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| '''Socialism''' is a range of ] and ]s characterised by ] and ] of the ]{{refn|<ref>{{cite book |title=Upton Sinclair's: A Monthly Magazine: for Social Justice, by Peaceful Means If Possible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0w9AQAAMAAJ |date=1 January 1918 |last=Sinclair |first=Upton |authorlink=Upton Sinclair |quote=Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'}}</ref><ref name="Nove">{{cite web |last=Nove |first=Alec |title=Socialism |website=New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition (2008) |url=http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_S000173 |quote=A society may be defined as socialist if the major part of the means of production of goods and services is in some sense socially owned and operated, by state, socialised or cooperative enterprises. The practical issues of socialism comprise the relationships between management and workforce within the enterprise, the interrelationships between production units (plan versus markets), and, if the state owns and operates any part of the economy, who controls it and how.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rosser |first=Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr. |title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy |publisher=MIT Press |date=23 July 2003 |isbn=978-0262182348 |page=53 |quote=Socialism is an economic system characterised by state or collective ownership of the means of production, land, and capital.}}</ref><ref name="N. Scott Arnold 1998. pg. 8">"What else does a socialist economic system involve? Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system" N. Scott Arnold. ''The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism : A Critical Study''. Oxford University Press. 1998. p. 8</ref><ref name="Busky1">{{cite book |last=Busky |first=Donald F. |title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey |publisher=Praeger |date=20 July 2000 |isbn=978-0275968861 |page=2 |quote=Socialism may be defined as movements for social ownership and control of the economy. It is this idea that is the common element found in the many forms of socialism.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Bertrand Badie |author2=Dirk Berg-Schlosser |author3=Leonardo Morlino |title=International Encyclopedia of Political Science |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc |year=2011 |isbn=978-1412959636 |page=2456 |quote=Socialist systems are those regimes based on the economic and political theory of socialism, which advocates public ownership and cooperative management of the means of production and allocation of resources.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Zimbalist, Sherman and Brown |first=Andrew, Howard J. and Stuart |title=Comparing Economic Systems: A Political-Economic Approach |publisher=Harcourt College Pub |date=October 1988 |isbn=978-0155124035 |page=7 |quote=Pure socialism is defined as a system wherein all of the means of production are owned and run by the government and/or cooperative, nonprofit groups.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Brus |first=Wlodzimierz |title=The Economics and Politics of Socialism |publisher=Routledge |date=5 November 2015 |isbn=978-0415866477 |page=87 |quote=This alteration in the relationship between economy and politics is evident in the very definition of a socialist economic system. The basic characteristic of such a system is generally reckoned to be the predominance of the social ownership of the means of production.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Michie |first=Jonathan |title=Readers Guide to the Social Sciences |publisher=Routledge |date=1 January 2001 |isbn=978-1579580919 |page=1516 |quote=Just as private ownership defines capitalism, social ownership defines socialism. The essential characteristic of socialism in theory is that it destroys social hierarchies, and therefore leads to a politically and economically egalitarian society. Two closely related consequences follow. First, every individual is entitled to an equal ownership share that earns an aliquot part of the total social dividend…Second, in order to eliminate social hierarchy in the workplace, enterprises are run by those employed, and not by the representatives of private or state capital. Thus, the well-known historical tendency of the divorce between ownership and management is brought to an end. The society – i.e. every individual equally – owns capital and those who work are entitled to manage their own economic affairs.}}</ref>}} as well as the political theories and movements associated with them.<ref name="Socialism at The Free dictionary">"2. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) any of various social or political theories or movements in which the common welfare is to be achieved through the establishment of a socialist economic system" </ref> Social ownership may refer to forms of ], ] or ] ownership, or to ].<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2 |publisher=] |date=September 2003 |isbn=978-0-415-24187-8 |page=71 |quote=In order of increasing decentralisation (at least) three forms of socialised ownership can be distinguished: state-owned firms, employee-owned (or socially) owned firms, and citizen ownership of equity.}}</ref> There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them,<ref name="Peter Lamb 2006. p. 1">{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=1}}</ref> though social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms.<ref name="Busky1"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Scott |title=The Philosophy and Economics of Market Socialism: A Critical Study |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1994 |isbn=978-0195088274 |pages=7–8 |quote=This term is harder to define, since socialists disagree among themselves about what socialism ‘really is.’ It would seem that everyone (socialists and nonsocialists alike) could at least agree that it is not a system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…To be a socialist is not just to believe in certain ends, goals, values, or ideals. It also requires a belief in a certain institutional means to achieve those ends; whatever that may mean in positive terms, it certainly presupposes, at a minimum, the belief that these ends and values cannot be achieved in an economic system in which there is widespread private ownership of the means of production…Those who favor socialism generally speak of social ownership, social control, or socialization of the means of production as the distinctive positive feature of a socialist economic system.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Hastings, Mason and Pyper |first=Adrian, Alistair and Hugh |title=The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=21 December 2000 |isbn=978-0198600244 |page=677 |quote=Socialists have always recognized that there are many possible forms of social ownership of which co-operative ownership is one...Nevertheless, socialism has throughout its history been inseparable from some form of common ownership. By its very nature it involves the abolition of private ownership of capital; bringing the means of production, distribution, and exchange into public ownership and control is central to its philosophy. It is difficult to see how it can survive, in theory or practice, without this central idea.}}</ref> | |||
| <!-- Economic theory. --> | |||
| Socialist economic systems can be divided into non-market and ] forms.<ref name="Kolb">{{cite book |last=Kolb |first=Robert |title=Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society, First Edition |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc |date=19 October 2007 |isbn=978-1412916523 |page=1345 |quote=There are many forms of socialism, all of which eliminate private ownership of capital and replace it with collective ownership. These many forms, all focused on advancing distributive justice for long-term social welfare, can be divided into two broad types of socialism: nonmarket and market.}}</ref> Non-market socialism involves the substitution of ]s and ] with engineering and technical criteria based on ], thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different ] from those of ]. Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and ] traditionally associated with ] and the profit system.{{refn|<ref>{{cite book |last=Bockman |first=Johanna |title=Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7566-3 |page=20 |quote=socialism would function without capitalist economic categories – such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent – and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognised the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilise the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steele |first=David Ramsay |title=From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation |publisher=Open Court |date=September 1999 |isbn=978-0875484495 |pages=175–77 |quote=Especially before the 1930s, many socialists and anti-socialists implicitly accepted some form of the following for the incompatibility of state-owned industry and factor markets. A market transaction is an exchange of property titles between two independent transactors. Thus internal market exchanges cease when all of industry is brought into the ownership of a single entity, whether the state or some other organization...the discussion applies equally to any form of social or community ownership, where the owning entity is conceived as a single organization or administration.}}</ref><ref>''Is Socialism Dead? A Comment on Market Socialism and Basic Income Capitalism'', by Arneson, Richard J. 1992. Ethics, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 485–511. April 1992: "Marxian socialism is often identified with the call to organize economic activity on a nonmarket basis."</ref><ref>''Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists'', by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. From "The Difference Between Marxism and Market Socialism" (pp. 61–63): "More fundamentally, a socialist society must be one in which the economy is run on the principle of the direct satisfaction of human needs...Exchange-value, prices and so money are goals in themselves in a capitalist society or in any market. There is no necessary connection between the accumulation of capital or sums of money and human welfare. Under conditions of backwardness, the spur of money and the accumulation of wealth has led to a massive growth in industry and technology ... It seems an odd argument to say that a capitalist will only be efficient in producing use-value of a good quality when trying to make more money than the next capitalist. It would seem easier to rely on the planning of use-values in a rational way, which because there is no duplication, would be produced more cheaply and be of a higher quality."</ref><ref>''The Economics of Feasible Socialism Revisited'', by Nove, Alexander. 1991. p. 13: "Under socialism, by definition, it (private property and factor markets) would be eliminated. There would then be something like ‘scientific management’, ‘the science of socially organized production’, but it would not be economics."</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Socialism and Capitalism: Are They Qualitatively Different Socioeconomic Systems? |last=Kotz |first=David M. |accessdate=19 February 2011 |website=University of Massachusetts |url=http://people.umass.edu/dmkotz/Soc_and_Cap_Diff_Syst_06_12.pdf |format=PDF}} "This understanding of socialism was held not just by revolutionary Marxist socialists but also by evolutionary socialists, Christian socialists, and even anarchists. At that time, there was also wide agreement about the basic institutions of the future socialist system: public ownership instead of private ownership of the means of production, economic planning instead of market forces, production for use instead of for profit."</ref><ref name="Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past 1">''Toward a Socialism for the Future, in the Wake of the Demise of the Socialism of the Past'', by Weisskopf, Thomas E. 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 24, No. 3-4, p. 2: "Socialism has historically been committed to the improvement of people's material standards of living. Indeed, in earlier days many socialists saw the promotion of improving material living standards as the primary basis for socialism's claim to superiority over capitalism, for socialism was to overcome the irrationality and inefficiency seen as endemic to a capitalist system of economic organization."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Prychito |first=David L. |title=Markets, Planning, and Democracy: Essays After the Collapse of Communism |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |date=31 July 2002 |isbn=978-1840645194 |page=12 |quote=Socialism is a system based upon de facto public or social ownership of the means of production, the abolition of a hierarchical division of labor in the enterprise, a consciously organized social division of labor. Under socialism, money, competitive pricing, and profit-loss accounting would be destroyed.}}</ref>}} By contrast, ] retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases the ], with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a ].<ref name="Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism, 2004">''Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism'', by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2 |publisher=] |date=September 2000 |isbn=978-0415241878 |page=71 |quote=Market socialism is the general designation for a number of models of economic systems. On the one hand, the market mechanism is utilized to distribute economic output, to organize production and to allocate factor inputs. On the other hand, the economic surplus accrues to society at large rather than to a class of private (capitalist) owners, through some form of collective, public or social ownership of capital.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Pierson |first=Christopher |title=Socialism After Communism: The New Market Socialism |publisher=Pennsylvania State Univ Press |date=August 1995 |isbn=978-0271014784 |page=96 |quote=At the heart of the market socialist model is the abolition of the large-scale private ownership of capital and its replacement by some form of ‘social ownership’. Even the most conservative accounts of market socialism insist that this abolition of large-scale holdings of private capital is essential. This requirement is fully consistent with the market socialists’ general claim that the vices of market capitalism lie not with the institutions of the market but with (the consequences of) the private ownership of capital...}}</ref> The ] discusses the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a socialist system. | |||
| <!-- Political theory. --> | |||
| The socialist ] includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to-late 18th century and out of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism.<ref name="Peter Lamb 2006. p. 1"/> In addition to the debate over markets and planning, the varieties of socialism differ in their form of social ownership, how management is to be organised within productive institutions and the role of the state in constructing socialism.<ref name="Nove" /><ref name="Peter Lamb 2006. p. 1"/> Core dichotomies include ] versus ] and ] versus ]. Socialist politics has been both centralist and decentralised; internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent of''—''and critical of''—''unions; and present in both industrialised and developing countries.<ref>"In fact, socialism has been both centralist and local; organized from above and built from below; visionary and pragmatic; revolutionary and reformist; anti-state and statist; internationalist and nationalist; harnessed to political parties and shunning them; an outgrowth of trade unionism and independent of it; a feature of rich industrialized countries and poor peasant-based communities" Michael Newman. Socialism: A very Short introduction. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 2.</ref> While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term "]" is often used to highlight its advocates' high value for ] and democratic ]s,<ref>Often, this definition is invoked to distinguish democratic socialism from authoritarian socialism as in Malcolm Hamilton ''Democratic Socialism in Britain and Sweden'' (St Martin's Press 1989), in Donald F. Busky, Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey Greenwood Publishing, 2000, See pp. 7–8., Jim Tomlinson's ''Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945–1951'', Norman Thomas ''Democratic Socialism: a new appraisal'' or ]'s ''Choose Freedom: The Future of Democratic Socialism''</ref> usually to draw contrast to tendencies they may be perceived to be undemocratic in their approach. Democratic socialism is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the ], which critics argue operated in an ] fashion.<ref>Nicholas Guilhot, The democracy makers: human rights and international order, 2005, p. 33 "The opposition between the West and Soviet totalitarianism was often presented as an opposition both moral and epistemological between truth and falsehood. The democratic, social, and economic credentials of the Soviet Union were typically seen as "lies" and as the product of a deliberate and multiform propaganda...In this context, the concept of totalitarianism was itself an asset. As it made possible the conversion of prewar anti-fascism into postwar anti-communism</ref><ref>David Caute, Politics and the novel during the Cold War, 2009, pp. 95–99</ref><ref>George A Reisch, How the Cold War transformed philosophy of science: to the icy slopes of logic, 2005, pp. 153–54</ref> | |||
