained unaware of the top secret ] in 1939, which paved the way for World War II.<ref name="usds">{{cite journal |title=The Tehran Conference, 1943 |work=1937–1945 Milestones |author=U.S. Department of State |publisher=Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf |year=2015 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026032152/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/tehran-conf |archivedate=October 26, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Property restitution/compensation in Poland |url=http://shoahlegacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Property-restitution-in-Poland-for-Green-Paper_05112013.pdf |journal=European Shoah Legacy Institute |author=ESLI |date=July 2014 |via=Internet Archive |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906004023/http://shoahlegacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Property-restitution-in-Poland-for-Green-Paper_05112013.pdf |archivedate=September 6, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The ] in May 1945 was followed by a massive change in the political geography of Europe.{{r|Lukas1989}}{{r|Nazism2000}} Poland's ] by the Allies according to the demands made by Josef Stalin during the ], confirmed as not negotiable at the ] of 1945.{{r|BP285}} The ] was excluded from the negotiations.{{r|Fertacz}} The territory of Poland was reduced by approximately 20 percent.{{r|Slay2014}} Before the end of 1946 some 1.8 million Polish citizens were ] within the new borders.<ref name="BP285">{{cite book |title=Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-Creation of World War II |first1=Simon |last1=Berthon |first2=Joanna |last2=Potts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q45EBArmpRYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA285#v=onepage&q=Livadia+Palace,+Poland&f=false |page=285 |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=2007 |ISBN=0306816504}}</ref><ref name="Fertacz">{{cite journal |first=Sylwester |last=Fertacz |year=2005 |url=http://www.alfa.com.pl/slask/200506/s19.html |trans-title=Krojenie mapy Polski: Bolesna granica |title=Carving of Poland's map |journal=Magazyn Społeczno-Kulturalny ''Śląsk'' |via=], June 5, 2016. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425133017/http://www.alfa.com.pl/slask/200506/s19.html |archivedate=April 25, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> For the first time in its history Poland became a homogeneous one ] by force, with the national wealth reduced by 38 percent. Poland's financial system had been destroyed. Intelligentsia was largely obliterated along with the Jews, and the population reduced by about 33 percent.{{r|Slay2014}} | |||
| ] members on the anniversary of the ] at the ]]] | |||
| Due to the territorial shift imposed from the outside, the number of Holocaust survivors from Poland remains the subject of deliberation.{{r|Nazism2000}} According to official statistics, the number of Jews in the country changed dramatically in a very short time.{{r|DHak70}} In January 1946, the ] (CKŻP) registered the first wave of some 86,000 survivors from the vicinity. By the end of that summer, the number had risen to about 205,000–210,000 (with 240,000 registrations and over 30,000 duplicates).{{r|DeHakoh2003}} The survivors included 180,000 Jews who arrived from the ] territories as a result ]. Another 30,000 Jews returned to Poland from the USSR after the ] a decade later.{{r|Engel2005}}{{r|DeHakoh2003}} | |||
| ===''Aliyah Bet'' from Europe=== | |||
| In July 1946, right after the ] held in Poland with the intention of solidifying the communist takeover of power, forty Jews and two ethnic Poles were killed in the ].{{r|ipn2008}} Eleven of the victims died from bayonet wounds and eleven more were fatally shot with military assault rifles (official IPN findings), indicating direct involvement of the regular troops.<ref name=ipn2008>{{cite journal |author1-first=Andrzej |author1-last=Jankowski |author2-first=Leszek |author2-last=Bukowski |date=4 July 2008 |title=The Kielce pogrom as told by the eyewitness |trans-title=Pogrom kielecki – oczami świadka |journal=Niezalezna Gazeta Polska |location=Warsaw |publisher=] |pp=1–8 |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073423/http://pamiec.pl/download/49/27596/IPN2920080704.pdf |archivedate=August 26, 2016 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in'' {{cite book |year=2008 |title=Around the Kielce pogrom |trans-title=Wokół pogromu kieleckiego |others=with Foreword by Jan Żaryn |volume=2 |publisher=IPN |isbn=83-60464-87-1 |pp=166–71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?redir_esc=y&id=xgI_AQAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=zabitych+4+lipca+1946}}</ref> The pogrom prompted General ] of ] from wartime Warsaw,<ref name="TWł2010">{{cite journal |first=Tamara |last=Włodarczyk |title=Osiedle żydowskie na Dolnym Śląsku w latach 1945–1950 (na przykładzie Kłodzka) |work=Bricha (2.10) |quote=''The decision originated from the military circles (and not the party leadership). The ] organization under Cwi Necer was requested to keep the involvement of MSZ and MON a secret.''<sup>(24 in PDF)</sup> ''The migration reached its zenith in 1946, resulting in 150,000 Jews leaving Poland.''<sup>(21 in PDF)</sup> |id=pp. 36, 44–45 (23–24 in PDF) |url=http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/37156/004.pdf |publisher=Uniwersytet Wrocławski |year=2010 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413055637/http://www.bibliotekacyfrowa.pl/Content/37156/004.pdf |archivedate=April 13, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> to sign a legislative decree allowing the remaining survivors to leave Poland without Western visas or Polish exit permits.{{r|Kochavi-175}}{{r|DeHakoh2003}} Poland was the only ] country to allow free Jewish '']'' to ], with Stalin's vexed approval seeking to undermine British influence in the Middle East.{{r|Engel2005}}<ref name="DHak70">{{harvp|Hakohen|2003|p=70|loc=}}</ref> Most refugees crossing the new borders left Poland without a valid passport.{{r|DeHakoh2003}} By contrast, the Soviet Union brought Soviet Jews from ]s back to USSR by force, along with all other Soviet citizens irrespective of their wishes, as agreed to by the ].<ref name=Kochavi-15>{{cite book |first=Arieh J. |last=Kochavi |title=Post-Holocaust politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish refugees, 1945–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdWSwGaSoJAC&pg=PA15&dq=%22Soviet+citizens+had+been+returned+irrespective%22 |page=15 |publisher=The ] Press |ISBN=0-8078-2620-0 |date=2011}}</ref> | |||
| Uninterrupted traffic across the Polish borders increased dramatically.{{r|Marrus}}{{r|Engel2005}}<ref name="Ther-Siljak">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oGmTs2SceAgC&pg=PA137&dq=%22agreements+on+the%22+%22mutual+evacuation+of+citizens%22 |title=Redrawing nations: ethnic cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2001 |first2=Philipp |last2=Ther |first1=Ana |last1=Siljak |author-link1=Ana Siljak |page=138 |isbn=0-7425-1094-8}}</ref> By the spring of 1947 only 90,000 Jews remained in Poland.<ref name="MS109">{{cite book |first=Michael C. |last=Steinlauf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6KVOsjpP0MC&pg=PA109&dq=%22began+to+emerge+from+concentration+camps+and+places+of+refuge%22 |author-link=Michael C. Steinlauf |title=Poland |id=In: David S. Wyman, Charles H. Rosenzveig. ''The World Reacts to the Holocaust''. The Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1996}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Lukas|1989}}; ''also in'' {{harvp|Lukas|2001|p=13}}.</ref><ref name="Stankowski">Albert Stankowski, with August Grabski and Grzegorz Berendt; ''Studia z historii Żydów w Polsce po 1945 roku'', Warszawa, ] 2000, pp. 107–111. {{ISBN|83-85888-36-5}}</ref> Britain demanded that Poland (among others) halt the Jewish exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful.{{r|Kochavi-xi}} The massacre in Kielce was condemned by a public announcement sent by the diocese in Kielce to all churches. The letter denounced the pogrom and "stressed – wrote ] – that the most important Catholic values were the love of fellow human beings and respect for human life. It also alluded to the demoralizing effect of anti-Jewish violence, since the crime was committed in the presence of youth and children." Priests read it without comments during ], hinting that "the pogrom might have in fact been a political provocation."{{r|Consonni05}} | |||
