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Revision as of 21:30, 6 September 2018 view sourceCalthinus (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users22,472 edits "national" population history is not state history. The Egypt of the Pharaohs does not have institutional continuity with the modern state in any way, not even ideologically← Previous edit Revision as of 15:00, 7 September 2018 view source Hackerloveshacking (talk | contribs)1 editm ←Replaced content with 'i wuz here'Tags: Replaced blankingNext edit →
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i wuz here
{{about|the modern country|the ancient realm|Ancient Egypt|other uses|Egypt (disambiguation)}}{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{coord|26|N|30|E|dim:1000km_type:country_region:EG|format=dms|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Arab Republic of Egypt
|name =
{{collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;line-height:normal;font-size:84%;
| title = {{resize|1.25em|{{lang|ar|جمهورية مصر العربية}}}}
| {{Infobox |subbox=yes |bodystyle=font-size:75%;font-weight:normal;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = ]: | data1 = {{transl|ar|ALA-LC|Jumhūrīyat Miṣr al-ʻArabīyah}}
| rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = ]: | data2 = {{transl|arz|Gomhoreyyet Maṣr el-ʿArabeyya}}
}}
}}
|common_name = Egypt
|image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt (Official).svg
|image_map = EGY orthographic.svg
|map_caption =
|national_anthem = "]"<br />{{lang|ar|"بلادي، بلادي، بلادي"}}<br />"{{small|My country, my country, my country}}"<br /><center>]</center>
|official_languages = ]{{ref label|offlang|a|}}
|languages_type = ]
|languages = ]
|religion = See '']''
|demonym = Egyptian
|capital = ]
|coordinates = {{Coord|30|2|N|31|13|E|type:city}}
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = ] ]<br/>]
|leader_title1 = ]
|leader_name1 = ]
|leader_title2 = ]
|leader_name2 = ]
|leader_title3 = ]
|leader_name3 = ]
|legislature = ]
|lower_house =
|established_event1 = ] inaugurated
|established_date1 = 9 July 1805<ref>{{cite book |author=Pierre Crabitès |title=Ibrahim of Egypt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1NbCRckI3EoC&pg=PA1 |accessdate=10 February 2013 |year=1935 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-81121-7 |page=1 |quote=...&nbsp;on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo&nbsp;...}}</ref>
|established_event2 = ] from<br/>]
|established_date2 = 28 February 1922
|established_event3 = ]
|established_date3 = 18 June 1953
|established_event4 = ]
|established_date4 = 23 July 1952
|established_event5 = ]
|established_date5 = 18 January 2014
|area_rank = 29th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 1,010,408 <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |title=Total area km2, pg.15 |publisher=Capmas.Gov – Arab Republic of Egypt |accessdate=8 May 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321110107/http://capmas.gov.eg/pdf/EgyptinFigures2015/EgyptinFigures/Tables/PDF/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/pop.pdf |archivedate=21 March 2015 |df= }}</ref>
|area_sq_mi = 387,048
|percent_water = 0.632
|population_census = 94,798,827<ref name="capmas.gov.eg"/>
|population_census_year = ]
|population_density_km2 = 96
|population_density_sq_mi = 248 <!--Do not remove per ] -->
|population_density_rank = 118th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2017
|GDP_PPP =$1.201 trillion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=49&pr1.y=11&c=469&s=NGDP_RPCH%2CNGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Egypt|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=3 May 2018}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank = 21st
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,671<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 100th
|GDP_nominal =$237.073 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_rank = 49th
|GDP_nominal_year = 2017
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,501<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 113th
|Gini_year = 2008
|Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|Gini = 30.8 <!--number only-->
|Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=GINI index |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref>
|Gini_rank =
|HDI_year = 2015<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
|HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|HDI = 0.691 <!--number only-->
|HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr_2015_statistical_annex.pdf |title=2015 Human Development Report |date=2015 |accessdate=14 December 2015 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 111th
|currency = ] (E£)
|currency_code = EGP
|time_zone = ]
|utc_offset = +2{{ref label|dst|c|}}
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|drives_on = right
|calling_code = ]
|cctld = {{unbulleted list |] |{{lang|ar|]}}}}
|footnote_a = {{note|offlang}} ] is the sole official language.<ref name="Provisional Constitution">{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/LastPage.aspx?Category_ID=1155 |title=Constitutional Declaration: A New Stage in the History of the Great Egyptian People |date=30 March 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |accessdate=15 April 2011}}</ref> ] is the national ]. Other ] are spoken regionally.
|footnote_b= "Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation".<ref>name="USDept of State/Egypt"</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Arthur Goldschmidt|title=Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YmZyAAAAMAAJ|year=1988|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=978-0-86531-182-4}}</ref> Arthur Goldschmidt Jr.
|footnote_c= {{note|dst}}See ].
}}

'''Egypt''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Egypt.ogg|ˈ|iː|dʒ|ɪ|p|t}} {{Respell|EE|jipt}}; {{lang-ar|مِصر}} ''{{transl|ar|Miṣr}}'', {{lang-arz|مَصر}} {{transl|arz|''Maṣr''}}, {{Lang-cop|Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ}} ''K<sup>h</sup>ēmi''), officially the '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', is a ] spanning the ] and ] by a ] formed by the ]. Egypt is a ] bordered by the ] and ] to the northeast, the ] to the east, the ] to the east and south, ] to the south, and ] to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies ], and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies ], although Jordan and ] do not share a land border with Egypt.

Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a ], ] saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings|last=Midant-Reynes|first=Béatrix|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|year=|isbn=|location=Oxford|pages=|quote=|via=}}</ref> Iconic monuments such as the ] and its ], as well the ruins of ], ], ], and the ], reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of scientific and popular interest. Egypt's long and rich cultural heritage is an integral part of its national identity, which has endured, and often assimilated, various foreign influences, including ], ], ], ], ], and ]. Egypt was an early and important ], but was largely ] in the seventh century and remains a predominantly ] country, albeit with a ].

From the 16th to the beginning of the 20th century, Egypt was ruled by foreign imperial powers: ] and the ]. Modern Egypt dates back to 1922, when it gained nominal independence from the ] as a monarchy. However, ] occupation of Egypt continued, and many Egyptians believed that the monarchy was an instrument of British colonialism. Following the ], Egypt expelled British soldiers and bureaucrats and ended British occupation, nationalized the British-held Suez Canal, exiled ] and his family, and declared itself a ]. In 1958 it merged with ] to form the ], which dissolved in 1961. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, Egypt endured social and religious strife and political instability, fighting ] with ] in ], ], ] and ], and ] the ] intermittently until 1967. In 1980, Egypt signed the ], withdrawing from the Gaza Strip and ]. The country continues to face challenges from terrorism, political unrest, and economic underdevelopment.

] is the ] of Egypt and ] is its official language.<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of The Arab Republic of Egypt 2014|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/Newvr/Dustor-en001.pdf|website=sis.gov.eg|accessdate=13 April 2017}}</ref> With over 95 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in ], ], and the ], the third-most populous in Africa (after ] and ]), and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the ] River, an area of about {{convert|40000|km2|-3}}, where the only ] is found. The large regions of the ] ], which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater ], ] and other major cities in the ].

Egypt is considered to be a ] in ], the ] and the ], and a ] worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Lessons from/for BRICSAM about South-North Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?|journal=International Studies Review|volume=9}}</ref> ] is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, and is projected to become ] in the 21st century. In 2016, Egypt overtook ] and became Africa's second largest economy (after ]).<ref>{{cite web|title=South Africa just lost its spot as Africa’s second largest economy|url=https://qz.com/682877/south-africa-loses-its-spot-as-africas-second-largest-economy-to-egypt/|accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=South Africa's Economy Falls To Third Behind Nigeria, Egypt|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/tobyshapshak/2016/05/12/south-africas-economy-falls-to-third-behind-nigeria-egypt/#5de61a254b78|accessdate=19 November 2017}}</ref> Egypt is a founding member of the ], ], ], ], and ]. Egypt's current government which came to power following a ] is described as a ], under which ] are not allowed to take place.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt: Planned Presidential Vote Neither Free Nor Fair |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/13/egypt-planned-presidential-vote-neither-free-nor-fair|accessdate=26 August 2018}}</ref>

==Names==<!--linked-->
<!--Needs to be recycled-->
<div>The English name ''Egypt'' is derived from the ] ''{{transl|grc|Aígyptos}}'' ({{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}), via ] ''Egypte'' and ] ''{{lang|la|Aegyptus}}''. It is reflected in ] ] tablets as ''a-ku-pi-ti-yo''. The adjective ''aigýpti-, aigýptios'' was borrowed into Coptic as ''{{transl|cop|gyptios}}, ''and from there into ] as ''{{transl|ar|qubṭī}}'', back formed into {{lang|ar|قبط}} ''{{Transl|ar|qubṭ}}'', whence English '']''. The Greek forms were borrowed from ] ''(]) Hikuptah'' "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier ] name <div style="display:inline;"><hiero>O6-t:pr-D28-Z1-p:t-H</hiero></div> ({{angbr|{{transl|egy|ḥwt-kȝ-ptḥ}}}}), meaning "home of the ] (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god ] at ].<ref>{{cite journal|last= Hoffmeier|first =James K|title =Rameses of the Exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramesside Residence|journal =]|page = 1|date = 1 October 2007|url=http://www.galaxie.com/article/13430|ref= harv}}</ref> ] attributed the word to a ] in which ''{{transl|grc|Aígyptos}}'' ({{lang|grc|Αἴγυπτος}}) evolved as a compound from ''{{transl|grc|Aigaiou huptiōs}}'' ({{lang|grc|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}), meaning "below the ]".</div>

''{{Transl|ar|Miṣr}}'' ({{IPA-ar|mesˤɾ|}}; {{lang|ar|مِصر}}) is the ] and modern official name of Egypt, while ''{{transl|arz|Maṣr}}'' ({{IPA-arz|mɑsˤɾ|}}; {{lang|arz|مَصر}}) is the local pronunciation in ].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Il-Malti |last=Z. |first=T. |date=1928 |volume=2 |issue=1 |language=Maltese |publisher=Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti |title=Il-Belt (Valletta) |edition=2 |url=http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004(1928)2/01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417234107/http://melitensiawth.com/incoming/Index/Il-Malti/Il-Malti.%20004%281928%292/01.pdf |archive-date=17 April 2016 |page=35 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The name is of ] origin, directly ] with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the ] {{Hebrew|מִצְרַיִם}} (''{{Transl|he|Mitzráyim}}''). The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the ] '''mi-iṣ-ru''' ''miṣru,''<ref>The ending of the Hebrew form is either a ] or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps a ]), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" (מַיִם), "noon" (צָהֳרַיִם), "sky/heaven" (שָׁמַיִם), and in the '']'' – but not the original ''ketiv'' – of "Jerusalem" (ירושלם). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the ''-áyim'' in ''Mitzráyim'' actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. See ''inter alia'' Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.) ''These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics'', Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), Avi Hurvitz (''A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew: Linguistic Innovations in the Writings of the Second Temple Period'' (Brill, 2014), ) and Nadav Na’aman ("Shaaraim – The Gateway to the Kingdom of Judah" in ''The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures'', Vol. 8 (2008), article , pp. 2–3).</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = On the So-Called Ventive Morpheme in the Akkadian Texts of Amurru|url = https://www.academia.edu/371050/On_the_So-Called_Ventive_Morpheme_in_the_Akkadian_Texts_of_Amurru|website = www.academia.edu|accessdate = 18 November 2015|page = 84}}</ref> related to ''miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru'', meaning "border" or "frontier".<ref name="akkadian">{{cite book|title = A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-qIuVCsRb98C&pg=PA212|publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|date = 1 January 2000|isbn = 9783447042642|first = Jeremy A.|last = Black|first2 = Andrew|last2 = George|first3 = J. N.|last3 = Postgate}}</ref>