| <!-- Short history. --> | |||
| By the late 19th century, after the work of ] and his collaborator ], socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a ] system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gasper |first=Phillip |title=The Communist Manifesto: a road map to history's most important political document |publisher=Haymarket Books |date=October 2005 |isbn=978-1-931859-25-7 |page=24 |quote=As the nineteenth century progressed, "socialist" came to signify not only concern with the social question, but opposition to capitalism and support for some form of social ownership.}}</ref><ref name="Anthony Giddens 1994, p. 71">Anthony Giddens. ''Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics''. 1998 edition. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 1994, 1998. p. 71.</ref> By the 1920s, ] and ] had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement.<ref>"Chapter 1 looks at the foundations of the doctrine by examining the contribution made by various traditions of socialism in the period between the early 19th century and the aftermath of the First World War. The two forms that emerged as dominant by the early 1920s were social democracy and communism." Michael Newman. ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 5</ref> By this time, socialism emerged as "the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement"<ref>George Thomas Kurian (ed). ''The Encyclopedia of Political Science'' CQ Press. Washington D.c. 2011. p.. 1554</ref> and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally ] led to socialism's widespread association with the ], some economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of ]<ref>, M.C. Howard and J.E. King</ref><ref>] (27 June 2015). . ''].'' Retrieved 9 July 2015.</ref><ref>] (1986). . ''chomsky.info''.</ref> or a non-planned administrative or ].<ref name="The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy, 1985">{{cite journal |title=The Soviet Union Has an Administered, Not a Planned, Economy |last=Wilhelm |first=John Howard |year=1985 |journal=] |pages=118–30 |volume=37 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/09668138508411571}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ellman |first=Michael |chapter=The Rise and Fall of Socialist Planning |title=Transition and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Mario Nuti |editor1-first=Saul |editor1-last=Estrin |editor2-first=Grzegorz W. |editor2-last=Kołodko |editor3-first=Milica |editor3-last=Uvalić |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-230-54697-4 |page=22 |quote=In the USSR in the late 1980s the system was normally referred to as the ‘administrative-command’ economy. What was fundamental to this system was not the plan but the role of administrative hierarchies at all levels of decision making; the absence of control over decision making by the population...}}</ref> ] and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as ], ] and ].<ref>Garrett Ward Sheldon. ''Encyclopedia of Political Thought''. Fact on File. Inc. 2001. p. 280.</ref> | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| ] pamphlet of ]]] | |||
| For Andrew Vincent, "he word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin ''sociare'', which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was ''societas''. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen".<ref>Andrew Vincent. Modern political ideologies. Wiley-Blackwell publishing. 2010. p. 83</ref> | |||
| The term "socialism" was created by ], one of the founders of what would later be labelled "]". Simon coined the term as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of "]", which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another.<ref name="Marvin Perry 1600, p. 540">Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret Jacob, James R. Jacob. ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society – From 1600, Volume 2''. Ninth Edition. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 2009. p. 540.</ref> The original "utopian" socialists condemned liberal individualism for failing to address social concerns during the industrial revolution, including poverty, social oppression and gross inequalities in wealth, thus viewing liberal individualism as degenerating society into supporting selfish ] that harmed community life through promoting a society based on competition.<ref name="Marvin Perry 1600, p. 540"/> They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the shared ownership of resources, although their proposals for socialism differed significantly. Saint-Simon proposed economic planning, scientific administration and the application of modern scientific advancements to the organisation of society. By contrast, ] proposed the organisation of production and ownership in cooperatives.<ref name="Marvin Perry 1600, p. 540"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory and Stuart |first=Paul and Robert |title=The Global Economy and its Economic Systems |publisher=South-Western College Pub |date=28 February 2013 |isbn=978-1285055350 |page=159 |quote=Socialist writers of the nineteenth century proposed socialist arrangements for sharing as a response to the inequality and poverty of the industrial revolution. English socialist Robert Owen proposed that ownership and production take place in cooperatives, where all members shared equally. French socialist Henri Saint-Simon proposed to the contrary: socialism meant solving economic problems by means of state administration and planning, and taking advantage of new advances in science.}}</ref> | |||
| The term "socialism" is also attributed to ]<ref>Leroux: socialism is "the doctrine which would not give up any of the principles of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" of the ] of 1789. "Individualism and socialism" (1834)</ref> and to ] in France; and in Britain to Robert Owen in 1827, father of the ].<ref>Oxford English Dictionary, etymology of socialism</ref><ref>Russell, Bertrand (1972). ''A History of Western Philosophy''. Touchstone. p. 781</ref> | |||
| The modern definition and usage of "socialism" settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term among the group of words "co-operative", "mutualist" and "associationist", which had previously been used as synonyms. The term "communism" also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s.<ref name="Williams 1983 288">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |title=Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-19-520469-8 |page=288 |chapter=Socialism |quote=Modern usage began to settle from the 1860s, and in spite of the earlier variations and distinctions it was socialist and socialism which came through as the predominant words ... Communist, in spite of the distinction that had been made in the 1840s, was very much less used, and parties in the Marxist tradition took some variant of social and socialist as titles.}}</ref> An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods).<ref name="Steele 1992 43">{{cite book |last=Steele |first=David |title=From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation |publisher=Open Court Publishing Company |year=1992 |isbn=978-0875484495 |page=43 |quote=One widespread distinction was that socialism socialised production only while communism socialised production and consumption.}}</ref> However, Marxists employed the term "socialism" in place of "communism" by 1888, which had come to be considered an old-fashion synonym for socialism. It was not until 1917 after the ] that "socialism" came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by ] as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticisms that Russia's ] were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution.<ref name="Steele 1992 44-45">{{cite book |last=Steele |first=David |title=From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation |publisher=Open Court Publishing Company |year=1992 |isbn=978-0875484495 |pages=44–45 |quote=By 1888, the term 'socialism' was in general use among Marxists, who had dropped 'communism', now considered an old fashioned term meaning the same as 'socialism' ... At the turn of the century, Marxists called themselves socialists ... The definition of socialism and communism as successive stages was introduced into Marxist theory by Lenin in 1917 ... the new distinction was helpful to Lenin in defending his party against the traditional Marxist criticism that Russia was too backward for a socialist revolution.}}</ref> | |||
| A distinction between "communist" and "socialist" as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to the All-Russian Communist Party, where communist came to specifically mean socialists who supported the politics and theories of ], Bolshevism and later ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Busky |first=Donald F. |title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey |publisher=Praeger |date=20 July 2000 |isbn=978-0275968861 |page=9 |quote=In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.}}</ref> although communist parties continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |title=Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-19-520469-8 |page=289 |chapter=Socialism |quote=The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.}}</ref> | |||
| The words "socialism" and "communism" eventually accorded with the adherents' and opponents' cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, communism was believed to be the ] way of life. In Protestant England, the word "communism" was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic ], hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |authorlink=Raymond Williams |title=Keywords: a vocabulary of culture and society |publisher=Fontana |year=1976 |isbn=978-0-00-633479-8|title-link=Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society }}</ref> ] argued that in 1848, at the time when '']'' was published, that "socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not". The ] in England and the ] in France were considered "respectable" socialists, while working-class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change" denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of ] in France and ] in Germany.<ref>Engels, Frederick, ''Preface to the 1888 English Edition of the Communist Manifesto'', p. 202. Penguin (2002)</ref> The British ] ] also came to advocate a form of economic socialism within a liberal context. In later editions of his '']'' (1848), Mill would argue that "as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies".<ref>Wilson, Fred. "". ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 10 July 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2016.</ref><ref>"Mill, in contrast, advances a form of liberal democratic socialism for the enlargement of freedom as well as to realise social and distributive justice. He offers a powerful account of economic injustice and justice that is centered on his understanding of freedom and its conditions." Bruce Baum, "", Nadia Urbanati and Alex Zacharas, eds., ''J. S. Mill's Political Thought: A Bicentennial Reassessment'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).</ref> While democrats looked to the ] as a democratic revolution, which in the long run ensured liberty, equality and fraternity, Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat.<ref>Robert Gildea, "1848 in European Collective Memory", in Evans and Strandmann, eds. ''The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849'' pp. 207–235</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| {{main|History of socialism}} | |||
| === Early socialism === | |||
| {{main|Utopian socialism|Revolutions of 1848|Paris Commune|History of anarchism#Early history}} | |||
| ], influential early ] thinker]] | |||
| Socialist models and ideas espousing common or public ownership have existed since antiquity. It has been claimed—though controversially—that there were elements of socialist thought in the politics of classical Greek philosophers ]<ref>pp. 276–77, ], ''Plato: The Man and His Work'', Dover 2001.</ref> and ].<ref>p. 257, ], ''Aristotle'', 6th ed.</ref> ] (died c. 524 or 528 CE), a Persian communal proto-socialist,<ref>''A Short History of the World''. Progress Publishers. Moscow, 1974</ref> instituted communal possessions and advocated the public good. ], a ] of Prophet Muhammad, is credited by many as a principal antecedent of ].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-link=] |title=Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-506613-5 |oclc=94030758 |page=19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e30?_hi=0&_pos=5 |title=Abu Dharr al-Ghifari |website=Oxford Islamic Studies Online |accessdate=23 January 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=And Once Again Abu Dharr |authorlink=] |url=http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/ashariati/works/once_again_abu_dhar1.php |accessdate=15 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey |last=Hanna |first=Sami A. |author2=George H. Gardner |year=1969 |publisher=E.J. Brill |location=Leiden |pages=273–74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zsoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA273}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hanna |first1=Sami A.|year=1969 |title=al-Takaful al-Ijtimai and Islamic Socialism |journal=The Muslim World |volume=59 |issue=3–4 |pages=275–86 |url=http://www.financeinislam.com/article/1_37/1/309 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-1913.1969.tb02639.x |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100913151901/http://www.financeinislam.com/article/1_37/1/309 |archivedate=13 September 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The teachings of Jesus the messiah of the Christian religion are frequently highlighted as socialist in nature. <ref>The Gospels, By Terry Eagleton, 2007 </ref>. Christian socialism was one of the founding threads of the UK ] and is said to be a tradition going back 600 years to the uprising of ] and ]<ref>https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/labour-revives-faith-in-christian-socialism-1437750.html</ref>. In the period right after the ], activists and theorists like ], ], ] and ] influenced the early French labour and socialist movements.<ref name="George Thomas Kurian 2011"> Thomas Kurian (ed). ''The Encyclopedia of Political Science'' CQ Press. Washington D.c. 2011. p. 1555</ref> In Britain, ] proposed a detailed plan to tax property owners to pay for the needs of the poor in '']''<ref>Paine, Thomas (2004). Common sense Agrarian justice. Penguin. {{ISBN|0-14-101890-9}}. pp. 92–93.</ref> while ] wrote ''The Effects of Civilization on the People in European States'', denouncing capitalism's effects on the poor of his time<ref name="Blaug 1986 358">{{cite book |last=Blaug |first=Mark |title=Who's Who in Economics: A Biographical Dictionary of Major Economists 1700–1986 |publisher=The MIT Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-262-02256-9 |page=358}}</ref> which influenced the utopian schemes of ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonnett |first1=Alastair |year=2007 |title=The Other Rights of Man: The Revolutionary Plan of Thomas Spence|journal=History Today |volume=57 |issue=9 |pages=42–48}}</ref> | |||
| The first "self-conscious socialist movements developed in the 1820s and 1830s. ], ] and ] provided a series of coherent analyses and interpretations of society. They also, especially in the case of the Owenites, overlapped with a number of other working-class movements like the ] in the United Kingdom".<ref>Andrew Vincent. Modern political ideologies. Wiley-Blackwell publishing. 2010. p. 88</ref> The Chartists gathered significant numbers around the People's Charter of 1838, which demanded the extension of suffrage to all male adults. Leaders in the movement also called for a more equitable distribution of income and better living conditions for the working classes. The very first trade unions and consumers' cooperative societies also emerged in the hinterland of the Chartist movement as a way of bolstering the fight for these demands.<ref>Nik Brandal, Øivind Bratberg and Dag Einar Thorsen. ''The Nordic Model of Social Democracy''. Pallgrave-Macmillan. 2013. p. 20</ref> A later important socialist thinker in France was ], who proposed his philosophy of ] in which "everyone had an equal claim, either alone or as part of a small cooperative, to possess and use land and other resources as needed to make a living".<ref name="britannica.com1">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551569/socialism |title=socialism |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> There were also currents inspired by dissident Christianity of ] "often in Britain and then usually coming out of left liberal politics and a romantic anti-industrialism"<ref name="George Thomas Kurian 2011"/> which produced theorists such as ], ] and ].<ref name="ReferenceC">"The origins of socialism as a political movement lie in the Industrial Revolution." ] Online]</ref> | |||