| Approximately 7,000 Jewish men and women of military age left Poland for ] between 1947 and 1948 as members of ] organization, trained in Poland. The boot camp was set up in ], ], with Polish-Jewish instructors. It was financed by ] in agreement with the Polish administration. The program which trained mostly men 22–25 years of age for service in the ] lasted until early 1949.<ref>{{cite book |title=Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 |first=Anne |last=Applebaum |author-link=Anne Applebaum |publisher=Knopf Doubleday |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoSGzXQln_oC&lpg=PR48&vq=Bolk%C3%B3w&pg=PR48 |page=48 |ISBN=0385536437}}</ref> Joining the training was a convenient way to leave the country, since the course graduates were not controlled at the border, and could carry undeclared valuables and even restricted firearms.{{r|TWł2010}} | |||
| == Holocaust memorials and commemoration == | |||
| ], Warsaw, April 2013]] | |||
| There are a large number of memorials in Poland dedicated to Holocaust remembrance. The ] in Warsaw was unveiled in April 1948. Major museums include the ] on the outskirts of ] with 1.4 million visitors per year, and the ] in Warsaw on the site of the former Ghetto, presenting the thousand-year history of the Jews in Poland.<ref name=AP1>{{cite news |author=The Associated Press |date=June 26, 2007 |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/26/AR2007062601145.html |title=Poland's new Jewish museum to mark community's thousand-year history |others=Ryan Lucas, Warsaw |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214061606/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/26/AR2007062601145.html |archivedate=December 14, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name=Core>] (2014), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210010803/http://www.polin.pl/en/exhibitions/core-exhibition-grand-opening-october-28-2014 |date=December 10, 2014 }}</ref> Since 1988, an annual international event called ] takes place in April at the former ] camp complex on Holocaust Remembrance Day, with total attendance exceeding 150,000 young people from all over the world.<ref name="motl.org">{{cite web |url=http://motl.org/ |title=History of the Holocaust. Remembering the Past, Ensuring the Future |publisher=International March of the Living 2012–2013 |work=Open registration |accessdate=January 5, 2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115111824/http://motl.org/ |archivedate=January 15, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| There are State museums on the grounds of each of the Operation Reinhard death camps, including the ] in Lublin, declared a national monument as early as 1946, with intact gas chambers and crematoria from World War II. Branches of the Majdanek Museum include the Bełżec, and the ]s where advanced geophysical studies are being conducted by Israeli and Polish archaeologists.<ref name="Haaretz">{{cite web |title=Archaeologists find escape tunnel at Sobibor death camp |publisher=Haaretz Daily Newspaper |date=Jun 7, 2013 |author=Nir Hasson |url=http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/archeologists-find-escape-tunnel-at-sobibor-death-camp.premium-1.528438 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714223157/http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/jewish-world-news/archeologists-find-escape-tunnel-at-sobibor-death-camp.premium-1.528438 |archivedate=July 14, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The new ] Museum opened in 2006. It was later expanded and made into a branch of the ] Regional Museum located in a historic ] (see also the ]).<ref name="memorialmuseums.org">{{cite web |title=Treblinka Museum of Struggle and Martyrdom |author=Memorial Museums.org |url=http://www.memorialmuseums.org/eng/staettens/view/59/Treblinka-Museum-of-Struggle-and-Martyrdom |publisher=Portal to European Sites of Remembrance |year=2013 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306161036/http://memorialmuseums.org/eng/staettens/view/59/treblinka-museum-of-struggle-and-martyrdom |archivedate=March 6, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="MWiMT">{{cite web |title=The Memorial |url=http://www.treblinka.bho.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203&Itemid=129 |publisher=''Muzeum Walki i Męczeństwa w Treblince. Oddział Muzeum Regionalnego w Siedlcach'' |date=4 February 2010 |author=Kopówka, Edward |work=''Treblinka. Nigdy wiecej'', Siedlce 2002, pp. 5–54. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019060357/http://www.treblinka.bho.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203&Itemid=129 |archivedate=October 19, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> There is also a ] in ]. | |||
| The ] is a Holocaust memorial in ]. | |||
| The ] covers the Holocaust in Kraków. <ref></ref> | |||
| There is a Holocaust memorial at the former ] in Warsaw. | |||
| {{-}} | |||
| ==Footnotes== | |||
| {{reflist|colwidth=25em|refs= | |||
| <ref name="iarchive">{{cite book |title=The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland |publisher=], official report addressed to the ] of the then-] |author=] |at=pp. 1–16 (1–9 in current document) |year=1942 |location=London, New York, Melbourne: Hutchinson & Co. Publishers |url=https://archive.org/details/TheMassExterminationOfJewsInGermanOccupiedPoland |format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="IPN2009">{{cite book |first1=Wojciech |last1=Materski |first2=Tomasz |last2=Szarota |author2-link=Tomasz Szarota |author3=IPN |title=Poland 1939–1945. Human Losses and Victims of Repression Under Two Occupations |trans-title=Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami |publisher=] (IPN) |location=Warsaw |year=2009 |ISBN=978-83-7629-067-6 |work=Foreword by ] |via=Digital copy, Internet Archive |url=http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |quote=The 2009 study published by the IPN revised the estimated Poland's war dead at about 5.8 million Poles and Jews, including 150,000 during the Soviet occupation,<sup></sup> not including losses of Polish citizens from the Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnic groups. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323161233/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |archivedate=March 23, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM1>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia -Trawniki |publisher=] |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007397 |accessdate=21 July 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20150829190602/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007397 |archivedate=August 29, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="DGW127">{{cite book |title=Poland Betrayed: The Nazi-Soviet Invasions of 1939 |author=David G. Williamson |publisher=Stackpole Books, 2011 |page=127 |quote=The Russians initially stressed that they were the protectors of the Poles and were Poland's `friendly Slavonic neighbour´! |ISBN=0811708284 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=Russians+initially+stressed |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=Russians+initially+stressed |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="B&G30">{{cite book |title=The Waffen-SS: A European History |authors=Jochen Böhler, Robert Gerwarth |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |ISBN=0198790554 |quote=] assigned detachments of ] to guard and operate the killing centres in support of deportation and shooting operations in the General Government. |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg2DDQAAQBAJ&q=Streibel+assigned+detachments}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Buwalda">{{cite book |first=Piet |last=Buwalda |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ja29zrIK_4cC&printsec=onepage&q=estimated+1.88 |title=They Did Not Dwell Alone: Jewish Emigration from the Soviet Union, 1967–1990 |publisher=Woodrow Wilson Center Press |isbn=0-8018-5616-7 |page=16 |via=Google Books}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="EC55">{{cite book |title=Gestapo |author=Edward Crankshaw |publisher=A&C Black |year=2011 |quote=As part of Amt IV of the R.S.H.A., the SS, SD, Kripo, and Orpo were responsible for `the rounding up, transportation, shooting, and gassing to death of at least three million Jews.´ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNzq9wHv4jUC&q=SS+SD+Kripo+Orpo+Amt+IV |pages=55–56 |ISBN=1448205492}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="DC278">{{cite book |title=History vs. Apologetics: The Holocaust |first=David |last=Cymet |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2012 |ISBN=0739132954 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fUJ9pK8aeYC&q=Body-Disposal+Ostrow |page=278 |quote=In the town of ], thirteen miles away from Treblinka, the stench was unbearable.}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Henry23">{{cite book |title=Jewish Resistance Against the Nazis |author=Patrick Henry |publisher=CUA Press |year=2014 |ISBN=0813225892 |chapter=The Myth of Jewish Passivity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYf5AwAAQBAJ&q=passivity+myth+assumptions |pages=22–23 |id=Prevalent misconception in most discussions about the Jewish resistance during World War II.}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Tot-Fein/Gersh">{{cite book |title=Teaching and Studying the Holocaust |first1=Samuel |last1=Totten |first2=Stephen |last2=Feinberg |publisher=IAP |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vcnDwAAQBAJ&q=dehumanizing+conditions+dignity |ISBN=1607523019 |pages=52, 104, 150, 282 |id=Human dignity and spiritual resistance.}} ''Also in:'' {{cite book |title=The Phantom Holocaust |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2013 |ISBN=0813561825 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vcnDwAAQBAJ&q=dignity |page=104 |first=Olga |last=Gershenson}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="bay/kola">{{cite book |url=http://holocaust-history.org/belzec/deathcamp/index.shtml |title=The Reconstruction of Belzec, featuring 98 photos |publisher=Holocaust History.org |at='''' by Andrzej Kola, translated by Ewa and Mateusz Józefowicz, ''The Council for the Protection of Memory of Combat and Martyrdom, ''and'' the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,'' Warsaw-Washington |year=2015 |orig-year=2000 |author=Alex Bay |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814163815/http://holocaust-history.org/belzec/deathcamp/index.shtml |archivedate=August 14, 2014 |df=mdy-all}} Belzec survivor ], author of postwar memoir about Belzec wrote that the camp's gas chambers were rebuilt of concrete. No traces of concrete were found in archaeological studies. Instead, the brick rubble was found in excavations.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM_Belzec>{{cite web |title=Holocaust Encyclopedia – Belzec |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005191 |accessdate=1 May 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710035028/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005191 |archivedate=July 10, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="AJC">]. (2005-01-30). {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808055711/http://www.ajc.org/site/apps/nl/content2.asp?c=ijITI2PHKoG&b=1531911&ct=873437 |date=August 8, 2007 }} Press release.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="YBau5">{{cite book |last=Bauer |first=Yehuda |title=Rethinking the Holocaust |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |page=5 |isbn=0300093004 |ref=harv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhvShlTeqesC&lpg=PA5&vq=zurotten&pg=PA5}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="B-M">{{harvp|Browning|2004|p=262|ps=.}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="BE-B">Barbara Engelking-Boni; {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717022046/http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php |date=July 17, 2013 }} hosted by {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926162432/http://www.holocaustresearch.pl/ |date=September 26, 2013 }} The Fund for support of Jewish Institutions or Projects, 2006. {{pl icon}} {{en icon}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="BE-B2">Barbara Engelking-Boni, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090504164656/http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php?show=kalendarium&lang=en |date=May 4, 2009 }} ''Timeline. See: 22 July 1942 — the beginning of the great deportation action in the ]; transports leave from ] for ].'' Publisher: Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów IFiS PAN, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717022046/http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php |date=July 17, 2013 }} 2006.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps">{{harvp|Arad|1999|p=102}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Berenbaum104">{{Cite book |last=Berenbaum |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Berenbaum |year=1993 |title=The World Must Know |others=Contributors: Arnold Kramer, ] |publisher=Little Brown / USHMM |isbn=978-0-316-09135-0 |url=https://www.ushmm.org/research/publications/academic-publications/full-list-of-academic-publications/the-world-must-know-the-history-of-the-holocaust-as-told-in-the-united |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822034535/https://www.ushmm.org/research/publications/academic-publications/full-list-of-academic-publications/the-world-must-know-the-history-of-the-holocaust-as-told-in-the-united |archivedate=August 22, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}<br/>—— Second ed. (2006) USHMM / Johns Hopkins Univ Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8018-8358-3}}, p. 140.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Cherry2">{{harvp|Cherry|Orla-Bukowska|2007|p=|loc= ''See:'' ].}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Eber25-29">{{cite journal |first=Piotr |last=Eberhardt |author-link=Piotr Eberhardt |year=2011 |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |title=Political Migrations on Polish Territories (1939–1950) |format=PDF |publisher=], Stanisław Leszczycki Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization |journal=Monographies |volume=12 |pages=25, 27, 29 |via=Internet Archive, direct download |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220409/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/15652/WA51_13607_r2011-nr12_Monografie.pdf |archivedate=May 20, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Fritsch">Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum (2008), {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060930045603/http://www.auschwitz.org.pl/new/index.php?tryb=news_big&language=EN&id=849 |date=September 30, 2006 }} (Internet Archive: The 64th Anniversary of the Opening of the Auschwitz Camp) Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, Poland (''Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau w Oświęcimiu'').</ref> | |||