<div>The ancient Egyptian name of the country was <div style="display:inline;"><hiero> km-m-t:O49 </hiero></div> '''''', which means black land, likely referring to the ] black soils of the ] plains, distinct from the ''deshret'' ({{angbr|{{transl|egy|dšṛt}}}}), or "red land" of the ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Rosalie, David |title=Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |page=18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZWuVAL2GooC&pg=PA43 |title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa |author=Muḥammad Jamāl al-Dīn Mukhtār |page=43 |website=Books.google.co.za |date= |access-date=28 May 2016}}</ref> This name is commonly vocalised as ''Kemet'', but was probably pronounced {{IPA|}} in ancient Egyptian.<ref>Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", in ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2.'' Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p 449</ref> The name is realised as ''{{transl|cop|kēme}}'' and ''{{transl|cop|kēmə}}'' in the ] stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as {{lang|grc|Χημία}} (''{{transl|grc|Khēmía}}'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html|title=A Brief History of Alchemy|publisher=UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY|accessdate=21 August 2008}}</ref> Another name was {{angbr|{{transl|egy|tꜣ-mry}}}} "land of the riverbank".<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Records of Egypt |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |author2=Peter A. Piccione |year=2001 |publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0-252-06975-8 |pages=76;40|url=https://books.google.com/?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC}}</ref> The names of ] were ''Ta-Sheme'aw'' ({{angbr|{{transl|egy|tꜣ-šmꜥw}}}}) "sedgeland" and ''Ta-Mehew'' ({{angbr|{{Transl|egy|tꜣ mḥw}}}}) "northland", respectively.

==History==
{{Main|History of Egypt}}
] ruins in 1960]]

===Prehistory and Ancient Egypt===
{{main|Prehistoric Egypt|Ancient Egypt}}
There is evidence of ] along the ] terraces and in desert oases. In the ], a culture of ]s and ] was replaced by a ]-grinding ]. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the ]. Early ]s migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural ] and more centralised ].<ref>Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. ''The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.</ref>

By about 6000 BC, a ] culture rooted in the Nile Valley.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |title=The Nile Valley 6000–4000 BC Neolithic |publisher=The British Museum |year=2005 |accessdate=21 August 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090214084636/http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC |archivedate=14 February 2009 |df= }}</ref> During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in ]. The ] culture and the successor ] series are generally regarded as precursors to ]. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of ] inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.<ref>Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.</ref>

] is the oldest of the ] and the only one still in existence.]]
A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BC by King ], leading to a ] that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. ] flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its ], ], ] and customs. The ] of a unified Egypt set the stage for the ] period, c. 2700–2200 BC., which constructed many ], most notably the ] ] and the ] ].

The ] ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/apocalypse_egypt_01.shtml |title=The Fall of the Egyptian Old Kingdom |publisher=BBC |date=17 February 2011 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the ] c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh ]. A ] heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic ]. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at ]. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by ], who founded the ] and relocated the capital from ] to ].

]'']]
The ] c. 1550–1070 BC began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an ] that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as ] in ], and included parts of the ] in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known ]s, including ], ], ] and his wife ], ] and ]. The first historically attested expression of ] came during this period as ]. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by ], ] and ]ns, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientsudan.org/history_06_nubconegypt.htm |title=The Kushite Conquest of Egypt |publisher=Ancientsudan.org |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref>

] storming the ] fortress of ]]]
In 525&nbsp;BC, the powerful ], led by ], began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh ] at the battle of ]. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of ], but ruled Egypt from his home of ] in Persia (modern ]), leaving Egypt under the control of a ]y. The entire ], from 525 BC to 402 BC, save for ], was an entirely Persian ruled period, with the Achaemenid Emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.<ref>Shaw (2002) p. 383</ref>

The ] was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It ] in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King ], was defeated in battle. This ], however, did not last long, for the Persians were toppled several decades later by ]. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, ], founded the ].

===Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt===
] and her son by Julius Caesar, ], at the ]]]
{{main|History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt (Roman province)}}
The ] was a powerful ] state, extending from southern ] in the east, to ] to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. ] became the capital city and a centre of ] culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bowman |first = Alan K |title= Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 |publisher=] |location=Berkeley |year=1996 |edition=2nd |pages=25–26 |isbn=0-520-20531-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stanwick |first = Paul Edmond |title= Portraits of the Ptolemies: Greek kings as Egyptian pharaohs |publisher=] |location=Austin |year=2003 |isbn=0-292-77772-8}}</ref>

The last ruler from the ] line was ], who committed suicide following the burial of her lover ] who had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), after ] had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled.
The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, ] continued to thrive in Egypt well after the ].

Christianity was brought to Egypt by ] in the 1st century.<ref name="georgetown">{{cite web |url= http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=] |accessdate=14 December 2011}} See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"</ref> ]'s reign (from 284 to 305 AD) marked the transition from the ] to the ] era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The ] had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the ] in AD 451, a distinct ] was firmly established.<ref>Kamil, Jill. ''Coptic Egypt: History and Guide''. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39</ref>

===Middle Ages (7th century – 1517)===
{{main|Egypt in the Middle Ages}}
] mosque in Cairo, recognized as the oldest in Africa]]
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief ] invasion early in the 7th century amidst the ] during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as ], until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and
] by the ] ]. When they defeated the Byzantine Armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought ] to the country. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various ] orders that have flourished to this day.<ref name="georgetown"/> These earlier rites had survived the period of ].<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=140}}</ref>

In 639 an army of some 4,000 men were sent against Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. This army was joined by another 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Byzantine army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on November 8, 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called ], which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the ], and one of the biggest and richest in the world.

===Abbasid period===
] in Cairo, of ]]]
The ] period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under ], who decided to reside at ], sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad has led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the ] and the ] dynasties were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.

====The Fatimid Caliphate and the Mamluks====
{{See also|Fatimid Caliphate|Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)}}
] in Cairo, of ], the sixth caliph, as renovated by ] ]]

Muslim rulers nominated by the ] remained in ] for the next six centuries, with ] as the seat of the ]. With the end of the ] ], the ]s, a ]-] military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.<ref name="Abu-Lughod">{{cite book|last=Abu-Lughod |first=Janet L. |authorlink=Janet Abu-Lughod|title=Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350|location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1991|origyear=1989|pages=243–244|isbn=978-0-19-506774-3|chapter=The Mideast Heartland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYlgGU2SLiQC&pg=PA244}}</ref> The mid-14th-century ] killed about 40% of the country's population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/57.htm |title=Egypt – Major Cities |publisher=Countrystudies.us |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref>

===Early modern: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)===
{{main|Egypt Eyalet}}

Egypt was conquered by the ] in 1517, after which it became a province of the ]. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.<ref name="Abu-Lughod"/> The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.<ref name="Abu-Lughod"/> Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.<ref>{{cite book|author=Donald Quataert|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1jR39OM_hsC&pg=PA115|accessdate=21 June 2013|date=11 August 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-44591-7|page=115}}</ref> The 1784 ] cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/11/061121232204.htm |title=Icelandic Volcano Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows |publisher=ScienceDaily |date=22 November 2006 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref>

Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman ] to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the ], the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.

] troops in the ], 21 July 1798, painted by ].]]

Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the ] forces of ] 1798 (see ]). After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power struggle ensued between the ], Egyptian ]s who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and ] in the service of the Ottomans.

====The Muhammad Ali dynasty====
{{Main|History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty}}
]
] was the founder of the ] and the first ] of Egypt and ].]]

After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by ], an ] military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of ] of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Muhammad Ali ] the Mamluks and established a ] that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952.

The introduction in 1820 of long-staple ] transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop ] before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2"/>

Muhammad Ali annexed ] (1820–1824), ] (1833), and parts of ] and ]; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the ].<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2"/>

He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.<ref name="auto">{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=217|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the ] to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers was not an option; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fahmy|first=Khaled|title=All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the making of modern Egypt|year=1997|pages=119–47}}</ref>

The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220, Figure 7.4 "Numeracy in selected Middle Eastern countries", based on Prayon and Baten (2013)|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son ] (in September 1848), then by a grandson ] (in November 1848), then by ] (in 1854), and ] (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.<ref name="auto"/>

===The European intrusion (1867–1914)===
] in 1882 during the ]]]
{{Main|Khedivate of Egypt}}
] remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an ] or '']'' in 1867, a legal status which was to remain in place until 1914 although the Ottomans had no power or presence.

The ], built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Ismail avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt's shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French ] who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government."<ref>Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, ''Nasser of the Arabs'', p 2.</ref>

Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt's dependency on foreign debt even further.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=217, p.224 Figure 7.6: "Height development in the Middle East and the world (male)" and p.225|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

In later years, the dynasty became a British puppet.<ref name="Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin 1973, p 2">{{cite book|last=Izzeddin|first=Nejla M. Abu|title=Nasser of the Arabs: an Arab assessment|year=1981|publisher=Third World Centre for Research and Publishing|isbn=978-0-86199-012-2|page=2}}</ref> ] and ] governed Egypt as a quasi-independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until the ] of 1882.

], 1919]]

Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with ] a prominent figure. Fearing a reduction of their control, the UK and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the ].<ref>Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, ''Egypt: Politics and Society 1945–1981''. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p 11.</ref> They reinstalled Ismail's son ] as figurehead of a ''de facto'' British protectorate.<ref>De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, ''Historical Dictionary of Egypt''. Metuchen, New Jersey, USA; 1984; Scarecrow. p 17.</ref>

In 1906, the ] prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.

=== British protectorate (1882–1952) ===
{{Main|History of Egypt under the British}}

The ] remained a ] Ottoman province until 5 November 1914,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne|title=Treaty of Lausanne (1923): Article 17 of the treaty refers to Egypt and Sudan|work=byu.edu}}</ref> when it was declared a ] ] in reaction to the decision of the ] of the Ottoman Empire to join ] on the side of the ].

In 1914, the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state was changed to '']'', to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the ] in World War I. ] was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, ], as sultan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=111}}</ref>

After ], ] and the ] led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local ]. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates{{dubious|Words missing|date=September 2015}} to ] on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its ]. The revolt led the ] to issue a ] on 22 February 1922.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=112}}</ref>

], 17 July 1942]]

The ] drafted and implemented a ] in 1923 based on a ] system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as ] in 1924. In 1936, the ] was concluded. Continued instability due to remaining British influence and increasing political involvement by the king led to the dissolution of the parliament in a military '']'' known as the ]. The ] forced King ] to abdicate in support of his son ]. British military presence in Egypt lasted until 1954.<ref name=factbook>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref>

===Republic (1953–present)===
{{main|History of the Republic of Egypt}}
Following the ] by the ], the rule of Egypt passed to military hands. On 18 June 1953, the ] was declared, with General ] as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years.