| The first advocates of socialism favoured social levelling in order to create a ] or ] society based on individual talent. Count ] is regarded as the first individual to coin the term "socialism".<ref name="fsmitha.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h44-ph.html |title=Adam Smith |publisher=Fsmitha.com |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> Saint-Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology and advocated a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and would be based on equal opportunities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/socfrombel/sfb_2.htm |title=2:BIRTH OF THE SOCIALIST IDEA |publisher=Anu.edu.au |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=December 2011}} He advocated the creation of a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work.<ref name="fsmitha.com"/> The key focus of Saint-Simon's socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism and a belief that science was the key to progress.<ref name="SocialismAVeryShortIntroduction">''Newman, Michael''. (2005) ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-280431-6}}</ref> This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organised economy based on planning and geared towards large-scale scientific and material progress,<ref name="fsmitha.com"/> thus embodied a desire for a more directed or ]. Other early socialist thinkers, such as ] and Charles Hall, based their ideas on ]'s economic theories. They reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated prices charged by the producer when those commodities were in elastic supply and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labour—the cost of the labour (essentially the wages paid) that was required to produce the commodities. The ] viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}} | |||
| West European social critics, including ], ], ], ], ], and ] were the first modern socialists who criticised the excessive poverty and inequality of the ]. They advocated reform, with some such as Robert Owen advocating the transformation of society to small communities without private property. Robert Owen's contribution to modern socialism was his understanding that actions and characteristics of individuals were largely determined by the social environment they were raised in and exposed to.<ref name="SocialismAVeryShortIntroduction"/> On the other hand, ] advocated ] which were communities that respected individual desires (including sexual preferences), affinities and creativity and saw that work has to be made enjoyable for people.<ref>"In Fourier's system of Harmony all creative activity including industry, craft, agriculture, etc. will arise from liberated passion – this is the famous theory of "attractive labour." Fourier sexualises work itself – the life of the Phalanstery is a continual orgy of intense feeling, intellection, & activity, a society of lovers & wild enthusiasts....The Harmonian does not live with some 1600 people under one roof because of compulsion or altruism, but because of the sheer pleasure of all the social, sexual, economic, "gastrosophic," cultural, & creative relations this association allows & encourages". by ]</ref> The ideas of Owen and Fourier were tried in practice in numerous ] around Europe and the American continent in the mid-19th century. | |||
| ==== Paris Commune ==== | |||
| ] was a major early implementation of socialist ideas]] | |||
| The ] was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. The Commune elections held on 26 March elected a Commune council of 92 members, one member for each 20,000 residents.<ref>Rougerie, Jacques, ''La Commune de Paris''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France. {{ISBN|978-2-13-062078-5}}.</ref> Despite internal differences, the council began to organise the public services essential for a city of two million residents. It also reached a consensus on certain policies that tended towards a progressive, secular and highly-democratic ]. | |||
| Because the Commune was only able to meet on fewer than 60 days in all, only a few decrees were actually implemented. These included the ]; the remission of rents owed for the entire period of the siege (during which payment had been suspended); the abolition of ] in the hundreds of Paris ]; the granting of pensions to the unmarried companions and children of National Guards killed on active service; and the free return, by the city ]s, of all workmen's tools and household items valued up to 20 francs, pledged during the siege.<ref name="Milza, Pierre, La Commune">Milza, Pierre, ''La Commune''.</ref> The Commune was concerned that skilled workers had been forced to pawn their tools during the war; the postponement of commercial ] obligations and the abolition of interest on the debts; and the ] if it were deserted by its owner. The Commune nonetheless recognised the previous owner's right to compensation.<ref name="Milza, Pierre, La Commune"/> | |||
| === First International === | |||
| ] speaking to members of the ] at the ] in 1869]] | |||
| The ] (IWA), often called the First International, was founded in London in 1864. The International Workingmen's Association united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Blin |first=Arnaud |title=The History of Terrorism |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-520-24709-3 |page=116}}</ref> ], ], English trade unionists, socialists and ]. The IWA held a preliminary conference in 1865 and had its first congress at ] in 1866. Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx came from the ] who opposed communism and ]. However, shortly after ] and his followers (called collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps headed by Marx and Bakunin respectively.<ref>"It is unnecessary to repeat the accounts of the Geneva and Hague Congresses of the International in which the issues between Marx and Bakunin were fought out and the organisation itself split apart into the dying Marxist rump centered around the New York General Council and the anti-authoritarian majority centred around the Bakuninist Jura Federation. But it is desirable to consider some of the factors underlying the final emergence of a predominantly anarchist International in 1872." ]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962). p. 243.</ref> The clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The First International became the first major international forum for the promulgation of socialist ideas. | |||
| The followers of Bakunin were called ]s and sought to collectivise ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labour of each individual. Like Proudhonists, they asserted the right of each individual to the product of his labour and to be remunerated for their particular contribution to production. By contrast, anarcho-communists sought collective ownership of both the means and the products of labour. Errico Malatesta put it: "nstead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work and put everything in common. In this way each will give to society all that his strength permits until enough is produced for every one; and each will take all that he needs, limiting his needs only in those things of which there is not yet plenty for every one".<ref name="dwardmac.pitzer.edu">{{cite web |title=A Talk About Anarchist Communism Between Two Workers |author=Errico Malatesta |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_Archives/malatesta/MalatestaATAC.html |website=Anarchy Archives |accessdate=14 April 2016}}</ref> ] as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by ], Emilio Covelli, ], ] and other ex ] republicans.<ref name="Nunzio Pernicious pp. 111-113">Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864–1892", pp. 111–13, AK Press 2009.</ref> Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death.<ref name="marxists.org">James Guillaume, </ref> | |||
| ] emerged in France inspired in part by the ideas of ] and later by ] and ].<ref name="ReferenceB"> at '']''</ref> It developed at the end of the 19th century out of the French trade-union movement (''syndicat'' is the French word for trade union). It was a significant force in Italy and Spain in the early 20th century until it was crushed by the fascist regimes in those countries. In the United States, syndicalism appeared in the guise of the ], or "Wobblies", founded in 1905.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Syndicalism is an ] where industries are organised into ] (syndicates)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/syndicalism |title=Syndicalism – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |website=merriam-webster.com}}</ref> and the economy is managed by negotiation between specialists and worker representatives of each field, comprising multiple non-competitive categorised units.<ref>Wiarda, Howard J. ''Corporatism and comparative politics''. M.E. Sharpe, 1996. pp. 65–66, 156.</ref> Syndicalism is thus a form of communism and economic ], but also refers to the political movement and tactics used to bring about this type of system. An influential anarchist movement based on syndicalist ideas is ].<ref>Rocker, Rudolf. ''Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice''. AK Press (2004) p. 73</ref> The ] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labour unions from different countries. | |||
| The ] is a ] organisation which was established with the purpose of advancing the principles of socialism via ] and ] means.<ref name=gt76>{{cite book |last=Cole |first=Margaret |title=The Story of Fabian Socialism |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0804700917 |year=1961}}</ref> The society laid many of the foundations of the ] and subsequently affected the policies of states emerging from the ] of the ], most notably India and Singapore. Originally, the Fabian Society was committed to the establishment of a ], alongside a commitment to ] as a progressive and modernising force.<ref name="Discovering Imperialism: Social Democracy to World War I, p. 249">''Discovering Imperialism: Social Democracy to World War I'', 25 November 2011. (p. 249): "the pro-imperialist majority, led by Sidney Webb and George Bernard Shaw, advanced an intellectual justification for central control by the British Empire, arguing that existing institutions should simply work more 'efficiently'."</ref> Today, the society functions primarily as a ] and is one of fifteen ] affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia (the ]), in Canada (the ] and the now disbanded ]) and in New Zealand. | |||
| ] is a political movement advocating ] of industry through the medium of trade-related ]s "in an implied contractual relationship with the public".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248652/Guild-Socialism |title=Guild Socialism |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. Inspired by medieval guilds, theorists such as ] and ] advocated the public ownership of industries and their organisation into guilds, each of which would be under the democratic control of its trade union. Guild socialists were less inclined than Fabians to invest power in a state.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> At some point, like the American ], guild socialism wanted to abolish the wage system.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} | |||
| === Second International === | |||
| As the ideas of Marx and Engels took on flesh, particularly in central Europe, socialists sought to unite in an international organisation. In 1889 (the centennial of the French Revolution of 1789), the ] was founded, with 384 delegates from twenty countries representing about 300 labour and socialist organisations.<ref>. Retrieved 12 July 2007.</ref> It was termed the Socialist International and Engels was elected honorary president at the third congress in 1893. Anarchists were ejected and not allowed in, mainly due to pressure from Marxists.<ref name="Anarchism 1962 pp. 263">]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962). pp. 263–64</ref> It has been argued that at some point the Second International turned "into a battleground over the issue of ] versus ] socialism. Not only did they effectively present themselves as champions of minority rights; they also provoked the German Marxists into demonstrating a dictatorial intolerance which was a factor in preventing the British labor movement from following the Marxist direction indicated by such leaders as ]".<ref name="Anarchism 1962 pp. 263"/> | |||
| Reformism arose as an alternative to revolution. ] was a leading ] in Germany who proposed the concept of evolutionary socialism. Revolutionary socialists quickly targeted reformism: ] condemned Bernstein's '']'' in her 1900 essay '']''. Revolutionary socialism encompasses multiple social and political movements that may define "revolution" differently from one another. The ] (SPD) in Germany became the largest and most powerful socialist party in Europe, despite working illegally until the anti-socialist laws were dropped in 1890. In the 1893 elections, it gained 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the total votes cast, according to Engels. In 1895, the year of his death, Engels emphasised the '']'''s emphasis on winning, as a first step, the "battle of democracy".<ref>Marx, Engels, ''Communist Manifesto'', Selected Works, p. 52</ref> | |||
| === Early 20th century === | |||
| {{main|History of anarchism#20th century|Russian Revolution|German Revolution|Biennio Rosso|Spanish Revolution of 1936}} | |||
| ], member of the ] and later leader and theorist of the ]]] | |||
| In 1904, Australians elected ] as the first ] Prime Minister, becoming the first democratically elected social democrat. In 1909, the first ] was established in Palestine<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jpost.com/Jerusalem-Report/Adult-Children-of-the-Dream |title=Adult Children of the Dream |website=The Jerusalem Post – JPost.com}}</ref> by Russian Jewish Immigrants. The Kibbutz Movement would then expand through the 20th century following a doctrine of ] socialism.<ref>James C. Docherty. ''Historical dictionary of socialism. The Scarecrow Press Inc.'' London 1997. p. 144</ref> The British ] first won seats in the House of Commons in 1902. The ] (ISC, also known as Berne International) was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in ] by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=52}}</ref> | |||
| By 1917, the patriotism of ] changed into ] in most of Europe, the ] and Australia. Other socialist parties from around the world who were beginning to gain importance in their national politics in the early 20th century included the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] in the United States, the ] and the Chilean Partido Obrero Socialista. | |||
| ==== Russian Revolution ==== | |||
| {{main|Russian Revolution}} | |||
| In February 1917, ]. Workers, soldiers and peasants established ] (councils), the monarchy fell and a ] convoked pending the election of a ]. In April of that year, ], leader of the ] faction of ] and known for his ] of ], was allowed to cross Germany to return to his country from exile in Switzerland. | |||
| Lenin had published ] on his analysis of ], the monopoly and ] phase of capitalism as predicted by Marx, as well as analyses on the social conditions of his contemporary time. He observed that as capitalism had further developed in Europe and America, the workers remained unable to gain ] so long as they were too busy working and concerning with how to make ends meet. He therefore proposed that the social revolution would require the leadership of a ] of class-conscious revolutionaries from the educated and politically active part of the population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/shared/minitextlo/ess_leninscritique.html |title=Commanding Heights: Lenin's Critique of Global Capitalism |publisher=Pbs.org |accessdate=30 November 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Upon arriving in Petrograd, Lenin declared that the revolution in Russia was not over, but had only begun and that the next step was for the workers' soviets to take full state authority. He issued a ] outlining the Bolshevik's party programme, including rejection of any legitimacy in the provisional government and advocacy for state power to be given to the peasant and working class through the soviets. The Bolsheviks became the most influential force in the soviets and on 7 November the ] was stormed by Bolshevik Red Guards in what afterwards known as the "]". The rule of the provisional government was ended and the ]—the world's first constitutionally socialist state—was established. On 25 January 1918 at the ], Lenin declared "Long live the world socialist revolution!"<ref>Lenin, Vladimir. ''Meeting of the Petrograd Soviet of workers and soldiers' deputies 25 January 1918'', Collected works, Vol 26, p. 239. Lawrence and Wishart, (1964)</ref> and proposed an immediate armistice on all fronts and transferred the land of the landed proprietors, the crown and the monasteries to the peasant committees without compensation.<ref>Lenin, Vladimir. ''To workers Soldiers and Peasants'', Collected works, Vol 26, p. 247. Lawrence and Wishart, (1964)</ref> | |||
| The day after assuming executive power on 25 January, Lenin wrote ''Draft Regulations on Workers' Control'', which granted workers control of businesses with more than five workers and office employees and access to all books, documents and stocks and whose decisions were to be "binding upon the owners of the enterprises".<ref>Lenin, Vladimir. ''Collected Works'', Vol 26, pp. 264–65. Lawrence and Wishart (1964)</ref> Governing through the elected soviets and in alliance with the peasant-based ], the Bolshevik government began nationalising banks and industry; and disavowed the national debts of the deposed ] royal régime. It ], withdrawing from World War I and convoked a ] in which the peasant ] (SR) won a majority.<ref> | |||
| {{cite web |last=Caplan |first=Brian |title=Lenin and the First Communist Revolutions, IV |publisher=George Mason University |url=http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/museum/his1d.htm |accessdate=14 February 2008}} | |||
| Strictly, the Right Socialist Revolutionaries won whereas the Left Socialist Revolutionares were in alliance with the Bolsheviks.</ref> | |||