| <ref name="GSPau-JHE">{{cite journal |title=The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland |author=] |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17504902.1998.11087056?journalCode=rhos19#.VPdPLizkY4k |journal=Journal of Holocaust Education |volume=7 |issue=1&2 |pages=19–44 |publisher=Frank Cass, London |date=Summer–Autumn 1998 |quote=Keeping in mind that these cases are drawn from published memoirs and from cases on file at Yad Vashem and the Jewish Historical Institute, it is probable that the 5,000 or so Poles who have been recognised as 'Righteous Among the Nations' so far represent only the tip of the iceberg, and that the true number of rescuers who meet the Yad Vashem 'gold standard' is 20, 50, perhaps even 100 times higher (p. 23, § 2; available with purchase). |ref=harv |accessdate=2 Sep 2017 |id=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Grab">{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=66|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Gutman232">{{cite book |last1=Pressac |first1=Jean-Claude |last2=Van Pelt |first2=Robert-Jan |author-link1=Jean-Claude Pressac |title=The Machinery of Mass Murder at Auschwitz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mub823JQrdUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=%22Machinery%20of%20Mass%20Murder%22&f=false |year=1994 |publisher=Indiana University Press |work=Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp ''by Gutman, Yisrael & Berenbaum, Michael'' |isbn=0-253-20884-X |page=232}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="HDoP">{{cite book |last1=Lerski |first1=Jerzy Jan |author-link1=Jerzy Jan Lerski |last2=Wróbel |first2=Piotr |last3=Kozicki |first3=Richard J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FPxhOu_n1VYC&pg=PT110 |title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1996 |isbn=0-313-26007-9 |pages=110, 538 |id=For the Soviet deportations' more recent IPN findings, see {{harvp|Materski|Szarota|2009 |loc=Introduction.}}}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="HG">] ''One million Polish rescuers of hunted Jews?'' ], June 1999, Vol. 1 Issue 2, pp. 227–232; AN 6025705.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="JC">], '' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/E201031861B95AA71157914509288E74/S0037677900031478a.pdf/div-class-title-why-the-poles-collaborated-so-little-and-why-that-is-no-reason-for-nationalist-hubris-div.pdf |date=July 5, 2018 }}'' Slavic Review, Vol. 64, No. 4 (Winter, 2005), pp. 771–781. ''In response to article by:'' Klaus-Peter Friedrich, '' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818021859/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/72DC550B5F1E668EF8DADD0E5A46C9D5/S0037677900031454a.pdf/div-class-title-collaboration-in-a-land-without-a-quisling-patterns-of-cooperation-with-the-nazi-german-occupation-regime-in-poland-during-world-war-ii-div.pdf |date=August 18, 2017 }}'' Slavic Review, ''ibidem''.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Jedwabne Tragedy: Final Findings">{{cite web |url=http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/final.html |title=Jedwabne Tragedy: Final Findings |publisher=Info-poland.buffalo.edu |accessdate=2011-10-07 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303201535/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/final.html |archivedate=March 3, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Joc/Lew2010">{{cite book |first1=Laura |last1=Jockusch |first2=Tamar |last2=Lewinsky |title=Paradise Lost? Postwar Memory of Polish Jewish Survival in the Soviet Union |id=Full text downloaded from the ''Holocaust and Genocide Studies'' (with signup) |date=Winter 2010 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1777909/_Paradise_Lost_Postwar_Memory_of_Polish_Jewish_Survival_in_the_Soviet_Union_ |volume=Volume 24, Number 3 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220122806/http://www.academia.edu/1777909/_Paradise_Lost_Postwar_Memory_of_Polish_Jewish_Survival_in_the_Soviet_Union_ |archivedate=December 20, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Kochavi-175">{{cite web |last1=Aleksiun |first1=Natalia |title=Beriḥah |url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/printarticle.aspx?id=219 |publisher=YIVO |quote=Suggested reading: Arieh Josef Kochavi, "Britain and the Jewish Exodus ... ," ''Polin'' 7 (1992): pp. 161–175.}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Kochavi-xi">{{cite book |last=Kochavi |first=Arieh J. |title=Post-Holocaust Politics: Britain, the United States & Jewish Refugees, 1945–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdWSwGaSoJAC&pg=PR11&q=%22Britain%20exerted%20pressure%20on%20the%20governments%20of%20Poland%22 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |year=2001 |pages=xi, 167–169 |isbn=0-8078-2620-0}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Kranz">{{Cite journal |last1=Kranz |first1=Tomasz |title=Ewidencja zgonów i śmiertelność więźniów KL Lublin |trans-title=Records of deaths and mortality of KL Lublin prisoners |publisher=Zeszyty Majdanka |location=Lublin |year=2005 |volume=23 |pages=7–53 |url=http://www.iearn.org.il/poland/Registration%20of%20Deaths.pdf |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118140531/http://www.iearn.org.il/poland/Registration%20of%20Deaths.pdf |archivedate=January 18, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Consonni05>{{cite book |author=Natalia Aleksiun |title=The Polish Catholic Church and the Jewish Question in Poland, 1944–1948 |work=Yad Vashem Studies |volume=Volume 33 |publisher=Yad Vashem Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority |year=2005 |pages=156–157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ILxtAAAAMAAJ&q=political+provocation |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303033330/https://books.google.com/books?id=iLXtAAAAMAAJ |archivedate=March 3, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Lukas1989>{{harvp|Lukas|1989|pp=5, 13, 111, 201|loc=}}. ''Also in:'' {{harvp|Lukas|2001|p=13}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Nazism2000">{{cite book |title=Nazism |editor-first=Neil |editor-last=Gregor |publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2000 |ISBN=0191512036 |pages=329–330 |work=The impact of National Socialism |first=Frank |last=Golczewski |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNFFAwAAQBAJ&q=Reference+census+subtraction |id=Prof. ] ascribed 2,000,000 Polish-Jewish victims to extermination camps, and 700,000 others to ghettos, labour camps, and hands-on murder operations. His stated figure of 2,770,000 victims is regarded as low but realistic. Madajczyk estimated also 890,000 Polish-Jewish survivors of World War II; some 110,000 of them in the Displaced Person camps across the rest of Europe, and 500,000 in the USSR; bringing the number up to 610,000 Jews outside the country in 1945. |ref=Nazism2000}} ''Note:'' some other estimates, see for example: ], are substantially different.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Note to the Governments of the United Nations - December 10th, 1942">{{cite web |url=http://www.republika.pl/unpack/1/dok03.html |title=Note to the Governments of the United Nations – December 10th, 1942 |publisher=Republika.pl |accessdate=2011-10-07 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722021352/http://unpack.republika.pl/1/dok03.html |archivedate=July 22, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="P-M">], "Płomienie nienawiści", ] 43 (2373), October 26, 2002, p. 71–73 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310232936/http://www.znak.org.pl/index-en.php?t=przeglad&id=1573 |date=March 10, 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Paldiel">{{cite book |author=] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCz0J-8HIIMC&pg=PA184 |title=Gentile Rescuers of Jews |page=184 |publisher=KTAV Publishing House Inc. |work=The Path of the Righteous |year=1993 |ISBN=0881253766}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Reszka">{{cite journal |url=http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44&Itemid=8 |title=Majdanek Victims Enumerated. Changes in the history textbooks? |accessdate=March 5, 2015 |last=Reszka |first=Paweł P. |date=December 23, 2005 |work=Gazeta Wyborcza |publisher=Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum |format=Internet Archive |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106112513/http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=44&Itemid=8 |archivedate=November 6, 2011}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Sellars2013">{{cite book |first=Kirsten |last=Sellars |title='Crimes Against Peace' and International Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IQh-F9kT-yoC&pg=PT145 |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02884-5 |page=145}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Steinl30">Michael C. Steinlauf. ''Bondage to the Dead''. Syracuse University Press, p. 30.