====Tenure of President Nasser (1956–1970)====
] in Mansoura, 1960]]

Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by ]{{spaced ndash}}a ] and the real architect of the 1952 movement{{spaced ndash}}and was later put under ]. After Naguib's resignation, the position of President was vacant until the election of ] in 1956.<ref></ref>

Nasser assumed ] as President in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He ] the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956, prompting the 1956 ].

In 1958, Egypt and ] formed a sovereign union known as the ]. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when ] seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose ] with ] (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the ]. In 1959, the ] of the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed into the ] under the pretext of Arab union, and was never restored.

In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the ]. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined later.

In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to ] of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff ] verified them as "baseless",<ref>{{Harvnb|Aburish|2004|p=252}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kandil|2012|p=76}}</ref> Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: On 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the ] to Israeli shipping.<ref>Shlaim, Rogan, 2012 pp. 7, 106</ref> On 26 May ] declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel".<ref>{{cite book|author=Samir A. Mutawi|title=Jordan in the 1967 War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9bBJusRJIMC&pg=PA94|date=18 July 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-52858-0|page=95|quote="On 26 May he declared, "The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel"}}</ref>

Israel re-iterated that the ] closure was a ]. In the 1967 ], Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied ] and the ], which Egypt had ] since the ]. During the 1967 war, an ] was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Emergency Law in Egypt|url=http://www.fidh.org/THE-EMERGENCY-LAW-IN-EGYPT|work=International Federation for Human Rights|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref> Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}

At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p.120">Egypt on the Brink by Tarek Osman, Yale University Press, 2010, p.120</ref> Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser's policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.<ref name="Tarek Osman 2010, p.120"/> During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jesse Ferris|title=Nasser's Gamble: How Intervention in Yemen Caused the Six-Day War and the Decline of Egyptian Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UC4_aVRh7MgC&pg=PA172|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-15514-3|page=2|quote=during the 60's, "Egyptian economy went from sluggishness to the verge of collapse,&nbsp;... society became less free, and Nasser's appeal waned considerably"}}</ref>

====Tenure of President Sadat (1970–1981)====
], 1973]]
In 1970, President Nasser died and was succeeded by ]. Sadat switched Egypt's ] allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the ] economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the ], a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. It presented Sadat with a victory that allowed him to regain the Sinai later in return for peace with Israel.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 1973 Arab-Israeli War: Arab Policies, Strategies, and Campaigns |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1997/Jordan.htm |author=] Major Michael C. Jordan |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |year=1997 |accessdate=20 April 2009}}</ref>

]: ], ], ]]]
In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser's economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt's infant industries.<ref>Amin, Galal. ''Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990'', 1995</ref> Even though Sadat's policy was intended to modernise Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, led to the ].

Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 ] in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the ] and led to Egypt's expulsion from the ], but it was supported by most Egyptians.<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=443|edition=4.}}</ref> ] by an Islamic extremist in October 1981.

====Tenure of President Mubarak (1981–2011)====
] came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.<ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite news|last=Cambanis |first=Thanassis |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?pagewanted=1&ref=global-home |title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt |location=Egypt |work=The New York Times |date=11 September 2010 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref>

Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt's relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt's Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.

In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian ]s, foreign tourists and government officials.<ref>Murphy, Caryle ''Passion for Islam: Shaping the Modern Middle East: the Egyptian Experience'', Scribner, 2002, p.4</ref> In the 1990s an ] group, ], engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy—tourism<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924131816/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm |date=24 September 2013}}. Retrieved 27 September 2007.</ref>—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.<ref>], ''Jihad'', 2002</ref>

During Mubarak's reign, the political scene was dominated by the ], which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.<ref>Dunne, Michele (January 2006). "Evaluating Egyptian Reform". Carnegie Papers: Middle East Series (66): 4.</ref>

] grew into a ] with a population of over 20 million]]

On 17 November 1997, ] near ].

In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310152506/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=4565 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=10 March 2005 |title=Mubarak throws presidential race wide open |publisher=Business Today Egypt |date=10 March 2005 |accessdate=8 February 2013 |df= }}</ref> However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak's easy re-election victory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/012/034kggwf.asp |title=Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections |publisher=Weeklystandard.com |date=27 March 2006 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> Voter turnout was less than 25%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/gate/archive/2005/09/13/worldviews.DTL |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050915045155/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fgate%2Farchive%2F2005%2F09%2F13%2Fworldviews.DTL |archivedate=15 September 2005 |title=Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election |last=Gomez |first=Edward M |publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |date=12 September 2005 |accessdate=8 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0526/p06s01-wome.html |title=Egyptian vote marred by violence |publisher=Christian Science Monitor |date=26 May 2005 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> After the election, Mubarak imprisoned ], the runner-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |title=United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=24 December 2005 |accessdate=8 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021051128/http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2005/December/20051224115656retnuhategdirb0.6396906.html |archivedate=21 October 2011 |df= }}</ref>

Human Rights Watch's 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine ], arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.<ref name="HRW">{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/egypt12212.htm |title=Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt |publisher=Human Rights Watch |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> In 2007, ] released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6544149.stm |title=Egypt torture centre, report says |publisher=BBC News |date=11 April 2007 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6551401.stm |title=Egypt rejects torture criticism |publisher=BBC News |date=13 April 2007 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref>

Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6472031.stm |title=Anger over Egypt vote timetable |publisher=BBC News |date=20 March 2007 |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (]), described Egypt as a "]" political system, and democracy as a "long-term goal". Dessouki also stated that "the real center of power in Egypt is the military".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/07/09CAIRO1468.html|title=NDP Insider: Military will ensure transfer of power|date=30 July 2009|publisher=US Department of State|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128234139/http://wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/07/09CAIRO1468.html|archivedate=28 January 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==== Revolution and aftermath (2011–2014) ====
{{main|Egyptian crisis (2011–14)}}
{{multiple image
|width1 = 185
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|footer = '''Top:''' Celebrations in Tahrir Square after the announcement of Hosni Mubarak's resignation; '''Bottom:''' Protests in Tahrir Square against President ] on 27 November 2012.
|image1 = Tahrir Square on February11.png
|image2 = TahrirSquareAgainstMorsi.jpg
}}

On 25 January 2011, ] began against Mubarak's government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo's ] at the news.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/11/mubarak-red-sea-egypt_n_821812.html |title=Mubarak Resigns As Egypt's President, Armed Forces To Take Control |publisher=Huffington Post |date=11 February 2011 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> The ] then assumed the power to govern.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html |title=Mubarak Steps Down, Ceding Power to Military |work=The New York Times |date=11 February 2010 |accessdate=11 February 2011 |first=David D. |last=Kirkpatrick}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12433045 |title=Egypt crisis: President Hosni Mubarak resigns as leader |publisher=BBC |date=11 February 2010 |accessdate=11 February 2011}}</ref> ], chairman of the ], became the ''de facto'' interim ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hope |first=Christopher |last2=Swinford |first2=Steven |date=15 February 2011 |title=WikiLeaks: Egypt's new man at the top 'was against reform' |journal=] |accessdate=5 March 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/wikileaks/8326225/WikiLeaks-Egypts-new-man-at-the-top-was-against-reform.html |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Story.aspx?sid=53709 |title=The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces: Constitutional Proclamation |date=13 February 2011 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |accessdate=5 March 2011 |quote=The Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces shall represent it internally and externally.}}</ref> On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12443678|title=Egyptian Parliament dissolved, constitution suspended|publisher=BBC|date=13 February 2011|accessdate=13 February 2011}}</ref>

A ] was held on 19 March 2011. On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its ] since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Memmott |first=Mark |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2011/11/28/142840895/egypts-historic-day-begins-peacefully-turnout-high-for-elections |title=Egypt's Historic Day Proceeds Peacefully, Turnout High For Elections |publisher=Npr.org |date=28 November 2011 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> ] was ] on 24 June 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's new president moves into his offices, begins choosing a Cabinet|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/25/world/africa/egypt-politics|publisher=CNN|accessdate=13 February 2013|date=25 June 2012}}</ref> On 2 August 2012, Egypt's Prime Minister ] announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.<ref>{{cite news|url= |title= Egypt unveils new cabinet, Tantawi keeps defence post |date= 3 August 2012}}</ref>

Liberal and secular groups walked out of the ] because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.yahoo.com/rallies-against-egypt-presidents-powers-104941461.html |title=Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers |work=Associated Press |date=23 November 2012 |accessdate=23 November 2012}}</ref> On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20451208 |title=Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers |publisher=BBC News |date=22 November 2012 |accessdate=23 November 2012}}</ref>

The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/9699801/Violence-breaks-out-across-Egypt-as-protesters-decry-Mohammed-Morsis-constitutional-coup.html|first=Richard|last=Spencer|date=23 November 2012|accessdate=23 November 2012|title=Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohammed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'|work=]|location=London}}</ref> On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of president Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country's revolution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324640104578160902530961768 |title = Egypt Sees Largest Clash Since Revolution |publisher=Wall Street Journal|date=6 December 2012 |accessdate=8 December 2012}}</ref> Mohamed Morsi offered a "national dialogue" with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-morsi-20121207,0,2119116.story|title =Morsi refuses to cancel Egypt's vote on constitution|publisher=Los Angeles Times|date=6 December 2012 |accessdate=8 December 2012|first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman}}</ref>

On 3 July 2013, ] with autocratic excesses of Morsi's ] government,<ref name=morsi-think-again>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2013/01/28/think-again-the-muslim-brotherhood/|title=Think Again: The Muslim Brotherhood|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=28 January 2013|accessdate=7 December 2016}}</ref> the military removed President ] from power in a ] and installed an interim government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/04/world/middleeast/egypt.html?hp|title =Army Ousts Egypt's President; Morsi Denounces 'Military Coup'|publisher=New York Times|date=3 July 2013|accessdate=3 July 2013|first=David D.|last=Kirkpatrick}}</ref>

On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the ] ] was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi. The military-backed Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt protests: Hundreds killed after police storm pro-Morsi camps|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-08-15/hundreds-killed-in-cairo-as-security-forces-move-in-on-proteste/4887954|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=15 August 2013|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Abuse claims rife as Egypt admits jailing 16,000 Islamists in eight months|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/abuse-claims-rife-as-egypt-admits-jailing-16000-islamists-in-eight-months-9195824.html|publisher=The Independent|date=16 March 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref> Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt sentences 683 to death in latest mass trial of dissidents|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-683-to-death-in-latest-mass-trial-of-dissidents/2014/04/28/34e0ca2c-e8eb-4a85-8fa8-a7300ab11687_story.html|publisher=The Washington Post|date=28 April 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egyptian court sentences 529 people to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/egypt-sentences-529-to-death/2014/03/24/a4f95692-6992-461e-aaf1-9bc84908a429_story.html|publisher=The Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egyptian court sentences Muslim Brotherhood leader to life in prison|url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN0FA0BL20140705|publisher=Reuters|date=4 July 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref>