| The Constituent Assembly elected Socialist-Revolutionary leader ] President of a Russian republic, but rejected the Bolshevik proposal that it endorse the Soviet decrees on land, peace and workers' control and acknowledge the power of the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. The next day, the Bolsheviks declared that the assembly was elected on outdated party lists<ref>''Declaration of the RSDLP (Bolsheviks) group at the Constituent Assembly meeting 5 January 1918'' Lenin, ''Collected Works'', Vol 26, p. 429. Lawrence and Wishart (1964)</ref> and the ] of the Soviets dissolved it.<ref>''Draft Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly'' Lenin, ''Collected Works'', Vol 26, p. 434. Lawrence and Wishart (1964)</ref><ref>Payne, Robert; "The Life and Death of Lenin", Grafton: paperback, pp. 425–40</ref> In March 1919, world communist parties formed ] (also known as the Third International) at a ].<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=77}}</ref> | |||
| ==== International Working Union of Socialist Parties ==== | |||
| {{main|International Working Union of Socialist Parties}} | |||
| Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International (ISC) or Comintern formed the ] (IWUSP, also known as Vienna International/Vienna Union/Two-and-a-Half International) on 27 February 1921 at a conference in Vienna.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=177}}</ref> The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the ] (LSI) in May 1923 at a meeting in ]<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=197}}</ref> Left-wing groups which did not agree to the centralisation and abandonment of the soviets by the Bolshevik Party led ]—such groups included ],<ref name="carr1985">Carr, E.H. – The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923. W. W. Norton & Company 1985.</ref> ], ] and ].<ref name="avrich1968">]. "Russian Anarchists and the Civil War", ''Russian Review'', Vol. 27, No. 3 (Jul. 1968), pp. 296–306. ]</ref> | |||
| Within this left-wing discontent, the most large-scale events were the worker's ]<ref name="Guttridge2006">{{cite book |last=Guttridge |first=Leonard F. |title=Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hk9-IMRGtbcC&pg=PA174 |date=1 August 2006 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=978-1-59114-348-2 |page=174}}</ref><ref name="Smele2006">{{cite book |last=Smele |first=Jonathan |title=The Russian Revolution and Civil War 1917–1921: An Annotated Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XN1k1M2I060C&pg=PA628|publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-59114-348-2 |page=336 |date=15 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="Avrich1970">{{cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=Kronstadt 1921|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-08721-4}}</ref> and the anarchist led ] uprising which controlled an area known as the ].<ref name="web.archive.org">Noel-Schwartz, Heather. . Archived on ]. Accessed October 2010.</ref><ref>Peter Marshall, '']'', PM Press (2010), p. 473.</ref><ref>Skirda, Alexandre, ''Nestor Makhno: Anarchy's Cossack''. AK Press, 2004, p. 34</ref> | |||
| ==== Third International ==== | |||
| {{main|Communist International}} | |||
| The Bolshevik Russian Revolution of January 1918 engendered communist parties worldwide and their concomitant ]. Few communists doubted that the Russian success of socialism depended on successful, working-class socialist revolutions in developed capitalist countries.<ref>Bertil, Hessel, Introduction, ''Theses, Resolutions and Manifestos of the first four congresses of the Third International'', pxiii, Ink Links (1980)</ref><ref>"We have always proclaimed, and repeated, this elementary truth of Marxism, that the victory of socialism requires the joint efforts of workers in a number of advanced countries." Lenin, ''Sochineniya'' (Works), 5th ed. Vol. XLIV, p. 418, February 1922. (Quoted by Mosche Lewin in ''Lenin's Last Struggle'', p. 4. Pluto (1975))</ref> In 1919, Lenin and Trotsky organised the world's communist parties into a new international association of workers—the ] (Comintern), also called the Third International. | |||
| The Russian Revolution also influenced uprisings in other countries around this time. The ] resulted in the replacing Germany's imperial government with a republic. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the formal establishment of the ] in August 1919 and included an episode known as the ]<ref>"The Munich Soviet (or "Council Republic") of 1919 exhibited certain features of the TAZ, even though – like most revolutions – its stated goals were not exactly "temporary". Gustav Landauer's participation as Minister of Culture, along with Silvio Gesell as Minister of Economics and other anti-authoritarian and extreme libertarian socialists such as the poet/playwrights Erich Mühsam and Ernst Toller, and Ret Marut (the novelist B. Traven), gave the Soviet a distinct anarchist flavor." ]. </ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gaab |first=Jeffrey S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-X4jgPG0360C&pg=PA58|title=Munich: Hofbräuhaus & History : Beer, Culture, & Politics|publisher=Peter Lang |page=59 |isbn=978-0-8204-8606-2|date=1 January 2006}}</ref><ref>p. 365 Taylor, Edumund ''The Fall of the Dynasties: The Collapse of Old Order'' 1963 Weidenfeld & Nicolson</ref><ref>Paul Werner (Paul Frölich), ''Die Bayerische Räterepublik. Tatsachen und Kritik'', p. 144</ref> and the ]. In Italy, the events known as the '']''<ref name="Dallacasa">Brunella Dalla Casa, ''Composizione di classe, rivendicazioni e professionalità nelle lotte del "biennio rosso" a Bologna'', in: AA. VV, ''Bologna 1920; le origini del fascismo'', a cura di Luciano Casali, Cappelli, Bologna 1982, p. 179.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920 |title=1918–1921: The Italian factory occupations and Biennio Rosso |website=libcom.org |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105224302/http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920 |archivedate=5 November 2011 |df=}}</ref> were characterised by mass strikes, worker manifestations and self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. In Turin and Milan, ] were formed and many ] took place led by ]s organised around the ].<ref>The Unione Sindacale Italiana "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus '']'', its daily paper) grew accordingly ... Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111105224302/http://libcom.org/history/articles/italy-factory-occupations-1920 |date=5 November 2011 }} on ]</ref> | |||
| By 1920, the ] under its commander Trotsky had largely defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, ] was ended and under the ] (NEP) private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises. While industry remained largely state-controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country unripe for socialism. Profiteering returned in the form of "NEP men" and rich peasants (]s) gained power in the countryside.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1924nepmen&Year=1924 |title=Soviet history: NEPmen |publisher=Soviethistory.org |accessdate=2 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722164645/http://www.soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1924nepmen&Year=1924 |archivedate=22 July 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Nevertheless, the role of Trotsky in this episode has been questioned by other socialists, including ex Trotskyists. In the United States, ] broke with Trotsky and left the Trotskyist ] by raising the question of the ], which Trotsky as leader of the ] and the other Bolsheviks had brutally repressed. He then moved towards ].<ref>Mattson, Kevin. 2002. ''Intellectuals in Action: The Origins of the New Left and Radical Liberalism, 1945–1970''. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002. p. 34</ref> and ].<ref name="Politic">''Memoirs of a Revolutionist: Essays in Political Criticism'' (1960). This was later republished with the title ''Politics Past''.</ref> | |||
| A similar critique of Trotsky's role on the events around the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by the American anarchist ]. In her essay "Trotsky Protests Too Much", she says: "I admit, the dictatorship under Stalin's rule has become monstrous. That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one of the bloodiest scenes".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Emma_Goldman__Trotsky_Protests_Too_Much.html |title=Trotsky Protests Too Much |website=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> | |||
| ], prominent Marxist revolutionary, leader of the ] and martyr and leader of the German ] in 1919]] | |||
| ==== Fourth congress ==== | |||
| In 1922, the fourth congress of the ] took up the policy of the ], urging communists to work with rank and file Social Democrats while remaining critical of their leaders, whom they criticised for betraying the working class by supporting the war efforts of their respective capitalist classes. For their part, the social democrats pointed to the dislocation caused by revolution and later the growing authoritarianism of the communist parties. When the ] applied to affiliate to the ] in 1920, it was turned down. | |||
| On seeing the Soviet State's growing coercive power in 1923, a dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to "a bourgeois tsarist machine... barely varnished with socialism".<ref>], ''From Lenin to Stalin'', p. 55</ref> After Lenin's death in January 1924, the ]—then increasingly under the control of ]—rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union in favour of the concept of "]". Despite the marginalised ]'s demand for the restoration of Soviet democracy, Stalin developed a bureaucratic, ] government that was condemned by democratic socialists, anarchists and Trotskyists for undermining the initial socialist ideals of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution.<ref>Serge, Victor, ''From Lenin to Stalin'', p. 52.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Brinton |first=Maurice |authorlink=Maurice Brinton |title=The Bolsheviks and Workers' Control 1917–1921 : The State and Counter-revolution |publisher=] |year=1975 |url=http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/bolintro.html |accessdate=22 January 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061220120533/http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/russia/sp001861/bolintro.html |archivedate=20 December 2006}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=December 2011}}{{unreliable source?|date=December 2011}} | |||
| In 1924, the ] was established and was ruled by the ]. The Russian Revolution and the appearance of the Soviet State motivated a worldwide current of national communist parties which ended having varying levels of political and social influence. Among these there appeared the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. | |||
| ==== Spanish Civil War ==== | |||
| {{main|Spanish Civil War}} | |||
| ] militia during the ] in 1936]] | |||
| In Spain in 1936, the national ] trade union ] (CNT) initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right-wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup, sparking the ] (1936–1939).<ref>{{cite book|last=Beevor|first=Antony|authorlink=Antony Beevor|year=2006|page=46|title=The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|isbn=978-0-297-84832-5}}</ref> | |||
| In response to the army rebellion, an ] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of ] and of large areas of rural Spain where they ] the land.<ref name='Bolloten 1984, p. 54'>{{cite book |last=Bolloten |first=Burnett |authorlink=Burnett Bolloten |title=The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |date=15 November 1984|page=1107|isbn=978-0-8078-1906-7}}</ref><ref name="Bolloten 1984, p. 54"/> The events known as the ] was a workers' ] that began during the outbreak of the ] in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of ] and more broadly ] organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily ], Aragon, ] and parts of ]. | |||
| Much of ] was put under worker control and in anarchist strongholds like ] the figure was as high as 75%, but lower in areas with heavy ] influence, as the Soviet-allied party actively resisted attempts at ] enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, ] areas became collectivised and run as ] ]. Anarchist historian ] estimated that about eight million people participated directly or indirectly in the ].<ref>]. '']''. Free Life Editions; 1st edition (1974), pp. 6–7</ref> | |||
| === Mid-20th century === | |||
| {{further|History of the People's Republic of China (1949–76)|Decolonization#Decolonization after 1945|Eastern Bloc|History of anarchism#Post-war years}} | |||
| ==== Post-World War II ==== | |||
| ]'s ] was established in France in 1938 when ] argued that the ] or Third International had become irretrievably "lost to ]" and thus incapable of leading the international working class to political power.<ref name="transitional">''. Retrieved 5 November 2008.</ref> The rise of ] and the start of ] led to the dissolution of the LSI in 1940. After the War, the Socialist International was formed in Frankfurt in July 1951 as a successor to the LSI.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=320}}</ref> | |||
| After World War II, social democratic governments introduced social reform and ] via state welfare and taxation. Social democratic parties dominated post-war politics in countries such as France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Belgium and Norway. At one point, France claimed to be the world's most state-controlled capitalist country. The nationalised public utilities included Charbonnages de France (CDF), Electricité de France (EDF), Gaz de France (GDF), Air France, Banque de France and Régie Nationale des Usines Renault.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sund.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/trente1.htm |title=Les trente glorieuses: 1945–1975 |publisher=Sund.ac.uk |accessdate=30 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928010635/http://www.sund.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/trente1.htm |archivedate=28 September 2007 |df=}}</ref> | |||
| In 1945, the British ] led by ] was elected to office based on a radical socialist programme. The Labour government nationalised major public utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron, steel and the Bank of England. British Petroleum was officially nationalised in 1951.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=Nationalisation_of_Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company%2C_1951 |title=Nationalisation of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, 1951 |publisher=Yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk |date=11 June 2007 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> ] said that in 1956 25% of British industry was nationalised and that public employees, including those in nationalised industries, constituted a similar proportion of the country's total employed population.<ref>Crosland, Anthony, ''The Future of Socialism'', pp. 9, 89. (Constable, 2006)</ref> The Labour Governments of 1964–1970 and 1974–1979 intervened further.<ref>"The New Commanding Height: Labour Party Policy on North Sea Oil and Gas, 1964–74" in ''Contemporary British History'', vol., Issue 1, Spring 2002, pp. 89–118.</ref> It re-nationalised steel (1967, British Steel) after the Conservatives had denationalised it and nationalised car production (1976, British Leyland).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uksteel.org.uk/history.htm |title=home : UK steel : EEF |publisher=UK steel |date=12 September 2013 |accessdate=11 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080123091612/http://www.uksteel.org.uk/history.htm |archivedate=23 January 2008 |df=}}</ref> The ] provided taxpayer-funded health care to everyone, free at the point of service.<ref>Bevan, Aneurin, ''In Place of Fear'', 2nd ed. (MacGibbon and Kee, 1961), p. 104</ref> Working-class housing was provided in ] estates and university education became available via a school grant system.<ref>Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'' (Politico's, 2007) p. 247.</ref> | |||
| ==== Nordic model ==== | |||
| {{main|Nordic model}}{{disputed section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| ], ] for the ]]] | |||
| The ] is the economic and ]s of the ] (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland). During most of the post-war era, Sweden was governed by the ] largely in cooperation with ] and industry.<ref name="svensteinmo">''Globalization and Taxation: Challenges to the Swedish Welfare State''. By Sven Steinmo.</ref> In Sweden, the Social Democratic Party held power from 1936 to 1976, 1982 to 1991, 1994 to 2006 and 2014 to present. ] was the leader of the ] and led the government from 1946 to 1969, an uninterrupted tenure of twenty-three years, one of the longest in any democracy. From 1945 to 1962, the ] held an absolute majority in the parliament led by ] who was Prime Minister with seventeen years in office. This particular adaptation of the ] is characterised by more generous ] (relative to other developed countries), which are aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, ensuring the universal provision of basic human rights and stabilising the economy. It is distinguished from other welfare states with similar goals by its emphasis on maximising labour force participation, promoting gender equality, ] and extensive benefit levels, large magnitude of redistribution and expansionary fiscal policy.<ref name="Esping-Andersen">Esping-Andersen, G. (1991). ''The three worlds of welfare capitalism''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref> | |||
| ==== Soviet Union and Eastern Europe ==== | |||
| {{main|History of the Soviet Union}} | |||