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Sumler">David E. Sumler, Dorsey Press, {{ISBN|0-256-01421-3}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Thacker">{{cite book |title=Joseph Goebbels: Life and Death |first=Toby |last=Thacker |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |pages=236, 258 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yKYYDAAAQBAJ&q=war+against+Jews |ISBN=0230274226 |quote=Hitler made the decision to proceed with the mass murder of 'all the Jews of Europe' in the autumn of 1941. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705225949/https://books.google.com/books?id=yKYYDAAAQBAJ&q=war+against+Jews |archivedate=July 5, 2018 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Tr-Maz">{{cite book |first=Elżbieta |last=Trela-Mazur |author-link=Elżbieta Trela-Mazur |title=Sovietization of educational system in the eastern part of Lesser Poland under the Soviet occupation, 1939–1941 |trans-title=Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939–1941 |orig-year=1997 |year=1998 |pages=43, 294 |publisher=Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego |location=Kielce |isbn=83-7133-100-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGq1AAAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=38%25+Polak%C3%B3w}} ''Also in:'' Trela-Mazur (1997), '' ]: Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego. Volume 1, pp. 87–104.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="WarCriminals:Nuremberg">{{Cite book |editor-last=Lawrence |editor-first=Geoffrey |chapter=Session 62: February 19, 1946 |title=The Trial of German Major War Criminals: Sitting at Nuremberg, Germany |year=1946 |volume=7 |page=111 |chapter-url=http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-07/tgmwc-07-62-01.shtml |location=London |publisher=HM Stationery Office |isbn=1-57588-677-4 |display-editors=etal |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516222348/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/tgmwc-07/tgmwc-07-62-01.shtml |archivedate=May 16, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Wegner-74">{{cite book |last=Wegner |first=Bernd |author-link=Bernd Wegner |ISBN=1-57181-882-0 |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aESBIpIm6UcC&pg=PA74 |title=From peace to war: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the world, 1939–1941 |publisher=Berghahn Books |page=74}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="WZaj:152–201">{{cite book |first=Wacław |last=Zajączkowski |title=Christian Martyrs of Charity |at=pp. 152–178 (1–14 of 25 in current document) |ISBN=0945281005 |publisher=S.M. Kolbe Foundation |date=June 1988 |url=http://www.polacyizydzi.com/pobierz/Christian%20Martyrs%20of%20Charity%20152-201.pdf |location=Washington, D.C. |quote=German military police in ]<sup></sup> and in ]<sup></sup> (Przeworsk County) extracted from two Jewish women the names of Christian Poles helping Jews – 11 Polish men were murdered. In Korniaktów forest (])<sup></sup> a Jewish woman caught in a bunker revealed the whereabouts of the Catholic family who fed her – the whole Polish family were murdered. In ],<sup></sup> a Jewish man betrayed all Polish rescuers known to him – 13 Catholics were murdered by the German military police. In ] (Biłgoraj County),<sup></sup> a captured Jew led the Germans to his saviors – 5 Catholics were murdered including a 6-year-old child and their farm was burned. There were other similar cases; on a train to ]<sup></sup> the ] courier Irena who smuggled four Jewish women to safety was shot dead when one of them lost her nerve. |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218155755/http://www.polacyizydzi.com/pobierz/Christian%20Martyrs%20of%20Charity%20152-201.pdf |archive-date=2015-02-18 |ref=WZaj:152–201}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="RMoor28">{{cite book |title=The Devils' Alliance: Hitler's Pact with Stalin, 1939–1941 |first=Roger |last=Moorhouse |pages=28, 176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz_RAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29 |publisher=Basic Books |year=2014 |ISBN=0465054927}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="YV Stats">Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818194708/http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp |date=August 18, 2010 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="YV">{{cite web |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205724.pdf |title=Aktion Reinhard |publisher=Yad Vashem |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170311230635/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%205724.pdf |archivedate=March 11, 2017 |df=mdy-all}} Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. ''"Aktion Reinhard" was named after ], the main organizer of the "]"; see also, Treblinka death camp built in June/July 1942 some 80 kilometres (50 mi) northeast of Warsaw.''</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Yeger"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920032253/http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/y/yeger-aleksandr-ivanovich/yeger-002.html |date=September 20, 2013 }} at the Nizkor Project</ref> | |||
| <ref name="JPaw2008">{{cite book |first=Jacek |last=Pawłowicz |title=Rotmistrz Witold Pilecki 1901–1948 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YzqWPgAACAAJ |year=2008 |isbn=978-83-60464-97-7 |language=pl |publisher=Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, IPN |pages=254–}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="about">{{Cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Jennifer |chapter=Majdanek: An Overview |title=20th Century History |year=2008 |publisher=about.com |url=http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/aa092099.htm |isbn=0-404-16983-X |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040705195153/http://history1900s.about.com/library/holocaust/aa092099.htm |archivedate=July 5, 2004 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="archeologists">"Archeologists reveal new secrets of Holocaust", Reuters News, 21 July 1998</ref> | |||
| <ref name="archive">{{harvp|Strzembosz|2002|p=1}}. ''Background information:'' {{cite news |author-link=Tomasz Strzembosz |first=Tomasz |last=Strzembosz |url=http://www.rzeczpospolita.pl/gazeta/wydanie_010331/publicystyka/publicystyka_a_2.html |trans-title=Inny obraz sąsiadów |title=A different view of neighbors |via=Internet Archive |publisher=Rzeczpospolita |issue=31.03.01 Nr 77 |date=2001 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010610072611/http://www.rzeczpospolita.pl/gazeta/wydanie_010331/publicystyka/publicystyka_a_2.html |archivedate=June 10, 2001 |df=mdy-all}} ''As well as:'' {{cite journal |url=http://www.glaukopis.pl/pdf/czytelnia/NeighboursEveOfTheHolocaust.pdf |title=Neighbours On the Eve of the Holocaust |first=Mark |last=Paul |location=Toronto |publisher=Pefina Press |date=2013 |journal=Glaukopis |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512233441/http://www.glaukopis.pl/pdf/czytelnia/NeighboursEveOfTheHolocaust.pdf |archivedate=May 12, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="auschwitz">]. ''Auschwitz: A New History''. 2005, Public Affairs, {{ISBN|1-58648-303-X}}, p. 168–169</ref> | |||