On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a ] following a referendum in which 98.1% of voters were supportive. 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/01/egypt-constitution-approved-981-percent-201411816326470532.html|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=18 January 2014|accessdate=18 January 2014}}</ref> a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.<ref>Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote, First vote of post-Morsi era shows strength of support for direction country has taken since overthrow of president in July, Patrick Kingsley in Cairo, theguardian.com, Saturday 18 January 2014 18.47 GMT, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/18/egypt-constitution-yes-vote-mohamed-morsi</ref> On 26 March 2014 ] the head of the ], who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/97612/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-ElSisi-bids-military-farewell,-says-he-will.aspx|title=Egypt's El-Sisi bids military farewell, says he will run for presidency|publisher=Ahram Online|date=26 March 2014|accessdate=26 March 2014}}</ref> The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.<ref>{{cite news|title=Former army chief scores landslide victory in Egypt presidential polls|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/29/abdel-fatah-al-sisi-sweeps-victory-egyptian-election|accessdate=29 May 2014|publisher=''The Guardian''}}</ref> Sisi was sworn into office as ] on 8 June 2014. The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sisi elected Egypt president by landslide|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/05/sisi-wins-egypt-elections-landslide-2014529134910264238.html|date=30 May 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref> Even though the military-backed authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt election: Sisi secures landslide win|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27614776|publisher=BBC|date=29 May 2014|accessdate=29 July 2014}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Egypt}}
] valley near ].]]
].]]
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes ] and ], and longitudes ] and ]. At {{convert|1001450|km2|-1}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html |title=World Factbook area rank order |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref> it is the world's 30th-largest country. Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iodeweb1.vliz.be/odin/bitstream/1834/383/1/Hamza.pdf |title=Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case |format=PDF |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fouberg|first1=Erin H.|last2=Murphy|first2=Alexander B.|author3=de Blij|title=Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ThFncGxOrzEC&pg=PT91|accessdate=10 February 2013|date=4 December 2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-57647-2|page=91}}</ref>

Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a ], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the ]) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a few ] scattered about. Winds create prolific ] that peak at more than {{convert|100|ft|0}} high. Egypt includes parts of the ] desert and of the ]. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt.

Towns and cities include ], the second largest city; ]; ]; ], the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; ]; ], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ]; ], where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; ]; and ]. ] include ], ], ], ] and ]. ] include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.

On 13 March 2015, plans for a ] were announced.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt to build new administrative and business capital|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-31874886|work=BBC News|date=13 March 2015}}</ref>

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Egypt}}
] in southern ], on a snowy winter morning.]]
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.<ref>Soliman, KH. ''Rainfall over Egypt''. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, p. 104.</ref> South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around {{convert|2|to|5|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as {{convert|410|mm|abbr=on|sigfig=3}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s=60326&refer= |title=Marsa Matruh, Egypt |publisher=Weatherbase.com |accessdate=3 November 2011}}</ref> mostly between October and March. ] falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as ], ] and ], and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.<ref>{{cite news |title= Biblical snowstorm: Rare flakes in Cairo, Jerusalem paralyzed by over a foot |first= Jason |last= Samenow |work= The Washington Post |date= 13 December 2013 |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/capital-weather-gang/wp/2013/12/13/rare-snow-in-cairo-jerusalem-paralyzed-in-historic-snow/}}</ref> ] is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. Egypt is the driest and the sunniest country in the world, and most of its land surface is desert.

] in Egypt's north west.]]
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The ] is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer.

It bringing scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over {{convert|40|°C}} and sometimes over {{convert|50|°C}} more in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less. The absolute highest temperatures in Egypt occur when the Khamaseen blows. The weather is always sunny and clear in Egypt, especially in cities such as ], ] and ]. It is one of the least cloudy and least rainy regions on Earth.

Prior to the construction of the ], the Nile flooded annually (colloquially ''The Gift of the Nile'') replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.

The potential rise in sea levels due to ] could threaten Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into ] by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=77240 |title=Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt &#124; IRIN News, March 2008 |publisher=Irinnews.org |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=EL DEEB and KEATH|first=Sarah and Lee|title=Islamist claims victory in Egypt president vote|url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/M/ML_EGYPT?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-06-17-23-11-03|work=Associated Press|accessdate=18 June 2012}}</ref>

===Biodiversity===
{{main|Wildlife of Egypt}}
Egypt signed the Rio ] on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |accessdate=8 December 2012}}</ref> It has subsequently produced a ], which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/eg/eg-nbsap-01-en.pdf |title=Egypt: National Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation |accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> Where many ] ] neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fungal-conservation.org/micheli.htm |title=The Micheli Guide to Fungal Conservation |accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> Egypt's plan was unusual in providing balanced information about all forms of life.

The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.<ref>A.M. Abdel-Azeem, ''The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt'' IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010).</ref> For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ibrahim|first1=Kamal M.|last2=Hosni|first2=Hasnaa A.|last3=Peterson|first3=Paul M.|title=Grasses of Egypt|date=2016|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press|location=Washington, D.C.|url=https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo67060|accessdate=16 April 2016}}</ref>

==Government==
{{Main|Politics of Egypt}}
{{multiple image|align=right|image1=Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.jpg|width1=150|caption1=] is the current ].|alt1=|width2=160|caption2=] is the current ].|image2=Sherif Ismail (cropped).jpg|alt2=}}
The ], whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. ] were last held between ] which was later dissolved. ] was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.<ref name=ao30aug>{{Cite news|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/139288/Egypt/Politics-/Egypt-parliamentary-elections-to-start--October---.aspx|title=Timetable for Egypt's parliamentary elections announced; voting to start 17 Oct |agency=Ahram Online|date=30 August 2015|accessdate=11 September 2015}}</ref> Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president ] pushed the date.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt to Hold Presidential Polls First: Interim President|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/92617.aspx|publisher=Ahram Online|accessdate=2 April 2014|date=26 January 2014}}</ref> The ], took place on 26–28 May 2014. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with ] winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.91% compared to 757,511 (3.09%) for ].<ref>{{cite web|title=El-Sisi wins Egypt's presidential race with 96.91%|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/102841/Egypt/Politics-/BREAKING-PEC-officially-announces-AbdelFattah-ElSi.aspx|website=English.Ahram.org|publisher=Ahram Online|accessdate=28 July 2014}}</ref>

After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the ] government of President ],<ref name="morsi-think-again"/> on 3 July 2013 then-] ] announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the ]. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying ] which was later published for ] and was adopted on 18 January 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/News/80519.aspx |title=Who's Who: Members of Egypt's 50-member constitution committee|publisher=Al-Ahram|accessdate=1 September 2013}}</ref>

In 2013, ] rated ] in Egypt at 5 (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), and ] at 5, which gave it the freedom rating of "Partly Free".<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/egypt|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House}}</ref>

] predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.<ref>Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. ''The Origins of Arab Nationalism''. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244–45</ref> The ideology espoused by ] such as the ] is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dawisha|first=Adeed|title=Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|pages=264–65, 267}}</ref>

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.<ref name="pogar"/> The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.<ref name="pogar">{{cite web|last=Brown|first=Nathan J.|title=Mechanisms of Accountability in Arab Governance: The Present and Future of Judiciaries and Parliaments in the Arab World|url=http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|publisher=Programme on Governance in the Arab Region|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605005203/http://www.undp-pogar.org/publications/governance/nbrown/potential.html#foot1|archivedate=5 June 2012}}</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Law of Egypt}}
].]]
The legal system is based on ] and civil law (particularly ]s); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory ] jurisdiction only with reservations.<ref name=factbook/>

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7235357.stm |title=Incorporating Sharia into legal systems |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2008 |accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Gender Equality Profile|url=http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Egypt-Gender-Eqaulity-Profile-2011.pdf|publisher=UNICEF}}</ref>

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a ] held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Egyptian constitution 'approved' in referendum|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-20829911 |work=BBC News|date=23 December 2012|accessdate=23 December 2012}}</ref> It replaced the ], adopted following the revolution.

The Penal code was unique as it contains a "]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lexadin.nl/wlg/legis/nofr/oeur/lxweegy.htm |title=Legislation Egypt |publisher=Lexadin.nl |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual ]. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=7 Egyptian Christians, Florida pastor sentenced to death for anti-Islam film |url=http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/11/28/seven-egyptian-christians-sentenced-to-death-for-anti-islam-film/ |publisher=Fox News |date=28 November 2012}}</ref>

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more ].<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-25796110|title=BBC News – Egypt referendum: '98% back new constitution'|last=BBC|date=18 January 2014|work=]|accessdate=19 January 2014}}</ref> The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.<ref name="BBC"/> The parliament may impeach the president.<ref name="BBC"/> Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute ].<ref name="BBC"/> The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.<ref name="BBC"/> Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".<ref name="BBC"/>

====Human rights====
{{Main|Human rights in Egypt}}
{{See also|Sudanese refugees in Egypt|August 2013 Rabaa Massacre|Persecution of Copts}}
The ] is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.eohr.org |title=Egyptian Organization for Human Rights |publisher=En.eohr.org |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |title=Law No. 94 of 2003 Promulgating The National Council for Human Rights |publisher=Nchregypt.org |date=16 February 2010 |accessdate=8 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012238/http://www.nchregypt.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=3 |archivedate=17 January 2013 |df= }}</ref> Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030701015847/http://www.eohr.org/PRESS/2003/6-3.HTM |archivedate=1 July 2003 |title=Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs |publisher=EOHR |date=3 June 2003 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anhri.net/en/discussion/2004/ehrc.shtml |title=The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree |publisher=ANHRI |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref>

] movement, which supports neither the Morsi government nor the Armed Forces, 31 July 2013]]
The ] ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnorthamerica.net/news.php?idnews=2748 |title=RELIGION: Few States Enjoy Freedom of Faith, Report Says – IPS |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=17 December 2009 |accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/restrictions/restrictionsfullreport.pdf |title=Global Restrictions on Religion – Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=17 December 2009 |accessdate=1 February 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110206073203/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/restrictions/restrictionsfullreport.pdf |archivedate= 6 February 2011 |df= }}</ref> The ], a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1457&Itemid=1 |title=USCIRF Watch List – USCIRF |publisher=Uscirf.gov |accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref> According to a 2010 ] Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the ] for those who ]; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.<ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/|publisher=Pew Global Attitudes Project}}</ref>

<!--doesn't show Egyptian side-->
In February 2016 ], an Italian Ph.D student from the ] studying ]s and worker's rights in the country, was found brutally murdered in ] after he went missing in January of the same year. Subsequently, Italy withdrew its ambassador to Egypt. Egyptian law enforcement produced conflicting information on the fate of the Italian citizen, which was unacceptable to Italian investigators. As a result, the Italian press and ] pointed at the systematic human right violations in Egypt, and threatened with political sanctions unless police leadership and practices undergo significant revisions.<ref>Spalinger A (April 2016).. Neue Zürcher Zeitung International. Retrieved 5 May 2016.</ref>

<!--reflects Mubarak- and Morsi-era information-->
] face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from disproportionate representation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/christian-martyrs-victims-radical-islam/story?id=9976549&page=4 |title=Christianity's Modern-Day Martyrs: Victims of Radical Islam – Rising Islamic Extremism Is Putting Pressure on Christians in Muslim Nations |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date=1 March 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref> Intolerance of ] and non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as ], ] and ], also remains a problem.<ref name="HRW"/> When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as ]s, could not obtain ].<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2008">{{cite web|url= https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108481.htm|title= Egypt, International Religious Freedom Report 2008|date=19 September 2008|publisher=]}}</ref> An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.<ref name="reuters">{{cite news|first=Cynthia |last=Johnston |title= Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers|url=http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080215133731/http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html|archivedate=15 February 2008 |agency=Reuters |date=29 January 2008 |accessdate=30 January 2008}}</ref>