| The ] played a decisive role in the ] victory in ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weinberg |first=G. L. |title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II |isbn=978-0-521-55879-2 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=264 |year=1995}}</ref><ref>Rozhnov, Konstantin, "". BBC.</ref> After the war, the Soviet Union became a recognised superpower.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Jonathan R. Adelman |author2=Cristann Lea Gibson |title=Contemporary Soviet Military Affairs: The Legacy of World War II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4+|date=1 July 1989 |publisher=Unwin Hyman |isbn=978-0-04-445031-3 |page=4}}</ref> The Soviet era saw some of the ] of the 20th century, including the world's ] and the ]. The Soviet economy was the modern world's first centrally planned economy. It was based on a system of state ownership of industry managed through ] (the State Planning Commission), ] (the State Bank) and the ] (State Commission for Materials and Equipment Supply). | |||
| Economic planning was conducted through a series of ]. The emphasis was on fast development of heavy industry and the nation became one of the world's top manufacturers of a large number of basic and heavy industrial products, but it lagged in light industrial production and consumer durables.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} | |||
| The ] was the group of former ]s of ], generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the ]<ref name=houghlin>{{Citation |last1=Hirsch |first1=Donald |first2=Joseph F. |last2=Kett |first3=James S. |last3=Trefil |title=The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-618-22647-4 |page=316 |quote=Eastern Bloc. The name applied to the former communist states of eastern Europe, including Yugoslavia and Albania, as well as the countries of the Warsaw Pact}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Satyendra |first1=Kush |title=Encyclopaedic dictionary of political science |publisher=Sarup & Sons |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-7890-071-1 |page=65 |quote="the countries of Eastern Europe under communism"}}</ref><ref>Compare: {{cite book |last=Janzen |first=Jörg |last2=Taraschewski |first2=Thomas| editor-last= Shahshahānī| editor-first= Suhaylā |title=Cities of Pilgrimage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0T7DAJqAN7wC |accessdate=21 December 2012 |series=Iuaes-series |volume=4 |year=2009 |publisher=LIT Verlag |location=Münster |isbn=978-3-8258-1618-6|page=190 |quote=Until 1990, despite being a formally independent state, Mongolia had de facto been an integral part of the Soviet dominated Eastern Bloc.}}</ref> which included the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] and the ]. The ] was a spontaneous nationwide ] against the government of the ] and its Soviet-imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Soviet leader ] during the ] of the ] on 1956<ref>John Rettie, , BBC, 18 February 2006.</ref> as well as the revolt in Hungary,<ref>Within the ] (PCI) a split ensued: most ordinary members and the Party leadership, including ] and ], regarded the Hungarian insurgents as counter-revolutionaries, as reported in '']'', the official PCI newspaper. The following are references in English on the conflicting positions of , , and .</ref><ref>However, ] (chief of the Communist trade union ]) repudiated the leadership position as did the prominent party members ], ] and many other influential communist intellectuals, who later were expelled or left the party. ], the national secretary of the ], a close ally of the PCI, opposed the Soviet intervention as well. Napolitano, elected in 2006 as ], wrote in his 2005 political autobiography that he regretted his justification of Soviet action in Hungary and that at the time he believed in party unity and the international leadership of Soviet communism.{{cite book |last=Napolitano |first=Giorgio |year=2005 |title=Dal Pci al socialismo europeo. Un'autobiografia politica (From the Communist Party to European Socialism. A political autobiography) |publisher=Laterza|language=Italian |isbn=978-88-420-7715-2}}</ref><ref> | |||
| Within the ] (CPGB), dissent that began with the repudiation of Stalin by ] and ], influential historians and members of the ], culminated in a loss of thousands of party members as events unfolded in Hungary. ], correspondent for the CPGB newspaper '']'', reported accurately on the violent suppression of the uprising, but his dispatches were heavily censored; Fryer resigned from the paper upon his return, and was later expelled from the Communist Party. Fryer, Peter (1957). Hungarian Tragedy. London: D. Dobson. Chapter 9 (The Second Soviet Intervention). ASIN B0007J7674.</ref><ref> | |||
| In France, moderate Communists, such as historian ], resigned, questioning the policy of supporting Soviet actions by the ]. The French anarchist philosopher and writer ] wrote an ], '']'', criticising the West's lack of action. Even ], still a determined Communist Party member, criticised the Soviets in his article ''Le Fantôme de Staline'', in ''Situations VII''. Sartre, Jean-Paul (1956), {{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Le Web de l'Humanite, 21 June 2005. Retrieved 24 October 2006.</ref> produced ideological fractures and disagreements within the communist and socialist parties of Western Europe. | |||
| ==== Third World ==== | |||
| In the post-war years, socialism became increasingly influential throughout the so-called ]. Embracing a new ], countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America often nationalised industries held by foreign owners. The Chinese ], the previous ruling party in Taiwan, was referred to as having a socialist ideology since Kuomintang's revolutionary ideology in the 1920s incorporated unique Chinese socialism as part of its ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dirlik |first=Arif |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S-aGLEtx7AYC&pg=PA20|title=The Marxism in the Chinese revolution |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3069-0 |page=20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Von KleinSmid Institute of International Affairs, University of Southern California. School of Politics and International Relations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHnmAAAAMAAJ|title=Studies in comparative communism, Volume 21 |year=1988 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|page=134}}</ref> The Soviet Union trained Kuomintang revolutionaries in the ]. Movie theatres in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls and in the Soviet May Day parades that year Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Marx, Lenin, Stalin and other socialist leaders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_5R2fnVZXiwC&pg=PA42|title=The Generalissimo's son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the revolutions in China and Taiwan |year=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press|page=42 |isbn=978-0-674-00287-6}}</ref> | |||
| The ] was the second stage in the ] which ended in the establishment of the ] led by the ]. The term "Third World" was coined by French demographer ] in 1952 on the model of the ], which according to the ] represented everything, but was nothing "because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too". | |||
| The emergence of this new political entity in the frame of the ] was complex and painful. Several tentatives were made to organise newly independent states in order to oppose a common front towards both the United States' and the Soviet Union's influence on them, with the consequences of the ] already at works. The ] constituted itself around the main figures of Prime Minister ] of India, President ] of Indonesia, leader ] of ] and ] of ] who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during the 1956 ]. After the 1954 ] which ended the French war against ] in Vietnam, the 1955 ] gathered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, ] and ], ]. | |||
| As many African countries gained independence during the 1960s, some of them rejected capitalism in favour of a more ] economic model. The main architects of ] were ] of ], ] of ], ] of ] and ] of ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Friedland and Rosberg Jr. |first=William and Carl |title=African Socialism |year=1964 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=California |page=3}}</ref> | |||
| The ] (1953–1959) was an armed revolt conducted by ]'s ] and its allies against the government of Cuban ] ]. The revolution began in July 1953 and finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his government with Castro's revolutionary state. Castro's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the ] in October 1965.<ref>. Jason Beaubien. NPR. 1 January 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2013.</ref> | |||
| In Indonesia, a right-wing military regime led by ] ] in 1965 and 1966, mainly to crush the growing influence of the ] and other leftist sectors, with ], which provided kill lists containing thousands of names of suspected high-ranking Communists.<ref>{{cite book |last= Robinson|first=Geoffrey B.|date= 2018|title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66|url=https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html|location= |publisher=] |page=203 |isbn=9781400888863|quote=a US Embassy official in Jakarta, Robert Martens, had supplied the Indonesian Army with lists containing the names of thousands of PKI officials in the months after the alleged coup attempt. According to the journalist Kathy Kadane, "As many as 5,000 names were furnished over a period of months to the Army there, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured." Despite Martens later denials of any such intent, these actions almost certainly aided in the death or detention of many innocent people. They also sent a powerful message that the US government agreed with and supported the army's campaign against the PKI, even as that campaign took its terrible toll in human lives.}}</ref><ref>Mehr, Nathaniel (2009). ''Constructive Bloodbath in Indonesia: The United States, Great Britain and the Mass Killings of 1965–1966''. Spokesman Books. {{ISBN|0851247679}}</ref><ref>Roosa, John (2006). ''Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement and Suharto's Coup d'État in Indonesia''. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Simpson|first=Bradley|date= 2010|title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968|publisher=]|page=193|isbn=978-0804771825|quote="Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party's unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the Administration's emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia."}}</ref><ref>Mark Aarons (2007). "." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). '''' ]. {{ISBN|9004156917}} </ref> | |||
| ==== New Left ==== | |||
| {{main|New Left}} | |||
| The New Left was a term used mainly in the United Kingdom and United States in reference to ], educators, ] and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs<ref name="Carmines and Layman">Carmines, Edward G., and Geoffrey C. Layman. 1997. "Issue Evolution in Postwar American Politics." In Byron Shafer, ed., ''Present Discontents''. NJ:Chatham House Publishers.</ref> in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more ] approach to social justice and focused mostly on ] and questions of social class.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cynthia Kaufman|title=Ideas for Action: Relevant Theory for Radical Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3nJUwFqRLTwC&pg=PA275|year=2003|publisher=South End Press|isbn=978-0-89608-693-7|page=275}}</ref><ref>], "The Left's Lost Universalism". In Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger and M. Richard Zinman, eds., ''Politics at the Turn of the Century'', pp. 3–26 (Lanham, MD: ], 2001).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Farred |first=Grant |authorlink=Grant Farred |year=2000 |title=Endgame Identity? Mapping the New Left Roots of Identity Politics |journal=] |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=627–48 |jstor=20057628 |doi=10.1353/nlh.2000.0045}}</ref> The New Left rejected involvement with the ] and ]'s historical theory of ].<ref>Jeffrey W. Coker. ''Confronting American Labor: The New Left Dilemma''. Univ of Missouri Press, 2002.</ref> | |||
| In the United States, the New Left was associated with the ] and anti-war college campus protest movements as well as the black liberation movements such as the Black Panther Party.<ref name=Pearson>{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Hugh |title=In the Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America |year=1994 |publisher=Perseus Books |isbn=978-0-201-48341-3 |page=152}}</ref> While initially formed in opposition to the "Old Left" Democratic Party, groups composing the New Left gradually became central players in the Democratic coalition.<ref name="Carmines and Layman"/> | |||
| ==== Protests of 1968 ==== | |||
| {{main|Protests of 1968}} | |||
| The protests of 1968 represented a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, predominantly characterised by popular rebellions against military, capitalist and bureaucratic elites who responded with an escalation of ]. These protests marked a turning point for the ] in the United States, which produced revolutionary movements like the ]; the prominent civil rights leader ] organised the "]" to address issues of economic justice,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington |last=Isserman |first=Maurice |page=281 |isbn=978-1-58648-036-3 |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2001}}</ref> while personally showing sympathy with democratic socialism.<ref>"There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism."{{cite book |title=Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought |last=Franklin |first=Robert Michael |page=125 |publisher=Fortress Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8006-2392-0}}</ref> In reaction to the ], protests also sparked a broad movement in opposition to the ] all over the United States and even into London, Paris, Berlin and Rome. In 1968 in Carrara, Italy, the ] was founded during an international anarchist conference held there by the three existing European federations of ], the ] and the ] as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile. | |||
| Mass socialist or communist movements grew not only in the United States, but also in most European countries. The most spectacular manifestation of this were the ] in which students linked up with strikes of up to ten million workers and for a few days the movement seemed capable of overthrowing the government.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} | |||
| In many other capitalist countries, struggles against dictatorships, state repression and colonisation were also marked by protests in 1968, such as the beginning of ] in Northern Ireland, the ] in Mexico City and the escalation of guerrilla warfare against the ]. Countries governed by communist parties had protests against bureaucratic and military elites. In Eastern Europe there were widespread protests that escalated particularly in the ] in Czechoslovakia. In response, Soviet Union occupied Czechoslovakia, but the occupation was denounced by the ] and ]<ref name="OSA">{{Cite web |last=Devlin |first=Kevin |publisher=Open Society Archives |title=Western CPs Condemn Invasion, Hail Prague Spring |url=http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/135-2-510.shtml |accessdate=20 February 2008}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> communist parties and the ]. Few western European political leaders defended the occupation, among them the ] secretary-general ].<ref>Andrew, Mitrokhin (2005), p. 444</ref> along with the ]<ref name="OSA"/> and conservative factions of the ].<ref name="OSA"/> | |||
| In the ], a social-political youth movement mobilised against "]" elements which were seen to be infiltrating the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. This movement motivated ]-inspired movements around the world in the context of the ].{{citation needed|date=July 2016}} | |||
| === Late 20th century === | |||
| {{main|Eurocommunism|Nicaraguan Revolution|Dissolution of the Soviet Union|History of the People's Republic of China (1976–89)|Third Way|History of anarchism#Late 20th century}} | |||
| ], ] and member of the ], whose presidency and life was ended by a ]-backed ]<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Neoliberalism|authorlink=David Harvey (geographer)|last=Harvey|first=David|isbn=978-0199283279|publisher=]|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-brief-history-of-neoliberalism-9780199283279?cc=us&lang=en&|year=2005|page=7|ref=harv}}</ref>]] | |||