| <ref name="auschwitz2">Deborah Dwork, Robert Jan van Pelt (1997), '''', Norton Paperback edition, {{ISBN|0-393-31684-X}}, p. 336–337.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Berendt">{{cite journal |title=Emigration of Jewish people from Poland in 1945–1967 |trans-title=Emigracja ludności żydowskiej z Polski w latach 1945–1967 |first=Grzegorz |last=Berendt |at=pp. 25–26 (pp. 2–3 in current document) |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/59632/WA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf |journal=Polska 1944/45–1989. Studia i Materiały |volume=VII |year=2006 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201043934/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/59632/WA303_78922_B155-Polska-T-7-2005_Berendt.pdf |archivedate=December 1, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="brezezinka">{{cite book |url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/bezec/oclc/186784721 |title=Bełżec |location=] |publisher=''Centralna Żydowska Komisja Historyczna'' division of the ] |work=1999 reprint by ] with ''Fundacja Judaica'' in bilingual format, featuring English translation by Margaret M. Rubel |date=1946 |accessdate=28 May 2015 |author=] |pages=1–65 |others=Preface by Nella Rost (ed.) |OCLC=186784721 |via=WorldCat |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518113820/http://www.worldcat.org/title/bezec/oclc/186784721 |archivedate=May 18, 2015 |df=mdy-all}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="darkness">], ''Into That Darkness'', Pimlico 1974, p. 48.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="destruction">''].'' ]. Yale University Press, 1985, p. 1219. {{ISBN|978-0-300-09557-9}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="DeHakoh2003">{{harvp|Hakohen|2003|p=70|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Engel2005">{{citation |title=Liberation, Reconstruction, and Flight (1944–1947) |author=] |publisher=] |url=http://www.yivo.org/pdf/poland.pdf |chapter=Poland |series=''The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe'', pp. 5–6 in current document |year=2005 |at="The largest group of Polish-Jewish survivors spent the war years in the Soviet or Soviet-controlled territories." |id='''' ], p. 330 |ref=Engel2005 |isbn=9780300119039 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203033626/http://www.yivo.org/pdf/poland.pdf |archivedate=December 3, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="faqs"> Internet Archive.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="generalgouvernement1">] (ed.), "Treblinka – ein Todeslager der Aktion Reinhard," in: ''"Aktion Reinhard" – Die Vernichtung der Juden im Generalgouvernement'', Osnabrück 2004, pp. 257–281.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Gigliotti55>{{cite book |author=Simone Gigliotti |date=2009 |title=The Train Journey: Transit, Captivity, and Witnessing in the Holocaust |publisher=Berghahn Books |chapter=Resettlement |p=55 |isbn=1-84545-927-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bsnbugaMLCcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=Reichsbahn%20control%20Ostbahn&f=false}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Gerstein">{{citation |last=Gerstein |first=Kurt |year=1945 |url=http://deathcamps.org/belzec/gerstein.html |title=Gerstein Report in English translation |trans-title=Der Gerstein-Bericht |author-link=Kurt Gerstein |location=Tübingen, 4 May 1945 |publisher=Deathcamps.org |at=see, the ] in Misplaced Pages |id=further reading: '''' by Dick de Mildt. The Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1996, {{ISBN|90-411-0185-3}} |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925070829/http://deathcamps.org/belzec/gerstein.html |archivedate=September 25, 2006 |df=mdy-all }}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Rhodes255">] (2002), New York: Vintage Books, pp. 243, 255. {{ISBN|0-307-42680-7}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Slay2014">{{cite book |title=The Polish Economy: Crisis, Reform, and Transformation |first=Ben |last=Slay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FEUABAAAQBAJ&q=20+percent+prewar+area |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |ISBN=1400863732 |pp=20–21 |quote=The Second Republic was obliterated during the Second World War (1939–1945). As a consequence of seven years of brutal fighting and resistance to Nazi and Soviet military occupation, Poland's population was reduced by a third, from 34,849 at the end of 1938, to 23,930 in February 1946. Six million citizens...perished.<sup></sup> (''See ] for supplementary data.'') |ref=harv}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="StopnHe65">{{cite book |first=Celia |last=Stopnicka Heller |title=On the Edge of Destruction: Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmVt-O3AR34C&pg=PA65&dq=%22the+Jews+of+Poland+were+among+the+least+acculturated+of+all+European+Jewish+communities%22 |year=1993 |page=65 |publisher=Wayne State University Press, 396 pages |ISBN=0-8143-2494-0}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="google12">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Cesarani |first2=Sarah |last2=Kavanaugh |title=Holocaust |publisher=Routledge |page=64 |url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=%22monthly+relief+payments+to+a+few+thousand+Jewish+families+in+Warsaw%2C+Lwow+and+Cracow%22}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="TSts">{{cite journal |journal=Yad Vashem Studies |volume=XXX |year=2002 |publisher=Shoah Resource Center |first=Tomasz |last=Strzembosz |pages=7–20 |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205416.pdf |title=Thoughts on Professors Gutman’s Diary |translator=Jerzy Michałowicz |id=PDF file, direct download |quote=The localities in question include: Grodno, Skidel (see the ]), Jeziory, Łunna, Wiercieliszki, Wielka Brzostowica, Ostryna, Dubna, Dereczyn, Zelwa, Motol, Wołpa, Janów Poleski, Wołkowysk, and Drohiczyn Poleski. |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805073550/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205416.pdf |archivedate=August 5, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Turowski">{{cite book |first1=Józef |last1=Turowski |author-link1=Józef Turowski |first2=Władysław |last2=Siemaszko |author-link2=Władysław Siemaszko |year=1990 |trans-title=Zbrodnie nacjonalistów ukraińskich dokonane na ludności polskiej na Wołyniu 1939–1945'' |location=]: ] – ], Środowisko Żołnierzy 27 Wołyńskiej Dywizji Armii Krajowej w Warszawie |title=Crimes Perpetrated Against the Polish Population of Volhynia by the Ukrainian Nationalists, 1939–1945 |publisher=Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland – ] with the Association of Soldiers of the 27th Volhynian Division of the ], Warsaw 1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPZmAAAAMAAJ |OCLC=27231548}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="hnetradz"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612051615/http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=252691081495762 |date=June 12, 2007 }} H-Net Review: John Radzilowski</ref> | |||
| <ref name="holocaustforgotten">Chefer, Chaim (2007), Internet Archive.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="holocaustresearchproject">{{cite web |url=http://www.holocaustresearchproject.net/ar/sobibor.html |title=Sobibor Death Camp HolocaustResearchProject.org |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009024931/http://www.holocaustresearchproject.net/ar/sobibor.html |archivedate=October 9, 2014 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="indianapolis">{{harvp|Arad|1999|p=375}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="jewishgen">{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/yizkor/Sosnowiec/Sosnowiec.html#Soc |title=Book of Sosnowiec and the Surrounding Region in Zaglembie |publisher= |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330083841/http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/Sosnowiec/Sosnowiec.html#Soc |archivedate=March 30, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="jewishgen6"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816024346/http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/belzec1/belzec1.html |date=August 16, 2007 }} by Robin O'Neil</ref> | |||