] in a protest in September 2013.]]
Clashes continued between police and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi, at least ] in Cairo on 14 August 2013,<ref>{{Cite news|author=Mohsen, Manar |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |title=Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638 |newspaper=Daily News Egypt |date=16 August 2013 |accessdate=19 August 2013 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Iz4po5fD?url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/08/16/health-ministry-raises-death-toll-of-wednesdays-clashes-to-638/ |archivedate=19 August 2013 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy}}</ref> the worst mass killing in Egypt's modern history.<ref>"". ''The New York Times.'' 13 November 2013.</ref>

Egypt actively practices ]. Egypt's authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.<ref name="amnesty.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt-more-500-sentenced-death-grotesque-ruling-2014-03-24 |title=Egypt: More than 500 sentenced to death in 'grotesque' ruling – Amnesty International |date=24 March 2014 |work=amnesty.org |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111055849/http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt-more-500-sentenced-death-grotesque-ruling-2014-03-24 |archivedate=11 November 2014 |df= }}</ref> The United Nations human rights office<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/world/middleeast/un-expresses-alarm-over-egyptian-death-sentences.html?ref=capitalpunishment&_r=0 |work=The New York Times |first=Nick |last=Cumming-Bruce |title=U.N. Expresses Alarm Over Egyptian Death Sentences |date=25 March 2014}}</ref> and various ]s<ref name="amnesty.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/03/24/egypt-shocking-death-sentences-follow-sham-trial|title=Egypt: Shocking Death Sentences Follow Sham Trial – Human Rights Watch|work=hrw.org}}</ref> expressed "deep alarm" after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former President ] will be executed for their alleged role in violence following his ] in July 2013. The judgment was condemned as a violation of ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Egyptian court sentences nearly 530 to death|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325150616/http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/egypt-sentences-529-morsi-supporters-to-death/2014/03/24/46b21f46-b32c-11e3-bab2-b9602293021d_story.html|archive-date=25 March 2014|newspaper=Washington Post|date=24 March 2014|deadurl=yes}}</ref> By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count),<ref>, economist.com.</ref> mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after the coup <ref>"". ''The Guardian''. 24 March 2014.</ref> after the ] was labelled as ] by the post-coup interim Egyptian government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's interim Cabinet officially labels Muslim Brotherhood a terrorist group|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/12/25/world/africa/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-terrorism/|newspaper=CNN}}</ref>

After Morsi was ousted by the military, the judiciary system aligned itself with the new government, actively supporting the repression of Muslim Brotherhood members. This resulted in a sharp increase in mass death sentences that arose criticism from then-U.S. president Barack Obama and the General Secretary of the UN, Ban Ki Moon.

] is illegal in Egypt<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title= Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death | work = The Washington Post | date= 16 June 2016}}</ref> According to 2013 survey by the ], 95% of Egyptians believe that ] should not be accepted by society.<ref name="pewglobal.org"> ''pewglobal''. 4 June 2013. 4 June 2013.</ref>

In 2017 Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll by ]. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://poll2017.trust.org/|title=The world's most dangerous megacities for women 2017|last=Foundation|first=Thomson Reuters|work=poll2017.trust.org|access-date=24 October 2017}}</ref>

====Freedom of the press====
] ranked Egypt in their 2017 ] at no. 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country "that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense".<ref>Gehlen, M. (2015) , Zeit Online, 29 August 2015</ref>

===Military and foreign relations===
{{Main|Egyptian Armed Forces|Foreign relations of Egypt}}
]

The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian "]".<ref name="nytimes.com"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Cambanis|first=Thanassis|title=Succession Gives Army a Stiff Test in Egypt|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/12/world/middleeast/12egypt.html?_r=1&ref=global-home&pagewanted=all|accessdate=11 September 2010|newspaper=]|date=11 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/04/15/egyptian-armed-forces-and-remaking-of-economic-empire |title=The Egyptian Armed Forces and the Remaking of an Economic Empire |publisher=] |date=15 April 2015 |accessdate=23 June 2015 |author=Marshall, Shana}}</ref>

According to the former chair of Israel's Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, ], the ] has roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the ] and far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries and warships than the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/795822.html |title=Not the peace we expected |last=Steinitz |first=Yuval |work=Haaretz |date=4 December 2006 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a ], ]<ref>{{cite news |last=Katz |first=Yaacov|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=48099|title=Egypt to launch first spy satellite|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=15 January 2007}}</ref> in addition to ] launched on 16 April 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/16egyptsat2/ |title=Egyptian reconnaissance satellite launched by Soyuz |author=Stephen Clark |publisher=Spaceflight Now |date=16 April 2014 |accessdate=18 April 2014}}</ref>

{{multiple image
|width1 = 185
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|footer = '''Top:''' Former President ] with former US President ] at Camp David in 2002; '''Bottom:''' President ] and Russian President ] in Sochi, August 2014.
|image1 = Hosni Mubarak with George W. Bush.jpg
|image2 = Sisi and Putin meeting on 16 August 2014 (1).jpg
}}
The ] provides Egypt with annual ], which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/mar/31/obama-restores-us-military-aid-to-egypt |title=Obama restores US military aid to Egypt over Islamic State concerns |date=31 March 2015 |work=]}}</ref> In 1989, Egypt was designated as a ] of the United States.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/07/09/the-u-s-gives-egypt-1-5-billion-a-year-in-aid-heres-what-it-does/ |title=The U.S. gives Egypt $1.5 billion a year in aid. Here's what it does. |work=The Washington Post |date=9 July 2013}}</ref> Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the ] of Islamist president ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33003.pdf |title=Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations |publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=5 June 2014 |accessdate=8 October 2014 |author=Sharp, Jeremy M.}}</ref> with the ] denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/16/us-egypt-protests-obama-idUSBRE97E0N020130816 |title=Obama cancels military exercises, condemns violence in Egypt |publisher=Reuters |date=15 August 2013 |accessdate=8 October 2014 |author1=Holland, Steve |author2=Mason, Jeff}}</ref> There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32490624 |title=Business as usual for Egypt and the West |publisher=BBC |date=7 May 2015 |accessdate=23 June 2015 |author=Iqbal, Jawad}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29186686 |title=Egypt 'has key role' in fight against Islamic State – Kerry |publisher=BBC |date=13 September 2014 |accessdate=18 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/15/us-egypt-sisi-idUSBREA4E07X20140515 |title=Exclusive: Egypt's Sisi asks for U.S. help in fighting terrorism |publisher=Reuters |date=15 May 2014 |accessdate=18 October 2014 |author1=Adler, Stephen |author2=Mably, Richard}}</ref> However, following ] of ] ] as the ], the two countries are looking to improve the ]. al-Sisi and Trump had met during the opening of the ] in September 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's Sisi congratulates US President elect Donald Trump|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/248648/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-congratulates-US-President-elect-Donal.aspx|publisher=]|date=9 November 2016|accessdate=9 November 2016}}</ref> The absence of Egypt in President Trump's ] towards seven Muslim countries was noted in Washington although the Congress has voiced human rights concerns over the handling of dissidents.<ref>Reuters. (10 February 2017). "Analysis: Trump presidency heralds new era of US-Egypt ties ". (Jerusalem) Retrieved 10 February 2017.</ref> On 22 March 2017 it was reported that al-Sisi would be traveling to Washington to meet with Trump on 3 April 2017.<ref>Lee, Carol E., and Felicia Schwartz, , ''Wall Street Journal'', 22 March 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2017.</ref>

The Egyptian military has dozens of factories manufacturing weapons as well as consumer goods. The Armed Forces' inventory includes equipment from different countries around the world. Equipment from the former ] is being progressively replaced by more modern US, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the ] ].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} Relations with ] have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi's removal<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/russia-egypt-putin-sisi-visit-ukraine-palestine.html |title=Russia, Egypt draw closer |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=13 August 2014 |accessdate=8 October 2014 |author=Naumkin, Vitaly |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817094408/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/08/russia-egypt-putin-sisi-visit-ukraine-palestine.html |archivedate=17 August 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/17/us-russia-egypt-arms-idUSKBN0HC19T20140917 |title=Russia, Egypt seal preliminary arms deal worth $3.5 billion: agency |publisher=Reuters |date=17 September 2014 |accessdate=8 October 2014}}</ref> and trade ties<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/russia-boost-wheat-supplies-egypt-mulls-free-trade-144820576--sector.html |title=Russia to boost trade with Egypt after Western food ban |publisher=Yahoo News |date=12 August 2014 |accessdate=8 October 2014 |author=Anishchuk, Alexei}}</ref> among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. ] have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and ] established a bilateral "comprehensive strategic partnership".<ref>"". '']''. 24 December 2014</ref>

The permanent ] of the ] are located in Cairo and the body's secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister ]. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to ] in 1978 to protest the ], but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/saudi-arabia-uae-prop-egypt-5bn-aid-boost-1469781 |title=Saudi Arabia and UAE to Prop Up Egypt With $5bn Aid Boost |publisher=International Business Times |date=13 October 2014 |accessdate=17 October 2014 |author=Wilson, Nigel}}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887323423804579020510228645356 |title=Saudi King Offers Support to Egyptian Military |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=18 August 2013 |accessdate=17 October 2014 |author=Knickmeyer, Ellen}}</ref> have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the July 2013 coup.<ref>"". Al-Jazeera. 20 June 2014.</ref>
], 21 May 2017]]

Following the ] and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish ] with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.<ref>"Massive Israel protests hit universities" (Egyptian Mail, 16 March 2010) "According to most Egyptians, almost 31 years after a peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel, having normal ties between the two countries is still a potent accusation and Israel is largely considered to be an enemy country"</ref> Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the ] and the ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Middle East Contemporary Survey: 1995, Volume 19; Volume 1995 |publisher=Moshe Dayan Center |author=Maddy-Weitzmann, Bruce |year=1997 |pages=265 |isbn=9780813334110}}</ref> Egypt's ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in ] have hardly been challenged following ]'s evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the ] following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,<ref>"". CNN News. 1 August 2014.</ref> and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2014/08/13/the_sisi_doctrine_egypt_policy_gaza_israel_iraq |title=The Sisi Doctrine |work=Foreign Policy |date=13 August 2014 |accessdate=8 October 2014 |author=Hanna, Michael W.}}</ref>

Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including ] and ], have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt's peace treaty with Israel and Iran's rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.<ref>{{cite book |title=Egyptian Foreign Policy: Against the National Interest |publisher=] |author=Shama, Nael |year=2013 |pages=129–131}}</ref> Turkey's recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in ] also made of both countries bitter regional rivals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2015-03-08/turkey-and-egypts-great-game-middle-east |title=Turkey and Egypt's Great Game in the Middle East |work=] |date=8 March 2015 |accessdate=23 June 2015 |author1=Cagaptay, Soner |author2=Sievers, Marc}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/boycott-turkey-movement-grows-egypt-after-erdogans-inflammatory-un-speech-1467938 |title=Boycott Turkey Movement Grows in Egypt After Erdogan's Inflammatory UN Speech |work=International Business Times |date=30 September 2014 |accessdate=17 October 2014 |author=Mezzofiore, Gianluca}}</ref>

Egypt is a founding member of the ] and the ]. It is also a member of the ], since 1983. Former Egyptian ] ] served as ] from 1991 to 1996.