| In Latin America in the 1960s, a socialist tendency within the catholic church appeared which was called ]<ref>Richard P. McBrien, ''Catholicism'' (Harper Collins, 1994), chapter IV.</ref><ref>"One manifestation of this connection was liberation theology – sometimes characterised as an attempt to marry Marx and Jesus – which emerged among Roman Catholic theologians in Latin America in the 1960s." at ] Online</ref> which motivated even the Colombian priest ] to enter the ] guerrilla. In Chile, ], a physician and candidate for the ], was elected president through democratic elections in 1970. In 1973, his government was ousted by the United States-backed military dictatorship of ], which lasted until the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3089846.stm |publisher=BBC |title=Profile of Salvador Allende |date=8 September 2003}}</ref> Pinochet's regime was a leader of ], a U.S.-backed campaign of repression and state terrorism carried out by the intelligence services of the ] countries of Latin America to eliminate suspected Communist subversion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009 |title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|location= |publisher=]|page= & |isbn=978-0415686174}}</ref><ref>Mark Aarons (2007). "." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). '''' ]. {{ISBN|9004156917}} pp. </ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McSherry |first1=J. Patrice|author-link1= J. Patrice McSherry |editor1=Esparza, Marcia |editor2=Henry R. Huttenbach |editor3=Daniel Feierstein |title=State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies) |chapter=Chapter 5: "Industrial repression" and Operation Condor in Latin America |page= |publisher=] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-66457-8 |url=https://www.routledge.com/State-Violence-and-Genocide-in-Latin-America-The-Cold-War-Years/Esparza-Huttenbach-Feierstein/p/book/9780415496377}}</ref> In Jamaica, the ]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20090308/focus/focus4.html |title=Michael Manley: nation-builder |author=Robert Buddan |publisher='']'' |date=8 March 2009 |accessdate=11 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061311/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20090308/focus/focus4.html |archivedate=25 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ] served as the fourth ] from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. According to opinion polls, he remains one of Jamaica's most popular Prime Ministers since independence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120812/focus/focus6.html |title=Where Would Jamaica Be Without Michael Manley? |website=Jamaica Gleaner|date=12 August 2012| accessdate=11 March 2013}}</ref> The ] encompassed the rising opposition to the ] dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s, the campaign led by the ] (FSLN) to violently oust the dictatorship in 1978–1979, the subsequent efforts of the FSLN to govern Nicaragua from 1979 until 1990<ref>Louis Proyect, ''Nicaragua'', discusses, among other things, the reforms and the degree to which socialism was intended or achieved.</ref> and the socialist measures which included widescale ]<ref>"Agrarian Productive Structure in Nicaragua", ''SOLÁ MONSERRAT, Roser. 1989. p. 69 and ss''.</ref><ref>Louis Proyect, ''Nicaragua'', about 4/5 of the way down.</ref> and educational programs.<ref>{{cite news |first=Juan |last=B. Arrien |title=Literacy in Nicaragua |publisher=UNESCO |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001459/145937e.pdf |accessdate=1 August 2007 |format=PDF}}</ref> The ] was proclaimed on 13 March 1979 in ] which was ]. The ] (1979–1992) was a conflict between the military-led government of ] and the ] (FMLN), a coalition or umbrella organisation of five socialist guerrilla groups. A coup on 15 October 1979 led to the killings of anti-coup protesters by the government as well as anti-disorder protesters by the guerillas, and is widely seen as the tipping point towards the civil war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Elizabeth |title=Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge}}</ref> | |||
| In Italy, ] was a leftist movement particularly active from 1976 to 1978. It took an important role in the ] movement in the 1970s, aside earlier organisations such as ] (created after May 1968) and ].<ref>Paolo Virno, Michael Hardt, '''', Minnesota Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-8166-4924-2}}</ref> This experience prompted the contemporary socialist radical movement ].<ref>, New York: Semiotext(e), 1980, 2007</ref> In 1982, the newly elected French socialist government of ] made nationalisations in a few key industries, including banks and insurance companies.<ref>James C. Docherty. Historical dictionary of socialism. The Scarecrow Press Inc. London 1997. pp. 181–82</ref> ] was a trend in the 1970s and 1980s in various Western European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant for a Western European country and less aligned to the influence or control of the ]. Outside Western Europe, it is sometimes called neocommunism.<ref name="Definition of Eurocommunism">{{cite web |last=Webster |first=Dictionary |title=Definition of Eurocommunism |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eurocommunism |website=Dictionary Entry |publisher=Webster's Dictionary |accessdate=9 April 2013}}</ref> Some communist parties with strong popular support, notably the ] (PCI) and the ] (PCE) adopted Eurocommunism most enthusiastically and the ] was dominated by Eurocommunists. The ] (PCF) and many smaller parties strongly opposed Eurocommunism and stayed aligned with the ] until the end of the Soviet Union. | |||
| In the late 1970s and in the 1980s, the Socialist International (SI) had extensive contacts and discussion with the two powers of the ], the United States and the Soviet Union, about East-West relations and arms control. Since then, the SI has admitted as member parties the Nicaraguan ], the left-wing ], as well as former communist parties such as the ] of Italy and the ] (FRELIMO). The SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in ] and ]. Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe and no formal involvement with Latin America.<ref>The Dictionary of Contemporary Politics of South America, Routledge, 1989</ref> | |||
| ], ] of the ] from 1985 until 1991]] | |||
| After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the ], who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, ] took power and led the People's Republic of China to ]. The Communist Party of China loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the ] were disbanded in favour of private land leases, thus China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy named as "]"<ref name="Ref_e">Hart-Landsberg, Martin; and Burkett, Paul. . Monthly Review. Retrieved 30 October 2008.</ref> which maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. China adopted its current ] on 4 December 1982. ] ] and ] ] led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual ] growth rate of 11.2%.<ref name="Ref_h"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814035102/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-07/11/content_244499.htm |date=14 August 2011 }}. ''China Daily''. 11 July 2003. Retrieved 10 July 2013.</ref><ref name="Ref_i">. ''People's Daily''. 1 March 2000. Retrieved 10 July 2013.</ref> At the ] of the ] in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.<ref name="Stowe">Stowe, Judy (28 April 1998). "Obituary: Nguyen Van Linh". ''The Independent'' (London). p. 20.</ref><ref name="Ackland">Ackland, Len (20 March 1988). "Long after U.S. war, Vietnam is still a mess". ''St. Petersburg Times'' (Florida). p. 2-D.</ref> The reformers were led by 71-year-old ], who became the party's new general secretary.<ref name="Stowe"/><ref name="Ackland"/> Linh and the reformers implemented a series of ] reforms—known as ''{{lang|vi|]}}'' ("Renovation")—which carefully managed the transition from a ] to a "]".<ref>Murray, Geoffrey (1997). ''Vietnam: Dawn of a New Market''. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 24–25. {{ISBN|0-312-17392-X}}.</ref><ref name="Loan">{{cite news |last=Loan |first=Hoang Thi Bich |date=18 April 2007 |url=http://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/details_e.asp?Object=29152838&News_ID=18459436 |title=Consistently pursuing the socialist orientation in developing the market economy in Vietnam |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510005305/http://www.tapchicongsan.org.vn/details_e.asp?Object=29152838&News_ID=18459436 |archivedate=10 May 2011 |work=Communist Review |publisher=TạpchíCộngsản.org.vn}}</ref> ] wished to move the Soviet Union towards of Nordic-style social democracy, calling it "a socialist beacon for all mankind".<ref>] (2008). ''].'' ]. {{ISBN|0312427999}} </ref><ref>Philip Whyman, Mark Baimbridge and Andrew Mullen (2012). ''The Political Economy of the European Social Model (Routledge Studies in the European Economy).'' ]. {{ISBN|0415476291}} | |||
| * "In short, Gorbachev aimed to lead the Soviet Union towards the Scandinavian social democratic model."</ref> Prior to its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union had ] after the United States.<ref name=cia1990>{{cite web |url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt |publisher=] |accessdate=9 March 2008 |title=1990 CIA World Factbook}}</ref> With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the economic integration of the Soviet republics was dissolved and overall industrial activity declined substantially.<ref>Oldfield, J.D. (2000) Structural economic change and the natural environment in the Russian Federation. Post-Communist Economies, 12(1): 77–90</ref> A lasting legacy remains in the physical infrastructure created during decades of combined industrial production practices, and widespread environmental destruction.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/commercial_books/CB367.html |title=Troubled Lands: The Legacy of Soviet Environmental Destruction (A Rand Research Study) |author=D. J. Peterson |date=1993 |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=978-0813316741 |accessdate=3 April 2016}}</ref> The transition to capitalism in the former Eastern bloc was accompanied by a steep fall in the standard of living; poverty and inequality rose sharply which was accompanied by the entrenchment of a ].<ref>{{cite book|last= Scheidel|first=Walter|author-link =Walter Scheidel|title =The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century|publisher=]|location =Princeton|year =2017 |isbn =978-0691165028|pages= & }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1080/05775132.2015.1012402| title =After the Wall Fell: The Poor Balance Sheet of the Transition to Capitalism| journal =]| volume = 58| issue = 2| pages =135–138| year = 2015| last1 = Milanović | first1 = Branko|authorlink=Branko Milanović}}</ref> | |||
| Many social democratic parties, particularly after the Cold War, adopted ] market policies including ], ] and ]. They abandoned their pursuit of moderate socialism in favour of ]. By the 1980s, with the rise of conservative neoliberal politicians such as ] in the United States, ] in Britain, ] in Canada and ] in Chile, the Western ] was attacked from within, but state support for the corporate sector was maintained.<ref>Gary Teeple (2000). . {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015242/http://www.utppublishing.com/Globalization-and-the-Decline-of-Social-Reform-Into-the-Twenty-First-Century.html|date=4 September 2015}}. ]. . {{ISBN|978-1-55193-026-8}}</ref> ] and neoliberals attacked social welfare systems as impediments to private entrepreneurship. In the United Kingdom, ] leader ] made a public attack against the ] group ] at the 1985 Labour Party conference. The Labour Party ruled that Militant was ineligible for affiliation with the Labour Party, and the party gradually expelled Militant supporters. The Kinnock leadership had refused to support the ] over pit closures, a decision that the party's left wing and the ] blamed for the strike's eventual defeat. In 1989 at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a new Declaration of Principles, saying: <blockquote>Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity. Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic values can be enhanced and where each individual can live a meaningful life with the full development of his or her personality and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080222070726/http://www.socialistinternational.org/4Principles/dofpeng2.html|date=22 February 2008}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| In the 1990s, the British Labour Party under ] enacted policies based on the free market economy to deliver public services via the ]. Influential in these policies was the idea of a "]" which called for a re-evalutation of welfare state policies.<ref>Jane Lewis, Rebecca Surender. ''Welfare State Change: Towards a Third Way?''. Oxford University Press, 2004. pp. 3–4, 16.</ref> In 1995, the Labour Party re-defined its stance on socialism by re-wording ] of its constitution, effectively rejecting socialism by removing all references to public, direct worker or municipal ownership of the means of production. The Labour Party stated: "The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a community in which power, wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.labour.org.uk/labour_policies |title=Labour Party Clause Four |publisher=Labour.org.uk |date=30 October 2008 |accessdate=2 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711081023/http://www.labour.org.uk/labour_policies |archivedate=11 July 2007 |df=}}</ref> | |||
| ], Professor of Russian and East European Studies at the ], posits that the triumphalist attitudes of Western powers at the end of the ], and the fixation with linking all leftist and socialist ideals with the excesses of ], allowed ] to fill the void, which undermined democratic institutions and reforms, leaving a trail of economic misery, unemployment, hopelessness and rising ] throughout the former ] and much of the West in the following decades. According to Ghodsee, with democracy weakened and the anti-capitalist Left marginalised, the anger and resentment which followed the period of neoliberalism was channeled into extremist ] movements in both the former and the latter.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|date=2017 |title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism|url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|location= |publisher=]|pages=xix–xx, 134, 197–200 |isbn=978-0822369493|author-link=Kristen R. Ghodsee}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Ghodsee|first1=Kristen R.|volume = 4| issue = 2| pages = 115–142|title = A Tale of "Two Totalitarianisms": The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism| journal = History of the Present| date = 2014|url=http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/kristenghodsee/files/history_of_the_present_galleys.pdf | jstor = 10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115|quote=In addition to the desire for historical exculpation, however, I argue that the current push for commemorations of the victims of communism must be viewed in the context of regional fears of a re-emergent left. In the face of growing economic instability in the Eurozone, as well as massive anti- austerity protests on the peripheries of Europe, the “victims of communism” narrative may be linked to a public relations effort to link all leftist political ideals to the horrors of Stalinism. Such a rhetorical move seems all the more potent when discursively combined with the idea that there is a moral equivalence between Jewish victims of the Holocaust and East European victims of Stalinism. This third coming of the German Historikerstreit is related to the precariousness of global capitalism, and perhaps the elite desire to discredit all political ideologies that threaten the primacy of private property and free markets.|doi=10.5406/historypresent.4.2.0115}}</ref> | |||
| == Contemporary socialist politics == | |||
| ], the first ] and theorist of ], on a ] commemorative postage stamp]] | |||
| === Africa === | |||
| African socialism has been and continues to be a major ideology around the continent. ] was inspired by ] ideals.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ruud van Dijk|author2=William Glenn Gray|author3=Svetlana Savranskaya|author4=Jeremi Suri|author5=Qiang Zhai|title=Encyclopedia of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rUdmyzkw9q4C&pg=PA880+|year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-203-88021-0|page=880}}</ref> He was a firm believer in rural Africans and their traditions and ], a system of collectivisation that according to Nyerere was present before European imperialism. Essentially he believed Africans were already socialists. Other African socialists include ], ], ] and ]. ] was inspired by socialism and called for a democratic African republic. In South Africa the ] (ANC) abandoned its partial socialist allegiances after taking power and followed a standard neoliberal route. From 2005 through to 2007, the country was wracked by many thousands of protests from poor communities. One of these gave rise to a mass movement of shack dwellers, ] that despite major police suppression continues to work for popular people's planning and against the creation of a market economy in land and housing. | |||
| === Asia === | |||