| <ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary">Dwork, Deborah and Robert Jan Van Pelt, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123839/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/auconstruct.html |date=July 14, 2014 }} W.W. Norton & Co., 1996.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary3">Jewish Virtual Library, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701092435/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/lodztoc.html |date=July 1, 2015 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="jewishvirtuallibrary7">Jewish Virtual Library 2009, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714221224/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Majdanek2.html |date=July 14, 2014 }} The American-Israeli Cooperative</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Levin347">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgQUCgAAQBAJ&q=unreliable+loyalties+NKVD |title=Annexed Territories |publisher=NYU Press |work=The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival, Volume 1 |date=1990 |author-link=Nora Levin |first=Nora |last=Levin |page=347 |isbn=0-8147-5051-6 |quote=Many Jews associated with the Bund, Zionist organizations, religious life, and 'bourgeois' occupations, were deported in April. The third deportation in June–July 1941 consisted mainly of refugees from western and central Poland who had fled to eastern Poland.<sup></sup>}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Marrus">{{cite book |last=Marrus |first=Michael Robert |author2=Aristide R. Zolberg |title=The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssrLM0yWD1kC&pg=PA336&dq=%22accelerated+powerfully+after+the+Kielce+pogrom%22&hl=en&ei=S6IBTYi_GMOUswbH0IWGCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22accelerated%20powerfully%20after%20the%20Kielce%20pogrom%22&f=false |publisher=Temple University Press |year=2002 |page=336 |isbn=1-56639-955-6 |quote="This gigantic effort, known by the Hebrew code word ''Brichah''(flight), accelerated powerfully after the Kielce pogrom in July 1946"}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="nizkor"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923030356/http://www.nizkor.org/faqs/reinhard/reinhard-faq-13.html |date=September 23, 2013 }} The Nizkor Project, 1991–2008</ref> | |||
| <ref name="pacwashmetrodiv">{{cite conference |title=Jedwabne: The Politics of Apology and Contrition |first=Iwo Cyprian |last=Pogonowski |url=http://www.pacwashmetrodiv.org/events/jedwabne/pogonowski.text.htm |author-link=Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski |conference=Panel Jedwabne – A Scientific Analysis |publisher=''Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America'' |date=June 8, 2002 |location=Georgetown University, Washington DC |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019131001/http://www.pacwashmetrodiv.org/events/jedwabne/pogonowski.text.htm |archivedate=October 19, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="perpetrators">]., Dressen, W., Riess, V. ''The Good Old Days: The Holocaust as Seen by Its Perpetrators and Bystanders''. {{ISBN|1-56852-133-2}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Piotrowski1998_95>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=95|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Piotrowski1998_96>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=96|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Piotrowski1998_217>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|p=217|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Piotrowski1998_977142>{{harvp|Piotrowski|1998|pp=77–142|loc=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="polak">], {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822021206/http://www.projectinposterum.org/docs/chodakiewicz1.htm |date=August 22, 2006 }} Glaukopis, vol. 2/3 (2004–2005). See also: John S. Micgiel, "'Frenzy and Ferocity': The Stalinist Judicial System in Poland, 1944–1947, and the Search for Redress," The Carl Beck Papers in Russian & East European Studies , no. 1101 (February 1994): 1–48. For concurring opinions see: Krzysztof Lesiakowski and Grzegorz Majchrzak interviewed by Barbara Polak, "O Aparacie Bezpieczeństwa," Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, no. 6 (June 2002): 4–24; Barbara Polak, "O karach śmierci w latach 1944–1956," Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, no. 11 (November 2002): 4–29.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="psychology">Lifton, Robert Jay (1986), ''The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide'', Basic Books, p. 64.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="Snyder2004">] (2004), ''The Reconstruction of Nations.'' New Haven: Yale University Press: pg. 162</ref> | |||
| <ref name="resistance">], ''Caged — A story of Jewish Resistance'', Pan Macmillan Australia, 2000, {{ISBN|0-7329-1063-3}}. Quote: "The tragic end of the ]] could not have been changed, but the road to it might have been different under a stronger leader. There can be no doubt that if the ] had taken place in August—September 1942, when there were still 300,000 Jews, the Germans would have paid a much higher price."</ref> | |||
| <ref name="ringelblum">Emmanuel Ringelblum, ''Polish-Jewish Relations'', p.86.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="stola">] (2003), In: Joshua D. Zimmerman, ed. ''Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath''. Rutgers University Press.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="schelvis">]. ''Sobibor: A History of a Nazi Death Camp''. Berg, Oxford & New Cork, 2007, p. 168, {{ISBN|978-1-84520-419-8}}.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="straightdope">Cecil Adams, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604071320/http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1095/did-krups-braun-and-mercedes-benz-make-nazi-concentration-camp-ovens |date=June 4, 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="trains">Aish HaTorah, Jerusalem, Aish.com. Internet Archive.</ref> | |||
| <ref name="treblinka">] and ] (translator). ''Treblinka'' (Simon & Schuster, 1967).</ref> | |||
| <ref name="umn">University of Minnesota, {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226111305/http://www.chgs.umn.edu/museum/memorials/Majdanek/ |date=February 26, 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="upenn">{{cite book |first=Edwin |last=Black |url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/black.html |title=IBM and the Holocaust |work=The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation |publisher=Crown Books 2001; Three Rivers Press 2002 |year=2001 |OCLC=49419235 |id=] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426034944/http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/black.html |archivedate=April 26, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name="urteilsbegr">Court of Assizes in ], Germany. ''Excerpts From Judgments (Urteilsbegründung). AZ-LG Düsseldorf: II 931638''.</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM_War>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?ModuleId=10005188 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212132558/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?ModuleId=10005188 |archivedate=February 12, 2010 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM4>{{cite web |title=Online Exhibitions: Give Me Your Children – Voices from the Lodz Ghetto |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/voices-from-lodz-ghetto |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310175138/https://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/voices-from-lodz-ghetto |archivedate=March 10, 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM_LubMaj>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Lublin/Majdanek Concentration Camp: Conditions |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005190 |date=2003 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816011303/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005190 |archivedate=August 16, 2012 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=USHMM8>{{cite encyclopedia |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005445 |encyclopedia=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=German Railways and the Holocaust |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506100734/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005445 |archivedate=May 6, 2009 |df=mdy-all}}<br>—— {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100302015521/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005372 |date=March 2, 2010 }} ''Ibidem.''</ref> | |||