In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted "harsh, sometimes lethal" methods of border control.<ref>{{cite web|title=Desperate on the Border|author=Soussi, Alasdair |work=Jerusalem Report|date=9 November 2008|url=http://www.jpost.com/JerusalemReport/Article.aspx?id=119897|accessdate=30 September 2012}}</ref>

===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Governorates of Egypt|Subdivisions of Egypt}}
]
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.
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==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Egypt}}

]]
Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum imports, natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in ], ], the ] and Europe. The completion of the ] in 1970 and the resultant ] have altered the time-honoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited ], and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lexicorient.com/e.o/egypt_2.htm|title=Egypt: Economy|publisher=LookLex Encyclopedia|accessdate=21 August 2008}}</ref>

The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received ] since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt's economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601071446/http://www.undp.org.eg/Default.aspx?tabid=75 |date=1 June 2013}}. Undp.org.eg (11 February 2011). Retrieved 29 July 2013.</ref>

Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, ], and ]. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about {{convert|600000|t|-4|lk=on}} per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the ], and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at {{convert|2180|km3|-1}},<ref name="eia">{{cite web|title=Egypt|url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=EG|website=U.S. Energy Information Administration|accessdate=24 February 2015|date=14 August 2014}}</ref> and ] up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameinfo.com/egypt-reduce-natural-gas-exports-avoid-343607 |title=Egypt to reduce natural gas exports to avoid energy crisis |publisher=AMEinfo.com |accessdate=6 July 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803013304/http://www.ameinfo.com/egypt-reduce-natural-gas-exports-avoid-343607 |archivedate= 3 August 2013 |df= }}</ref>

{{double image|right|San Stefano Grand Plaza, Alexandria, Egypt.jpg|220|Flickr - archer10 (Dennis) - Egypt-2A-007.jpg|220|] in ] (left) and view from ].}}
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming ]. In its annual report, the ] (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.<ref name=IMF>{{cite web|last=Enders|first=Klaus|title=Egypt: Reforms Trigger Economic Growth|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2008/car021308a.htm|work=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2 February 2011|quote=In its most recent review of Egypt's economy, the IMF has said the expansion has broadened from energy, construction, and telecommunications to labor-intensive sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing.}}</ref> Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new ] implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in ] by the year 2006.

], a business district in ] established in 2001 to facilitate the growth of high-tech businesses.]]

] (FDI) in Egypt increased considerably before the removal of Hosni Mubarak, exceeding $6 billion in 2006, due to ] and ] measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} Since the fall of Hosni Mubarak in 2011, Egypt has experienced a drastic fall in both foreign investment and tourism revenues, followed by a 60% drop in foreign exchange reserves, a 3% drop in growth, and a rapid devaluation of the Egyptian pound.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/16/egypt-worst-economic-crisis-1930s |title=Egypt suffering worst economic crisis since 1930s |publisher=Guardian |accessdate=18 June 2013 |location=London |first=Patrick |last=Kingsley |date=16 May 2013}}</ref>

Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their ] or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=27105 |title=IRIN Middle East &#124; Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report &#124; Breaking News |publisher=Irinnews.org |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Rania Al Malky |url=http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2978 |title=et&nbsp;— Full Story |publisher=Egypttoday.com |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208233152/http://www.egypttoday.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2978 |archivedate=8 February 2009}}</ref> The government promised major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by ] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820192346/http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=20 August 2006 |title=Etisalat Wins Third License |author=Fatima El Saadani |date=August 2006 |publisher=Business Today |accessdate=21 August 2008 |df= }}</ref> In the ] 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/12/03/egypt-ranks-114th-on-corruption-scale/#dnePhoto/0/ |title=Egypt ranks 114th on corruption scale |publisher= |date=3 December 2013 |accessdate=8 December 2013}}</ref>

].]]
Egypt's most prominent multinational companies are the ] and Raya Contact Center. The information technology (IT) sector has expanded rapidly in the past few years, with many start-ups selling outsourcing services to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as many small and medium size enterprises. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya, E Group Connections and C3. The IT sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs with government encouragement.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through ] (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.<ref name="IOMEgypt"/> Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/business/economy/global-remittance-flow-grows-10-77-to-514-billion-in-2012-world-bank-1.1172693|title=Global remittance flow grows 10.77% to $514 billion in 2012: World Bank|author=Saifur Rahman|date=April 2013|publisher=Gulf News|accessdate=18 June 2013}}</ref>

Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt's population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/02/08/egypt_over_the_brink?page=0,1 |title=Egypt Over the Brink, interview with Tarek Osman |authors=Lauren E. Bohn, Sarah Lynch |publisher=Foreignpolicy.com |date=8 February 2011 |accessdate=8 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522032651/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/02/08/egypt_over_the_brink?page=0,1 |archivedate=22 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{main|Tourism in Egypt}}
]. ] has the greatest concentration of medieval architectural treasures in the Islamic world.]]
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt's workforce.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dziadosz |first=Alexander |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE59J0PG20091020 |title=Egypt tourism numbers to fall less than feared |publisher=] Africa |date=20 October 2009 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|last=Farouk |first=Dalia |url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/61366/Business/Economy/Egypt-tourism-shows-little-recovery-in-.aspx |title=Egypt tourism shows little recovery in 2012 |publisher=Ahram Online |date=27 December 2012 |accessdate=18 June 2013}}</ref>

], a resort town near ].]]
The ] is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the ] still in existence.

Egypt's beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over {{convert|3,000|km|abbr=off}}, are also popular tourist destinations; the ] beaches, ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] are popular sites.

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy in Egypt}}
]
Egypt produced 691,000&nbsp;] of oil and 2,141.05&nbsp;Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-] producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000&nbsp;bbl/d (in 2012).<ref name="eia"/>

Egypt is currently planning to build its first ] in ], in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia to lend Egypt $25 billion to build nuclear power plant|agency=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-russia-nuclear-idUSKCN0YA1G5|date=19 May 2016}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{main|Transport in Egypt}}

Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 40,800-kilometre (25,400&nbsp;mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by ]. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.

] The ] in Egypt is the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future.

], which is now the country's ] and largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist ], today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based at ], its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the ], ], ], ], and ]. The Current ] fleet includes 80 aeroplanes.

====Suez Canal====
{{main|Suez Canal}}
].]]
The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt considered the most important centre of the maritime transport in the ], connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between ] and ] without navigation around ]. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, {{convert|3|km|abbr=off}} from the half-way point.

The canal is {{convert|193.30|km|abbr=off}} long, {{convert|24|m|abbr=off}} deep and {{convert|205|m|abbr=off}} wide {{As of|2010|lc=y}}. It consists of the northern access channel of {{convert|22|km|abbr=off}} (14&nbsp;mi), the canal itself of {{convert|162.25|km|abbr=off}} and the southern access channel of {{convert|9|km|abbr=off}}. The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the lakes changes with the tide at Suez.

On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a ]. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt Says Work Finished on New Suez Canal|url=http://www.voanews.com/content/egypt-says-work-is-finished-on-new-suez-canal/2883548.html|publisher=Voice of America|date=29 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Egypt's New Suez Canal to Be Completed for Aug. 6 Ceremony|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/06/13/world/middleeast/ap-ml-egypt-suez-canal.html?_r=0|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=1 August 2015|date=30 June 2015}}</ref> The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33800076|title=Egypt launches Suez Canal expansion|date=6 August 2015|accessdate=6 August 2015|agency=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1531052/egypt-opens-new-6bn-suez-canal|title=Egypt Opens New £6bn Suez Canal|first=Sherine|last=Tadros|agency=Sky News|date=6 August 2015|accessdate=6 August 2015}}</ref>

===Water supply and sanitation===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Egypt}}
The piped ] in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of ] in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an ] in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to ]s.<ref>As per the 2006 census</ref>

Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of ].<ref name="IDRC">National Water Research Center, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2007): , Shaden Abdel-Gawad. Retrieved 30 April 2012.</ref> Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the ]. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.
]

===Irrigated land and crops===
Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt's agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.<ref name="ewup">Egyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt’s Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.</ref>

In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.<ref name="ewup" />

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Egypt|Egyptians}}

]
{{Historical populations
|source = Population in Egypt<ref name="pop1882-2006">{{cite web|title=Population in Censuses by Sex & Sex Ratio (1882–2006)|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/newvr/egyptinfigures/Tables/1-%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86/9.pdf|publisher=Egypt State Information Service}}</ref><ref name="capmas.gov.eg">{{cite web|title=الجهاز المركزي للتعبئة العامة والإحصاء|url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/Pages/ShowPDF.aspx?page_id=%20/Admin/Pages%20Files/2017109143840cns.pdf|website=www.capmas.gov.eg|accessdate=13 October 2017}}</ref>
|title = Historical populations in thousands
|percentages = pagr
|1882 |6712
|1897 |9669
|1907 |11190
|1917 |12718
|1927 |14178
|1937 |15921
|1947 |18967
|1960 |26085
|1966 |30076
|1976 |36626
|1986 |48254
|1996 |59312
|2006 |72798
|2013 |84314
|2017 |94798
}}
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East, and the third most populous on the ], with about 95 million inhabitants {{As of|2017|lc=y}}.<ref name="popclock">{{cite web |url=http://www.capmas.gov.eg/?lang=2 |title=Population Clock |date=27 April 2013 |publisher=] |accessdate=27 April 2013}}</ref> Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to ] and increases in agricultural productivity <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/6496585.stm |title=The limits of a Green Revolution? |publisher=BBC News |date=29 March 2007 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> enabled by the ].<ref>{{cite web|author=8 April 2000 by admin |url=http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |title=Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy |publisher=Foodfirst.org |date=8 April 2000 |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714215036/http://www.foodfirst.org/media/opeds/2000/4-greenrev.html |archivedate=14 July 2009 |df= }}</ref> Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when ] invaded the country in 1798.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/egypt/55.htm |title=Egypt – Population |publisher=Countrystudies.us |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref>

Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the ]in, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes , putting the ] at over 1,200 people per sq km, similar to ].

While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the ].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsourapas|first=Gerasimos|date=2 July 2016|title=Nasser’s Educators and Agitators across al-Watan al-‘Arabi: Tracing the Foreign Policy Importance of Egyptian Regional Migration, 1952–1967|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708|journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies|volume=43|issue=3|pages=324–341|doi=10.1080/13530194.2015.1102708|issn=1353-0194}}</ref> Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tsourapas|first=Gerasimos|date=10 November 2015|title=Why Do States Develop Multi-tier Emigrant Policies? Evidence from Egypt|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049940|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=41|issue=13|pages=2192–2214|doi=10.1080/1369183X.2015.1049940|issn=1369-183X}}</ref> An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in ], 332,600 in ], 226,850 in ], 190,550 in ] with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).<ref name="IOMEgypt">{{cite journal|url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Migration%20and%20Development%20in%20Egypt%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf |publisher=International Organization for Migration|title=Migration and Development in Egypt: Facts and Figures|year=2010|accessdate=21 July 2010|ref=harv}}</ref> The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/650606660|title=From Egypt to Europe : globalisation and migration across the Mediterranean|last=Simona.|first=Talani, Leila|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies|oclc=650606660}}</ref>

===Ethnic groups===
Ethnic ] are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 91% of the total population.<ref name=factbook/> Ethnic minorities include the ], ], ], ] Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the ], the ]-speaking ] (]) of the ], and the ] communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal ] communities concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of ] clans mostly in the Nile Delta and ] who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.

Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly ]ese, "some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations."<ref name="Karasapan">Omer Karasapan, , Brookings Institution (4 October 2016).</ref> Smaller numbers of immigrants come from ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Karasapan"/>

The ] estimated that the total number of "people of concern" (refugees, asylum seekers, and ]) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered ] was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.<ref name="Karasapan"/> Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.<ref name="Karasapan"/> There are 28,000 registered ].<ref name="Karasapan"/>

The once-vibrant and ancient ] and ] have almost ], with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian ]s visit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Egypt}}
The ] of the Republic is ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitutional Declaration 2011|url=http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/laws/constitution/|website=Egyptian Government Services|accessdate=1 December 2017}}</ref> The ]s are: ] (68%), ] (29%), ]<!--don't reduce the name, there are many similar named dialects--> (1.6%), ] (0.6%), ] (0.3%), ] (0.3%), ] (0.1%), ] and others. Additionally, ], ] and ], and more recently, African languages like ] and ] are the main languages of immigrants.

The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are ], ], ] and ].

Historically ] was spoken, of which the latest stage is ]. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in ] as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the ].<ref name=extinct>The language may have survived in isolated pockets in ] as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" in ''Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde'', 39 (1901), p. 87.</ref><ref name="Daily Star Egypt"></ref> It forms a separate branch among the family of ].

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Egypt}}

Egypt is a predominantly ] Muslim country with ] as its state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 85 - 90% are identified as Muslim, 10 - 15% as ], and 1% as other Christian denominations, although without a census the numbers cannot be known. Other estimates put the Christian population as high as 15 - 20% <ref group="nb">The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian though estimates vary. by the US Department of State ({{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/egypt/180843.htm|title=Background Note: Egypt|date=10 November 2010|publisher=US Department of State|accessdate=5 March 2011}}); the CIA World Factbook ({{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html|title=Egypt|date=4 September 2008|publisher=CIA}}) and the United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office ({{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|title=Egypt|date=27 January 2008|publisher=UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121212135632/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt|archivedate=12 December 2012|deadurl=yes|accessdate=16 February 2016}}). Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total. ({{cite encyclopedia|title=Egypt|publisher=Microsoft Encarta Online|url=http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|date=30 September 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003619/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761557408___0/Egypt.html|archivedate=21 October 2009}}). The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population at 94.6% ({{cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|title=Mapping The Global Muslim Population|publisher=Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life|page=8|format=PDF|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010050756/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archivedate=10 October 2009|deadurl=yes|accessdate=25 July 2011|df=dmy}}) Then in 2017 government owned news Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.</ref> ] form roughly 12% of the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/281789/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-Sisi-meets-world-Evangelical-churches-deleg.aspx|title=Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo - Politics - Egypt - Ahram Online|website=english.ahram.org.eg|language=en|access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref><ref> retrieved 4 September 2013</ref>

Egypt was a Christian country before the 7th century, and after Islam arrived, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Encyclopedia Coptica: The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt|url = http://www.coptic.net/EncyclopediaCoptica/|website = www.coptic.net|accessdate = 6 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Arab Conquest of Egypt|last = Butler|first = Alfred J.|publisher = © Oxford University Press 1978|year = 1978|isbn = 0-19-821678-5|location = |pages =}}</ref> It is not known when Muslims reached a majority variously estimated from ca. 1000 A.D. to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the ]. Under ], Islam became the official ] and ] the main source of law.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt |title=Egypt |publisher=] |accessdate=14 December 2011}}</ref> It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow ] ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/sufis%E2%80%99-choice-egypt%E2%80%99s-political-wild-card |title=The Sufis' Choice: Egypt's Political Wild Card |author=Kristin Deasy |publisher=World Affairs Journal |date=October 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}</ref><ref name=HuffPost15Million>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/14/sufis-in-egypt_n_3441037.html |title=Sufis In Egypt Thrive With More Than 15 Million Despite Attacks By Islamist Hardliners |author=Hassan Ammar |publisher=Huffington Post |date=14 June 2013 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hoffman|first=Valerie J.|title=Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt|year=1995|publisher=University of South Carolina Press}}</ref> with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.<ref name=HuffPost15Million/> At least 305 people were killed during a ] on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.<ref>Walsh, Declan, and Youssef, Nour, '''', The New York Times, 24 November 2017</ref>

There is also a ] minority. The ] estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million<ref>{{cite web|author=Col. (ret.) Jacques Neriah |url=http://jcpa.org/article/egypts-shiite-minority-between-the-egyptian-hammer-and-the-iranian-anvil/ |title=Egypt's Shiite Minority: Between the Egyptian Hammer and the Iranian Anvil |publisher=] |date=23 September 2012 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}</ref> and could measure as much as 3 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/story/1107961/egypt-attack-on-shia-comes-at-dangerous-time |title=Egypt: Attack On Shia Comes At Dangerous Time |author=Tim Marshall |publisher=Sky News |date=25 June 2013 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}</ref> The ] population is estimated at less than 50,000,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PmgkD3Hel5IC&pg=PA297|title=Between Heaven and Hell: Islam, Salvation, and the Fate of Others|author=Mohammad Hassan Khalil|date=2013|page=297 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199945412}}</ref> whereas the ] (ultra-conservative) population is estimated at five to six million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/politics/6073/what-salafism-and-should-we-be-worried |title=What is Salafism and should we be worried? |author=Venetia Rainey |publisher=Theweek.co.uk |date=20 April 2011 |accessdate=6 July 2013}}</ref> ] is famous for its numerous ] ]s and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".<ref>{{cite news|title= Cairo: Welcome to the city of 1,000 minarets|url= https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/africa/cairo-welcome-to-the-city-of-1000-minarets-692635.html|work=]|location=London|author= Robin Barton|date=19 February 2001}}</ref>

]]]

Of the ] over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an ] Christian Church.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrGL7o69KBIC&pg=PA145|title=Who are the Christians in the Middle East?|date=18 June 2009|publisher=Betty Jane Bailey |isbn=978-0-8028-1020-5}}</ref> Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the ], the ] and various other ] denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the ], who belong to ], ], and ] denominations.<ref>{{cite journal|title=CATHOLICS IN EGYPT REFLECT CHURCH'S RICH AND VARIED TRADITIONS|journal=L'Osservatore Romano|date=1 March 2000|volume=Weekly Edition in English|pages=6, 7|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/EGPTCATH.HTM}}</ref>

Ethnic ] also made up a large ] population in the past. Likewise, Armenians made up the then larger ] and ] communities. Egypt also used to have a large ] community, largely made up of ] and ]. These non-native communities were much larger in Egypt before the Nasser regime and the nationalisation that took place.

Egypt hosts the ]. It was founded back in the first century, considered to be the largest Church in the ] and ].

Egypt is also the home of ] (founded in 969 CE, began teaching in 975 CE), which is today the world's "most influential voice of establishment Sunni Islam" and is, by some measures, the second-oldest continuously operating university in world.<ref>Indira Falk Gesink, ''Islamic Reform and Conservatism: Al-Azhar and the Evolution of Modern Sunni Islam'' (I.B.Tauris, 2014), p. 2.</ref>

Egypt recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects practised by Egyptians, such as the small ] and ] community, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.<ref>{{cite news |last = al-Shahat |first =Abdel Moneim |title =Shahat: Baha'is threaten Egypt's national security |newspaper =Egypt Independent |date =18 February 2012 |url =http://www.egyptindependent.com/node/666371 |accessdate = 25 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{ cite news |url=https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/egypt-ahmadis-detained-under-emergency-law-rights-group/ |title=Egypt Ahmadis detained under emergency law: rights group |date=14 May 2010 |accessdate=4 June 2014}}</ref> Individuals, particularly Baha'is and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability (see ]), and are put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.<ref name="International Religious Freedom Report 2008"/><ref name="reuters"/>

===Largest cities===
{{see also|List of cities in Egypt}}
{{Largest cities of Egypt}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Egypt}}
] is listed as one of the world's sixty great public spaces by the ]]]
] is a commemoration of the ancient ]]]
Egypt is a recognised cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |title=MIDEAST: Egypt Makes Cultural Clout Count (IPS, Oct.&nbsp;29,&nbsp;2009) |publisher=Ipsnews.net |date=29 October 2009 |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427044804/http://www.ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=49061 |archivedate=27 April 2011 |df= }}</ref>

Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate ], ] and Judaism; and a new language, ], and its spoken descendant, ] which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm|title=The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?|author=Raymon Kondos|date=15 February 2004|accessdate=21 August 2008}}</ref>

The work of early 19th-century scholar ] renewed interest in ] and exposed Egyptian society to ] principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer ] a native ] school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as ] and ], who themselves studied the ], ] and ] of Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|last=El-Daly|first=Okasha|title=Egyptology: The Missing Millennium|year=2005|publisher=UCL Press|location=London|page=29}}</ref>

Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. They forged a ] path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, ] and faith in science to bring progress.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jankowski|first=James|title=Egypt, A Short History|page=130}}</ref>

===Arts===
]''.]]
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and ]. ], also known as calcium copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the ]s followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal ], ] and monumental tombs.

Well-known examples are the ] designed by ancient architect and engineer ], the ], and the temple of ]. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of ] and ], to ]'s sculptures, to the distinctive ] of ]. The ] serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.

===Literature===
{{main|Egyptian literature}}
], the first Arabic-language writer to win the ] in Literature.]]
Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ] and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the ].<ref>{{Citation |last=Edwards |first=Amelia |title=THE LITERATURE AND RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. |url=http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/edwards/pharaohs/pharaohs-6.html |accessdate=30 September 2007}}</ref> It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of ], and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm |title=Global influence of Egyptian culture |date=4 February 2006 |publisher=Egypt State Information Service |accessdate=21 August 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124223643/http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/EgyptOnline/Culture/000001/0203000000000000000567.htm |archivedate=24 November 2007}}</ref> The first modern Egyptian novel '']'' by ] was published in 1913 in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Vatikiotis|first=P.J.|title=The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak|year=1991|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-82034-5|page=486|edition=4.}}</ref> Egyptian novelist ] was the first Arabic-language writer to win the ]. Egyptian women writers include ], well known for her ] ], and ] who also writes about women and tradition.

Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular ] among Egyptians, represented by the works of ] (Fagumi), ] and ].{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}

===Media===
{{main|Media of Egypt}}
] are highly influential throughout the ], attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm#media |title=Country profiles: Egypt |publisher=BBC News |date=15 January 2013 |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tbsjournal.com/Archives/Fall05/Levinson.html |title=Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections |publisher=Tbsjournal.com |accessdate=8 February 2013}}</ref> Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.<ref name=bbc/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=251&year=2007 |title=Freedom House 2007 report |publisher=Freedomhouse.org |date=10 May 2004 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref>

===Cinema===
{{main|Cinema of Egypt}}
], film star.]]