| In Asia, states with socialist economies—such as the People's Republic of China, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam—have largely moved away from centralised economic planning in the 21st century, placing a greater emphasis on markets. Forms include the Chinese ] and the Vietnamese ]. They utilise ] management models as opposed to modelling socialist enterprise on traditional management styles employed by government agencies. In China living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the ], but centralised political control remained tight.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html |title=''Frontline'': ''The Tank Man'' transcript |accessdate=12 July 2008 |date=11 April 2006 |website=Frontline |publisher=PBS}}</ref> ] in his book '']'', later supported by other academics,<ref>]. Review of ''The Cleanest Race''. ''Far Eastern Economic Review''. 4 December 2010.</ref><ref name="Hitchens"/> dismisses the idea that '']'' is North Korea's leading ideology, regarding its public exaltation as designed to deceive foreigners and that it exists to be praised and not actually read,<ref name="Rank">{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/LD10Dg02.html |title=Lifting the cloak on North Korean secrecy: ''The Cleanest Race, How North Koreans See Themselves'' by B R Myers |first=Michael |last=Rank |date=10 April 2012 |accessdate=13 December 2012 |publisher=Asia Times}}</ref> pointing out that ] of 2009 omits all mention of communism.<ref name="Hitchens">{{cite news |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2243112/ |title=A Nation of Racist Dwarfs |first=Christopher |last=Hitchens |authorlink=Christopher Hitchens |date=1 February 2010 |accessdate=23 December 2012 |work=Fighting Words |publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| Though the authority of the state remained unchallenged under '']'', the government of Vietnam encourages private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.<ref name="Loan"/> The Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports and foreign investment. However, these reforms have also caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last=Janowitz |first=Morris |title=Sociological Theory and Social Control |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=81 |number=1 |date=Jul 1975 |pages=82–108 |jstor=2777055 |doi=10.1086/226035}}</ref><ref name="ideas.repec.org">{{cite web |last=Gallup |first=John Luke |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wbk/wbrwps/2896.html |title=The wage labor market and inequality in Viet Nam in the 1990s |publisher=Ideas.repec.org |year=2002 |accessdate=7 November 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Elsewhere in Asia, some elected socialist parties and communist parties remain prominent, particularly in India and Nepal. The Communist Party of Nepal{{Which|date=June 2016}} in particular calls for multi-party democracy, social equality and economic prosperity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpnm.org/ |title=Communist Party of Nepal |publisher=Cpnm.org |date=15 February 2010 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> In Singapore, a majority of the GDP is still generated from the state sector comprising government-linked companies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wilkin |first=Sam |url=http://www.countryrisk.com/editorials/archives/cat_singapore.html |title=CountryRisk Maintaining Singapore's Miracle |publisher=Countryrisk.com |date=17 August 2004 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> In Japan, there has been a resurgent interest in the ] among workers and youth.<ref>{{cite news |last=Demetriou |first=Danielle |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/3218944/Japans-young-turn-to-Communist-Party-as-they-decide-capitalism-has-let-them-down.html |title=Japan's young turn to Communist Party as they decide capitalism has let them down |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=17 October 2008 |accessdate=30 October 2011 |location=London}}</ref><ref>, BBC, 4 May 2009</ref> In Malaysia, the ] got its first Member of Parliament, ], after the ]. In 2010, there were 270 ]im in Israel. Their factories and ] account for 9% of Israel's industrial output, worth US$8 billion and 40% of its agricultural output, worth over $1.7 billion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2010/11/16/2003488628/2 |title=Kibbutz reinvents itself after 100 years of history |website=taipeitimes.com}}</ref> Some Kibbutzim had also developed substantial high-tech and military industries. Also in 2010, Kibbutz Sasa, containing some 200 members, generated $850 million in annual revenue from its military-plastics industry.<ref>, Nadav Shemer, '']''.</ref> | |||
| === Europe === | |||
| The United Nations ''] 2013'' shows that the happiest nations are concentrated in Northern Europe, where the ] is employed, with Denmark topping the list. This is at times attributed to the success of the Nordic model in the region. The Nordic countries ranked highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived ], generosity and freedom from corruption.<ref>Carolyn Gregoire (10 September 2013). . ''].'' Retrieved 1 October 2013.</ref> Indeed, the indicators of ] have listed Scandinavian countries as ranking high on indicators such as press and economic freedom. | |||
| The objectives of the ], the European Parliament's socialist and social democratic bloc, are now "to pursue international aims in respect of the principles on which the European Union is based, namely principles of freedom, equality, solidarity, democracy, respect of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and respect for the Rule of Law". As a result, today the rallying cry of the French Revolution—'']''—is promoted as essential socialist values.<ref>R Goodin and P Pettit (eds), ''A Companion to Contemporary political philosophy''</ref> To the left of the PES at the European level is the ] (PEL), also commonly abbreviated "European Left"), which is a ] and an association of ], socialist<ref name="Nordsieck">{{cite web |last=Nordsieck |first=Wolfram |url=http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html |title=Parties and Elections in Europe |website=parties-and-elections.eu}}</ref> and communist<ref name="Nordsieck"/> political parties in the ] and other European countries. It was formed in January 2004 for the purposes of running in the ]. PEL was founded on 8–9 May 2004 in Rome.<ref name="Hudson2012">{{cite book |last=Hudson |first=Kate |title=The New European Left: A Socialism for the Twenty-First Century? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHv_ACE0EekC&pg=PA46 |date=19 June 2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-26511-1 |page=46}}</ref> Elected ] from member parties of the European Left sit in the ] (GUE/NGL) group in the ]. | |||
| ], socialist ] who led the ] (SYRIZA) through a victory in the ]]] | |||
| The socialist ] in Germany grew in popularity<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2008/feb2008/hess-f15.shtml |title=Germany's Left Party woos the SPD |publisher=Wsws.org |date=15 February 2008 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> due to dissatisfaction with the increasingly neoliberal policies of the SPD, becoming the fourth biggest party in parliament in the general election on 27 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenleft.org.au/2009/813/41841 |title=Germany: Left makes big gains in poll | Green Left Weekly |publisher=Greenleft.org.au |date=10 October 2009 |accessdate=30 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217044632/http://www.greenleft.org.au/2009/813/41841 |archivedate=17 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Communist candidate ] won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elpasotimes.com/nationworld/ci_835244|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120530044205/http://www.elpasotimes.com/nationworld/ci_835244|deadurl=yes|title=Nation and World News – El Paso Times|date=30 May 2012|archivedate=30 May 2012}}</ref> In Ireland, in the ] ] of the ] took one of three seats in the capital ]. | |||
| In Denmark, the ] (SF) more than doubled its parliamentary representation to 23 seats from 11, making it the fourth largest party.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7091941.stm |title=Danish centre-right wins election |publisher=BBC News |date=14 November 2007 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> In 2011, the ], ] and the ] formed government, after a slight victory over the main rival political coalition. They were led by Helle Thorning-Schmidt, and had the ] as a supporting party. | |||
| In Norway, the ] consists of the ] (Ap), the ] (SV) and the ] (Sp) and governed the country as a majority government from the ] until ]. | |||
| In the ], the ] (SYRIZA) led by ] won a legislative election for the first time while the ] won 15 seats in parliament. SYRIZA has been characterised as an ] party,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://insights.abnamro.nl/en/global-daily-europes-political-risks/ |title=Global Daily – Europe's political risks |website=ABN AMRO Insights}}</ref> whose success has sent "shock-waves across the EU".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22396875 |title=Anti-establishment parties defy EU |website=BBC News}}</ref> | |||
| In the United Kingdom, the ] put forward a slate of candidates in the 2009 European Parliament elections under the banner of ], a broad left-wing ] coalition involving socialist groups such as the ], aiming to offer an alternative to the "anti-foreigner" and pro-business policies of the ].<ref>{{cite news |last=Wheeler |first=Brian |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8059281.stm |title=Crow launches NO2EU euro campaign |publisher=BBC News |date=22 May 2009 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/2009/03/10/exclusive-tommy-sheridan-to-stand-for-euro-elections-86908-21185994/ |title=Exclusive: Tommy Sheridan to stand for Euro elections |publisher=The Daily Record |accessdate=30 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111160344/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/2009/03/10/exclusive-tommy-sheridan-to-stand-for-euro-elections-86908-21185994/ |archivedate=11 January 2012 |df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rmt.org.uk/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=127346&int1stParentNodeID=89731&int2ndParentNodeID=89763 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927012049/http://www.rmt.org.uk/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=127346&int1stParentNodeID=89731&int2ndParentNodeID=89763 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=27 September 2011 |title=Conference: Crisis in Working Class Representation |publisher=RMT |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> In the following May 2010 United Kingdom general election, the ], launched in January 2010<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.socialistparty.org.uk/issue/607/8673/12-01-2010/launch-of-trade-unionist-and-socialist-coalition |title=Launch of Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition |publisher=Socialistparty.org.uk |date=12 January 2010 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> and backed by Bob Crow, the leader of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers union (RMT), other union leaders and the Socialist Party among other socialist groups, stood against Labour in 40 constituencies.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mulholland |first=Hélène |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/blog/2010/mar/26/hard-left-tusc-unions-labour-general-election |title=Hard left Tusc coalition to stand against Labour in 40 constituencies |publisher=Guardian |date=27 March 2010 |accessdate=30 October 2011 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tusc.org.uk/ |title=Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition |publisher=TUSC |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> The ] contested the ], having gained the endorsement of the RMT June 2010 conference, but ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.socialistparty.org.uk/articles/10228/15-09-2010/how-do-we-vote-to-stop-the-cuts |title=How do we vote to stop the cuts? |publisher=Socialist Party |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> ] was also founded in 2013 after the film director ] appealed for a new party of the left to replace the ], which he claimed had failed to oppose austerity and had shifted towards ].<ref name=LoachGuardian>{{cite web |title=The Labour party has failed us. We need a new party of the left |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/25/labour-party-left |publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=4 December 2013 |date=25 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Seymour |first1=Richard |title=Left Unity: A Report From The Founding Conference |url=http://www.newleftproject.org/index.php/site/article_comments/left_unity_a_report_from_the_founding_conference |website=newleftproject.org |publisher=New Left Project |accessdate=3 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://leftunity.org/left-unity-a-new-radical-politcal-party-of-the-left/ |title='Left Unity' a New Radical Political Party of the Left |accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rpmSDc1nBvE |title=RT News reports on Left Unity's founding conference |accessdate=4 December 2013}}</ref> In 2015, following a defeat at the ], self-described socialist ] took over from ] as ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/labour-leader/64564/jeremy-corbyn-what-will-be-his-policies |title=Jeremy Corbyn's policies: how will he lead Labour?|date=12 September 2015 |work=The Week |location=UK}}</ref> | |||
| In France, ], the ] (LCR) candidate in the 2007 presidential election, received 1,498,581 votes, 4.08%, double that of the communist candidate.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.socialismtoday.org/110/france.html |title=Has France moved to the right? |publisher=Socialism Today |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> The LCR abolished itself in 2009 to initiate a broad anti-capitalist party, the ], whose stated aim is to "build a new socialist, democratic perspective for the twenty-first century".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lepoint.fr/actualites-politique/le-nouveau-parti-anticapitaliste-d-olivier-besancenot-est-lance/917/0/256540 |title=Le Nouveau parti anticapitaliste d'Olivier Besancenot est lancé |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=29 June 2008}}</ref> | |||
| On 25 May 2014, the Spanish left-wing party ] entered candidates for the ], some of which were unemployed. In a surprise result, it polled 7.98% of the vote and thus was awarded five seats out of 54<ref name="skynews.com.au"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209174120/http://www.skynews.com.au/news/politics/world/2014/05/26/spanish-voters-punish-mainstream-parties.html |date=9 December 2014 }}</ref><ref name="BBC News Vote 2014">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/vote2014 |title=Vote 2014 |website=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> while the older ] was the third largest overall force obtaining 10.03% and 5 seats, 4 more than the previous elections.<ref name="Resultados">{{cite web |last=Estado |first=Boletín Oficial del |url=http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-2014-6233 |title=Acuerdo de la Junta Electoral Central, por el que se procede a la publicación de los resultados de las elecciones de Diputados al Parlamento Europeo |authorlink=Boletín Oficial del Estado |date=12 June 2014}}</ref> | |||
| The current government of Portugal was established on 26 November 2015 as a ] (PS) ] led by prime minister ]. Costa succeeded in securing support for a Socialist minority government by the ] (B.E.), the ] (PCP) and the ] (PEV).<ref>{{cite web |title=Presidente da República indicou Secretário-Geral do PS para Primeiro-Ministro |publisher=Presidência da República |url=http://www.presidencia.pt/?idc=10&idi=98209 |date=24 November 2015 |accessdate=4 December 2015 |language=pt}}</ref> | |||
| All around Europe and in some places of Latin America there exists a ] and ] movement mainly inspired by ] and anarchist ideas.<ref> ''The Journal of Labor and Society'' · 1089–7011 · Volume 13 · December 2010 · pp. 451–64</ref><ref>The Subversion of Politics: European Autonomous Social Movements and the Decolonization of Everyday Life Georgy Katsiaficas, AK Press 2006</ref> | |||
| === North America === | |||
| {{see also|History of the socialist movement in the United States|Socialism in Canada}} | |||
| ], ] of Vermont and self-described ], at his ] kickoff in May 2015]] | |||
| According to a 2013 article in '']'', "ontrary to popular belief, Americans don't have an innate allergy to socialism. ] has had several socialist mayors (], ] and ]), and there is currently an independent socialist in the US Senate, ] of Vermont".<ref name ="Ari Paul">Paul, Ari (19 November 2013). . '']''. Retrieved 9 February 2014.</ref> Sanders, once mayor of Vermont's largest city, ], has described himself as a ]<ref name="politicosocialist">{{cite web |last=Lerer |first=Lisa |url=http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0709/25000.html |title=Where's the outrage over AIG bonuses? |date=16 July 2009 |accessdate=19 April 2010 |publisher=]}}</ref><ref name="postsocialist">{{cite web |last=Powell |first=Michael |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/04/AR2006110401124.html |title=Exceedingly Social But Doesn't Like Parties |date=6 November 2006 |accessdate=26 November 2012}}</ref> and has praised ].<ref>Sanders, Bernie (26 May 2013). ''].'' Retrieved 19 August 2013.</ref><ref>Sasha Issenberg (9 January 2010). . ''].'' Retrieved 24 August 2013. | |||
| * "You go to Scandinavia, and you will find that people have a much higher standard of living, in terms of education, health care, and decent paying jobs." – Bernie Sanders</ref> In 2016, Sanders made a bid for the Democratic Party presidential candidate, thereby gaining considerable popular support, particularly among the younger generation, but lost the nomination to Hillary Clinton. | |||
| ], ] and the ] rose to prominence through events such as protests against the ] in Seattle. Socialist-inspired groups played an important role in these movements, which nevertheless embraced much broader layers of the population and were championed by figures such as ]. In Canada, the ] (CCF), the precursor to the social democratic ] (NDP), had significant success in provincial politics. In 1944, the Saskatchewan CCF formed the first socialist government in North America. At the federal level, the NDP was the ], from 2011 through 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/SenatorsMembers/House/PartyStandings/standings-E.htm |title=PARTY STANDINGS 41st Parliament seats}}</ref> | |||