| <ref name=LYah1991>{{cite book |last=Yahil |first=Leni |author-link=Leni Yahil |title=The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e_aRvKpLUf0C&lpg=PA270&vq=Aktionen&pg=PA270 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1991 |pages=264–266, 270 |isbn=0195045238 |ref=harv |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222103439/https://books.google.com/books?id=e_aRvKpLUf0C |archivedate=February 22, 2017 |df=mdy-all}} ''Also in:'' {{harvp|Browning|2004|pp=244, 321, 429}}.</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| == References == | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YglnAAAAMAAJ |via=Google Book phrase search |first=Yitzhak |last=Arad |author-link=Yitzhak Arad |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1999 |orig-year=1987 |isbn=0-253-34293-7 |ref=harv |location=Bloomington and Indianapolis}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC |last1=Baumel |first1=Judith Tydor |last2=Laqueur |first2=Walter |author-link2=Walter Laqueur |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-300-13811-3 |ref=harv |via=Google Books preview |location=New Haven and London}} | |||
| * {{cite journal |title=The Convent Children. The Rescue of Jewish Children in Polish Convents During the Holocaust |first=Nahum |last=Bogner |publisher=Shoah Resource Center |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202308.pdf |via=direct download, 45.2 KB |year=2012 |pages=41–44 |ref=harv |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217083434/http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%202308.pdf |archivedate=February 17, 2012 |df=mdy-all}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=The Origins of the Final Solution : The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942 |author-link=Christopher Browning |last=Browning |first=Christopher |others=With contributions by Jürgen Matthäus |series=Comprehensive History of the Holocaust |publisher=Random House / William Heinemann; University of Nebraska Press 2007 |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=0-8032-0392-6 |ref=harv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d9Wg4gjtP3cC |via=Google Books preview}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Rethinking Poles and Jews: Troubled Past, Brighter Future |last1=Cherry |first1=Robert D. |author-link1=Robert D. Cherry |last2=Orla-Bukowska |first2=Annamaria |author-link2=Annamaria Orla-Bukowska |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2007 |isbn=0-7425-4666-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkLTSB7NHwgC |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Survivors of the Holocaust in Poland: A Portrait Based on Jewish Community Records, 1944–1947 |last=Dobroszycki |first=Lucjan |author-link=Lucjan Dobroszycki |year=1994 |publisher=] Institute for Jewish Research, M.E. Sharpe |isbn=1-56324-463-2 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIujK0VqWGIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Holocaust,+Poland&sig=ACfU3U1VmbuVYbIQHPig5nbX7F6my87VgA |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Facing a Holocaust: The Polish Government-in-exile and the Jews, 1943–1945 |last=Engel |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a12WB1iknWwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Holocaust,+Poland&sig=ACfU3U3yafRba-qKuOrPHuI3MbJab8CUcw |via=Google Book preview |author-link=David Engel (historian) |publisher=UNC Press Books |year=1993 |isbn=0-8078-2069-5 |page=317 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Immigration from Poland |work=Immigrants in turmoil: mass immigration to Israel and its repercussions in the 1950s and After |last1=Hakohen |first1=Devorah |year=2003 |publisher=Syracuse University Press, 325 pages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hCw6v0TFhdMC&pg=PA70&dq=%22Poland+opened+its+gates+to+Jewish+emigration.%22&hl=en&ei=vZPlTILoE8uUnAey5NGjDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Poland%20opened%20its%20gates%20to%20Jewish%20emigration.%22&f=false |ISBN=0-8156-2969-9 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Treblinka II Death Camp. Monograph, chapt. 3 |trans-title=Treblinka II – Obóz zagłady |last1=Kopówka |first1=Edward |author-link1=Edward Kopówka |last2=Rytel-Andrianik |first2=Paweł |year=2011 |work=Dam im imię na wieki |language=pl |url=http://echomatkibozejniepokalaniepoczetej.com/embnp/pages/assets/files/2011-09/dam_ime_na_wieki.pdf |publisher=Drohiczyńskie Towarzystwo Naukowe ] Scientific Society] |isbn=978-83-7257-496-1 |via=PDF direct download 20.2 MB |id=With list of Catholic ] imprisoned at Treblinka I, selected testimonies, bibliography, alphabetical indexes, photographs, English language summaries, and forewords by Holocaust scholars |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust |last=Lukas |first=Richard C. |author-link=Richard C. Lukas |year=1989 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-8131-1692-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lz9obsxmuW4C&pg=PA13&dq=%22The+estimates+of+Jewish+survivors+in+Poland%22 |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=The forgotten Holocaust: the Poles under German occupation, 1939–1944 |last=Lukas |first=Richard C. |year=2001 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=978-0-7818-0901-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lv1mAAAAMAAJ&dq=editions:lC7HhINUjXIC%20Google |ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{cite book |title=Poland 1939–1945. Casualties and the victims of repressions under the Nazi and the Soviet occupations |trans-title=Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami |last1=Materski |first1=Wojciech |last2=Szarota |first2=Tomasz |author-link2=Tomasz Szarota |author3=IPN |year=2009 |publisher=] (IPN) |work=(excerpts online) |url=http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |at=Hardcover, 353 pages |ISBN=978-83-7629-067-6 |id=With a Foreword by ] (IPN); and expert contributions by Waldemar Grabowski, ], and ]. |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331102155/http://niniwa2.cba.pl/polska_1939_1945.htm |archivedate=March 31, 2012 |df=mdy-all}} | |||
| * ] (ed.), "Treblinka — ein Todeslager der Aktion Reinhard", in: ''Aktion Reinhard — Die Vernichtung der Juden im Generalgouvernement'', Osnabrück 2004, pp. 257–281. | |||
| * {{cite book |title=The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965 |first=Michael |last=Phayer |year=2000 |publisher=Indiana University Press |pages=113, 117–120, 250 |ISBN=0253214718 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aZTD96Upq9AC&q=Dobraczynski+Getter}} | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Piotrowski |first=Tadeusz |author-link=Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist) |year=1998 |title=Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=] |isbn=0-7864-0371-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hC0-dk7vpM8C&pg=PA1&dq=Holocaust,+Poland |ref=harv |OCLC=37195289}} | |||
| * ] (March 29, 2003), (online, ''Special Reports'': Commentary). | |||
| * Paulsson, Gunnar S. (May 5, 2008), Isurvived.org | |||
| * Paulsson, Gunnar S. ''Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|978-0-300-09546-3}}, | |||
| * Samson, Naomi (2000), U of Nebraska Press, 194 pages. | |||
| * Sterling, Eric; Roth, John K. (2005), Syracuse University Press, 356 pages. | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Schelvis |first=Jules |author-link=Jules Schelvis |year=2014 |orig-year=2007 |title=Sobibor: A History of a Nazi Death Camp |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=1-4725-8906-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OB1nAwAAQBAJ&q=170%2C000+people+Sobib%C3%B3r |page=110 |ref=harv}} | |||
| {{Holocaust Poland}} | |||
| {{Holocaust by country|state=collapsed}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:The Holocaust In Poland}} | {{DEFAULTSORT:The Holocaust In Poland}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||