] became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist ], emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Darwish|first=Mustafa|title=Dream Makers on the Nile: A Portrait of Egyptian Cinema|publisher=American University in Cairo Press|location=Cairo|pages=12–13|year=1998}}</ref> For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.{{citation needed|date=February 2013}} Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the ]. Actors from all over the ] seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The ] has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.<ref>{{cite web|author=Film Festivals |url=http://azam.net/ukhotmovies/film-festivals/cairo-film-festival/ |title=Cairo International Film Festival information |publisher=UKHotMovies |date=1 December 2005 |accessdate=17 February 2018}}</ref>

===Music===
{{main|Music of Egypt}}

] is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of ] since antiquity. The ancient ] credited one of their gods ] with the invention of ], which ] in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013114158/http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/MIRE/Introduction/AncientEgypt/AncientEgypt.html |date=13 October 2015}}, ], ].</ref>

Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as ], Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of ], ], ] and ] whose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt and the whole Middle East and North-Africa. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include ] and ].

===Dances===
] dancer performing in Wekalet El Ghoury, Cairo.]]Today, Egypt is often considered the home of ]. Egyptian ] has two main styles – ] and ]. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with ].

===Museums===
{{main|List of museums in Egypt}}
] in Cairo.]]
Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as; Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact with other nations and ] Egypt had been through, at least 60 museums may be found in Egypt, mainly covering a wide area of these ages and conflicts.

].]]

The three main museums in Egypt are ] which has more than 120,000 items, the ] and the ].

The ] (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |title=Marketplace: Egypt's next big thing |author=Nancy Farghalli |work=Marketplace |publisher=American Public Media |date=25 July 2006 |accessdate=31 May 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515221138/http://marketplace.publicradio.org/shows/2006/07/25/AM200607251.html |archivedate=15 May 2008 |df= }}</ref> The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on {{convert|50|ha|acre}} of land approximately {{convert|2|km|mi|spell=in|abbr=off}} from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/great-museum-be-inaugurated-may-2018|title=Great Museum to be inaugurated in May 2018 – Egypt Independent|publisher=}}</ref>

===Festivals===
Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as ''mulid''. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. ] has a special flavour in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as ''fawanees'') and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Ramadan.

The ancient spring festival of ] (]: {{Coptic|Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ}} ''shom en nisim'') has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the ] of ] (April) and ] (May), following ] Sunday.

===Cuisine===
{{main|Egyptian cuisine}}
], one of Egypt's national dishes.]]
Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Though food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.

Some consider ] (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the ]. Fried onions can be also added to kushari. In addition, ] (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making ] (also known as "ta‘miya"), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to ], a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.

===Sports===
].]]
] is the most popular ] of Egypt. The ] is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sportacademy/hi/sa/football/features/newsid_2299000/2299305.stm |title=BBC Sport Academy &#124; Al-Ahly v Zamalek |publisher=BBC News |date= 5 August 2002 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> ] is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals ]. They're known as the "]". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy's ] and Argentina's ], both having eighteen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2014/12/11/al-ahly-master-world/ |title=Al-Ahly – master of the world |publisher=Daily News Egypt |date=11 December 2014 |accessdate=22 December 2014}}</ref>

The ], known as the Pharaohs, won the ] seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the ] three times. Two goals from star player ] in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2017/oct/08/world-cup-round-up-egypt-poland-qualify|title=Mo Salah's late penalty gives Egypt first World Cup qualification since 1990|date=8 October 2017|work=The Guardian}}</ref> The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the ] in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the ] and the ] Olympics.

] and ] are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. ] and ] are Egypt's best players and both were ranked tne world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships four times, with the last title being in ].

In 1999, Egypt ] the ], and will host it again in ]. In 2001, the ] achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the ] five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the ] in ], the ] in ] and the ] in ].
Among all African nations, the ] holds the record for best performance at the ] and at the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/event/p/cid//sid/2902/_/1950_FIBA_World_Championship_for_Men/index.html |title=1950 World Championship for Men |publisher=FIBA |date= 9 June 2012 |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/team/p/sid/2933/tid/276/_/1952_Olympic_Games_Tournament_for_Men/index.html |title=Egypt – 1952 Olympic Games; Tournament for Men |publisher=FIBA |date= 9 June 2012 |accessdate=9 June 2012}}</ref> Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the ].

] in the ] since 1912 and hosted and Alexandria h ] ] in 1951. Egypt has hosted several international competitions. The last one being the ] which took place between 24 September – 16 October 2009.

On Friday 19 September 2014, ] announced that ] ] is the new title holder for deepest salt water ], at {{convert|332.35|m|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/6/56/111120/Sports/Omni-Sports/BREAKING-Egyptian-Ahmed-Gabr-breaks-deepest-scuba-.aspx|title=Egyptian Ahmed Gabr breaks world's deepest scuba dive record – Omni Sports – Sports – Ahram Online|work=ahram.org.eg}}</ref> Ahmed set a new world record Friday when he reached a depth of more than {{convert|1,000|ft|m|lk=out|abbr=off}}. The 14-hour feat took Gabr {{convert|1,066|ft|m|abbr=off}} down into the abyss near the Egyptian town of ] in the ], where he works as a diving instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/egyptian-scuba-diver-ahmed-gabr-plunges-1-066-feet-set-n207061|title=Egyptian Scuba Diver Ahmed Gabr Plunges 1,066 Feet to Set World Record|work=NBC News}}</ref>

On 1 September 2015 ] was ranked as the world number one woman squash player.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://psaworldtour.com/news/view/2204|title=Raneem El Welily Is New Women's World No.1|work=psaworldtour.com}}</ref> Other female Egyptian squash players include ], ], ] and ].

==Telecommunication==
{{main|Telecommunications in Egypt}}
The wired and wireless telecommunication industry in Egypt started in 1854 with the launch of the country's first telegram line connecting ] and ]. The first telephone line between the two cities was installed in 1881.<ref name=te>{{cite web|title=Historical synopsis of Telecom Egypt's developments |url=http://telecomegypt.com.eg/English/te_history.asp |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131114094542/http://www.telecomegypt.com.eg/English/te_history.asp |archivedate=14 November 2013 |df= }}</ref> In September 1999 a national project for a technological renaissance was announced reflecting the commitment of the Egyptian government to developing the country's IT-sector.

===Cellular===
Cellular ] services were first launched in Egypt in 1996.<ref name=te/> {{As of|2011|06}}, it is currently offering 2G/3G/4G services, 4G LTE services were under trials, officially launched in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |title=LTE network plans: Middle East and Africa |publisher=telecoms.com |date=23 June 2011 |url=http://www.telecoms.com/29712/lte-network-plans-middle-east-and-africa/}}</ref>
Egypt currently has 4 companies offering cellular services:
* ], owned by ]
* ], owned by ] and ]
* ], owned by ]
* ], operating as WE Egypt and owned by the ]

===Post===
{{main|Egypt Post}}
] is the company responsible for postal service in Egypt. Established in 1865, it is one of the oldest governmental institutions in the country. Egypt is one of 21 countries that contributed to the establishment of the ], initially named the General Postal Union, as signatory of the ].

=== Social Media ===
In September 2018, Egypt ratified the law granting authorities the right to monitor social media users in the country as part of tightening internet controls.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themalaysianinsight.com/s/92495|title=Egypt approves law clamping down on social media {{!}} The Malaysian Insight|website=www.themalaysianinsight.com|language=en|access-date=2018-09-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/egypt-president-approves-law-clamping-down-on-social-media-10676410|title=Egypt president approves law clamping down on social media|work=Channel NewsAsia|access-date=2018-09-03|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.breitbart.com/news/egypt-president-approves-law-clamping-down-on-social-media/|title=Egypt president approves law clamping down on social media - Breitbart|last=AFP|work=Breitbart|access-date=2018-09-03|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Education==
{{main|Education in Egypt}}
].]]
]

The illiteracy rate has decreased since 1996 from 39.4 to 25.9 percent in 2013. The adult literacy rate as of July 2014 was estimated at 73.9%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indexmundi.com/egypt/literacy.html|title=Egypt Literacy|work=indexmundi.com}}</ref> The illiteracy rate is highest among those over 60 years of age being estimated at around 64.9%, while illiteracy among youth between 15 and 24 years of age was listed at 8.6 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://egyptianstreets.com/2014/09/09/more-than-25-of-egypts-population-illiterate/|title=More than 25% of Egypt's population 'illiterate'|author=The Cairo Post|work=Egyptian Streets}}</ref>

A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.<ref name=edu-chatham/> Under British occupation investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.<ref name=edu-chatham/>

In the 1950s, president Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.<ref name=edu-chatham/> The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.<ref name=edu-chatham/> Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.<ref name=edu-chatham/> Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.<ref name=edu-chatham>{{cite web|title=Education in Egypt: Key Challenges|url=http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|publisher=Chatham House|date=March 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224022844/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/0312egyptedu_background.pdf|archivedate=24 December 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.<ref name=oecd-edu>{{cite book|title=Higher education in Egypt|year=2010|publisher=OECD|isbn=978-92-64-08434-6|page=60|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/reviews-of-national-policies-for-education-higher-education-in-egypt-2010_9789264084346-en|edition=2010}}</ref> After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the ], the leaving exam.<ref name=oecd-edu/>

Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.<ref name=oecd-edu/>

] is ranked as 401–500 according to the ] (Shanghai Ranking)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings/Cairo-University.html|title=Cairo University – Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2015 – Shanghai Ranking – 2015|work=shanghairanking.com}}</ref> and 551–600 according to ]. ] is ranked as 360 according to ] and ], ] and ] fall in the 701+ range.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/universities/region/6/country/21|title=Universities|work=Top Universities}}</ref>
Egypt is currently opening new research institutes for the aim of modernising research in the nation, the most recent example of which is ].

==Health==
{{main|Health in Egypt}}
]]]

Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=7|publisher=SESRIC}}</ref> In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Health|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=17&cat_code=8|publisher=SESRIC}}</ref>

As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt's healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programs are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101-132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50-60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28-30/1000).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsurance.com/health-insurance/egypt/|title=Egypt Health Insurance|work=globalsurance.com}}</ref>

According to the ] in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/topics/fgm/prevalence/en/index.html |title=Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices |publisher=WHO |year=2011 |accessdate=28 January 2011}}</ref> despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.<ref>{{cite news|title=Egypt's parliament passes bill designating FGM a felony, imposes stricter penalties|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/242112/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-parliament-passes-bill-designating-FGM-a-fe.aspx|accessdate=1 December 2016|agency=Ahram Online}}</ref>

The total number of Egyptians with ] reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt's population.<ref>{{cite web|title=SIS|url=http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Templates/Articles/tmpArticles.aspx?CatID=729|publisher=State Information Service}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Egypt|Middle East}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* <!-- {{wikipedia books link|Egypt}} -->

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book|last=Shaw|first=Ian|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|location=Oxford, England|isbn=0-19-280458-8}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Egypt|voy=Egypt}}
; Government
* (Arabic, English)
* (Arabic, English)
* (Arabic, English, French)
*

; General
* from the ]
* {{CIA World Factbook link|eg|Egypt}}
* profile from ]
* {{GovPubs|egypt}}
*
* {{ArabDecision|coun_sel_3_14.htm}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Egypt}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Egypt}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|1473947}}
* – ] Map Collection, ]

; Trade
*

; Other
* '''' by Leonard William King, at Project Gutenberg.
*
* ''By Nile and Tigris'' – a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British mu ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] seum between 1886 and 1913, by Sir ], 1920 ( and formats)
* .

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Revision as of 15:00, 7 September 2018

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