| === Latin America and Caribbean === | |||
| For the '']'', "the attempt by ] to unite Marxists and other reformers in a socialist reconstruction of Chile is most representative of the direction that Latin American socialists have taken since the late 20th century. Several socialist (or socialist-leaning) leaders have followed Allende's example in winning election to office in Latin American countries".<ref name="britannica.com1"/> Venezuelan President ], Nicaraguan President ], Bolivian President ] and Ecuadorian president ] refer to their political programmes as socialist and Chávez adopted the term "]". After winning re-election in December 2006, Chávez said: "Now more than ever, I am obliged to move Venezuela's path towards socialism".<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712222539/http://www.voanews.com/english/2007-07-09-voa37.cfm |date=12 July 2007 }}</ref> Chávez was also reelected in October 2012 for his third six-year term as President, but he died in March 2013 from cancer. After Chávez's death on 5 March 2013, Vice President from Chavez's party ] assumed the powers and responsibilities of the President. A ] was held on 14 April of the same year to elect a new President, which Maduro won by a tight margin as the candidate of the ] and he was formally inaugurated on 19 April.<ref name=sworn>. BBC News. 19 April 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.</ref> "]" is a term being used in contemporary 21st-century ] in the media and elsewhere to describe the perception that ] ideology in general and ] in particular are increasingly influential in Latin America.<ref name="boston">{{cite news |last=Gross |first=Neil |url=http://www.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/01/14/the_many_stripes_of_anti_americanism/ |title=The many stripes of anti-Americanism – The Boston Globe |publisher=Boston.com |date=14 January 2007 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4311957.stm |title=South America's leftward sweep |publisher=BBC News |date=2 March 2005 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="pitts">{{cite web |last=McNickle |first=Colin |url=http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_310062.html |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516065906/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_310062.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=16 May 2016 |title=Latin America's 'pragmatic' pink tide – Pittsburgh Tribune-Review |publisher=Pittsburghlive.com |date=6 March 2005 |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ] of Paraguay, ] of Bolivia, ] of Brazil, ] of Ecuador and ] of Venezuela in ] for Latin America]] | |||
| ] is a conference of leftist political parties and other organisations from Latin America and the Caribbean. It was launched by the ] ({{lang-pt|Partido dos Trabalhadores – PT}}) of Brazil in 1990 in the city of ]. The Forum of São Paulo was constituted in 1990 when the ] approached other parties and social movements of Latin America and the Caribbean with the objective of debating the new international scenario after the fall of the ] and the consequences of the implementation of what were taken as neoliberal policies adopted at the time by contemporary right-leaning governments in the region, the stated main objective of the conference being to argue for alternatives to ].<ref>Cf. Carlos Baraibar & José Bayardi: "Foro de San Pablo ¿qué es y cuál es su historia?", 23 August 2000, {{cite web |url=http://www.analitica.com/va/internacionales/noticias/7026753.asp |title=Archived copy |accessdate=13 February 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309183357/http://www.analitica.com/va/internacionales/noticias/7026753.asp |archivedate=9 March 2016 |df=}}</ref> Among its member include current socialist and social-democratic parties currently in government in the region such as Bolivia's ], Brazil's ], the ], the Ecuadorian ], the Venezuelan ], the ], the Uruguayan ], the Nicaraguan ] and the salvadorean ]. | |||
| === Oceania === | |||
| {{See also|Socialism in Australia|Socialism in New Zealand|Melanesian socialism}} | |||
| ] has seen a recent increase in interest of socialism in recent years, especially amongst youth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/poll-shows-58-%E2%80%98millennials%E2%80%99-australia-favourable-socialism|title=Poll shows 58% of 'Millennials' in Australia favourable to socialism|last=Boyle|first=Peter|date=|website=Green Left Wiki|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=22/08/2018}}</ref> It is strongest in ], where three socialist parties have merged into the ], who aim to address problems in housing and public transportation.{{cn|date=August 2018}} | |||
| ] has a small socialist scene, mainly dominated by Trotskyist groups. The current prime minister ] has publicly condemned capitalism but describes herself as a social democrat.{{cn|date=August 2018}} | |||
| Melanesian Socialism developed in the 1980s, inspired by African Socialism. It aims to achieve full independence from Britain and France in Melanesian territories and creation of a Melanesian federal union. It is very popular with the ].{{cn|date=August 2018}} | |||
| === International socialism === | |||
| The ] is a ] founded on 22 May 2013 by political parties, the majority of whom are current or former members of the ]. The organisation states the aim of becoming the global network of "the ]", democratic, ], socialist and ]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://progressive-alliance.info/basic-document/ |title=Basic document | Progressive Alliance |publisher=Progressive-alliance.info |accessdate=23 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spd.de/scalableImageBlob/84620/data/20121217_progressive_alliance_abschlussstatement-data.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-05-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304064047/http://www.spd.de/scalableImageBlob/84620/data/20121217_progressive_alliance_abschlussstatement-data.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> | |||
| == Social and political theory == | |||
| Early socialist thought took influences from a diverse range of philosophies such as civic ], ] ], ], forms of ], ] (both Catholic and Protestant), ] and ], ] and ] political economy.<ref>Andrew Vincent. Modern political ideologies. Wiley-Blackwell publishing. 2010. pp. 87–88</ref> Another philosophical basis for a lot of early socialism was the emergence of ] during the ]. Positivism held that both the natural and social worlds could be understood through scientific knowledge and be analyzed using scientific methods. This core outlook influenced early social scientists and different types of socialists ranging from anarchists like ] to technocrats like ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/11291/Socialism-Socialism-during-its-Mature-Phase.html |title=Socialism during its "mature phase" |year=2013 |publisher=Science Encyclopedia}}</ref> | |||
| ], early French socialist]] | |||
| The fundamental objective of socialism is to attain an advanced level of material production and therefore greater productivity, efficiency and rationality as compared to capitalism and all previous systems, under the view that an expansion of human productive capability is the basis for the extension of freedom and equality in society.<ref>''Socialism and the Market: The Socialist Calculation Debate Revisited''. Routledge Library of 20th Century Economics, 8 February 2000. p. 12. {{ISBN|978-0415195867}}.</ref> Many forms of socialist theory hold that human behaviour is largely shaped by the social environment. In particular, socialism holds that social ], values, cultural traits and economic practices are social creations and not the result of an immutable natural law.<ref>{{cite book |last=Claessens |first=August |title=The logic of socialism |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC |date=April 2009 |isbn=978-1104238407 |page=15 |quote=The individual is largely a product of his environment and much of his conduct and behavior is the reflex of getting a living in a particular stage of society.}}</ref><ref>Ferri, Enrico, "Socialism and Modern Science", in ''Evolution and Socialism'' (1912), p. 79:<blockquote> Upon what point are orthodox political economy and socialism in absolute conflict? Political economy has held and holds that the economic laws governing the production and distribution of wealth which it has established are natural laws ... not in the sense that they are laws naturally determined by the condition of the social organism (which would be correct), but that they are absolute laws, that is to say that they apply to humanity at all times and in all places, and consequently, that they are immutable in their principal points, though they may be subject to modification in details. Scientific socialism holds, the contrary, that the laws established by classical political economy, since the time of Adam Smith, are laws peculiar to the present period in the history of civilized humanity, and that they are, consequently, laws essentially relative to the period of their analysis and discovery.</blockquote></ref> The object of their critique is thus not human avarice or human consciousness, but the material conditions and man-made social systems (i.e. the economic structure of society) that gives rise to observed social problems and inefficiencies. ], often considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, identified as a socialist. Russell opposed the class struggle aspects of Marxism, viewing socialism solely as an adjustment of economic relations to accommodate modern machine production to benefit all of humanity through the progressive reduction of necessary work time.<ref>{{cite web |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |url=http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html |title=In Praise of Idleness |year=1932}}</ref> | |||
| Socialists view creativity as an essential aspect of human nature and define freedom as a state of being where individuals are able to express their creativity unhindered by constraints of both material scarcity and coercive social institutions.<ref>Bhargava. ''Political Theory: An Introduction''. Pearson Education India, 2008. p. 249.</ref> The socialist concept of individuality is thus intertwined with the concept of individual creative expression. Karl Marx believed that expansion of the productive forces and technology was the basis for the expansion of human freedom and that socialism, being a system that is consistent with modern developments in technology, would enable the flourishing of "free individualities" through the progressive reduction of necessary labour time. The reduction of necessary labour time to a minimum would grant individuals the opportunity to pursue the development of their true individuality and creativity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Marx |first=Karl |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/grundrisse/ch14.htm |title=The Grundrisse |year=1857–1861|quote=The free development of individualities, and hence not the reduction of necessary labour time so as to posit surplus labour, but rather the general reduction of the necessary labour of society to a minimum, which then corresponds to the artistic, scientific etc. development of the individuals in the time set free, and with the means created, for all of them.}}</ref>{{clear}} | |||
| === Criticism of capitalism === | |||
| Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high-pressure advertisement), thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716140329/http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/may10/page23.html|date=16 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Magdoff |first=Fred |last2=Yates |first2=Michael D. |url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/091109magdoff-yates.php |title=What Needs To Be Done: A Socialist View |publisher=Monthly Review|accessdate=23 February 2014}}</ref> | |||
| Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity cannot be sold at a profit to individuals in need and therefore a crucial criticism often made by socialists is that "making money", or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand (the production of ]s).<ref>''Let's produce for use, not profit''. Retrieved 7 August 2010, from worldsocialism.org: {{cite web |url=http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/may10/page23.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=18 August 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716140329/http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/may10/page23.html |archivedate=16 July 2010 |df=}}</ref> The fundamental criterion for economic activity in capitalism is the accumulation of capital for reinvestment in production, but this spurs the development of new, non-productive industries that do not produce use-value and only exist to keep the accumulation process afloat (otherwise the system goes into crisis), such as the spread of the ], contributing to the formation of economic bubbles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rdwolff.com/content/economic-crisis-socialist-perspective |title=Economic Crisis from a Socialist Perspective | Professor Richard D. Wolff |publisher=Rdwolff.com |date=29 June 2009 |accessdate=23 February 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228090631/http://www.rdwolff.com/content/economic-crisis-socialist-perspective |archivedate=28 February 2014 |df=}}</ref> | |||
| Socialists view ] relations as limiting the potential of ] in the economy. According to socialists, private property becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralised, socialised institutions based on private appropriation of revenue''—''but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs''—''until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant.<ref>Engels, Fredrich. ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific''. Retrieved 30 October 2010, from Marxists.org: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/ch03.htm, "The bourgeoisie demonstrated to be a superfluous class. All its social functions are now performed by salaried employees."</ref> With no need for ] and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organisation that should be replaced by a ] of individuals based on public or ] of these socialised assets.<ref>''The Political Economy of Socialism'', by Horvat, Branko. 1982. Chapter 1: Capitalism, The General Pattern of Capitalist Development. pp. 15–20</ref><ref name="Engels Selected Works 1968, p. 40">Marx and Engels Selected Works, Lawrence and Wishart, 1968, p. 40. Capitalist property relations put a "fetter" on the productive forces.</ref> Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to uncoordinated economic decisions that result in business fluctuations, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of ].<ref name="The Political Economy of Socialism 1982. p. 197">''The Political Economy of Socialism'', by Horvat, Branko. 1982. p. 197</ref> | |||
| Excessive disparities in income distribution lead to social instability and require costly corrective measures in the form of redistributive taxation, which incurs heavy administrative costs while weakening the incentive to work, inviting dishonesty and increasing the likelihood of tax evasion while (the corrective measures) reduce the overall efficiency of the market economy.<ref name="The Political Economy of Socialism 1982. pp. 197–198">''The Political Economy of Socialism'', by Horvat, Branko. 1982. (pp. 197–98)</ref> These corrective policies limit the incentive system of the market by providing things such as ]s, ], taxing profits and reducing the reserve army of labour, resulting in reduced incentives for capitalists to invest in more production. In essence, social welfare policies cripple capitalism and its incentive system and are thus unsustainable in the long-run.<ref name="Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, 1998. pp. 60–61">''Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists'', 1998. pp. 60–61"</ref> Marxists argue that the establishment of a ] is the only way to overcome these deficiencies. Socialists and specifically ] argue that the inherent conflict of interests between the working class and capital prevent optimal use of available human resources and leads to contradictory interest groups (labour and business) striving to influence the state to intervene in the economy in their favor at the expense of overall economic efficiency. | |||
| Early socialists (] and ]) criticised capitalism for concentrating ] and ] within a small segment of society.<ref>in Encyclopædia Britannica (2009). Retrieved 14 October 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551569/socialism, "Main" summary: "Socialists complain that capitalism necessarily leads to unfair and exploitative concentrations of wealth and power in the hands of the relative few who emerge victorious from free-market competition – people who then use their wealth and power to reinforce their dominance in society."</ref> In addition, they complained that capitalism does not utilise available ] and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.<ref name="Engels Selected Works 1968, p. 40"/> | |||
| === Marxism === | |||
| {{main|Marxism}} | |||
| {{quotation|At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or – this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms – with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. Then begins an era of social revolution. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure.|Karl Marx, '']''<ref name="ReferenceA"/>}} | |||
| ] provided the basis for the development of ] political theory and ]]] | |||
| ] and ] argued that socialism would emerge from historical necessity as capitalism rendered itself obsolete and unsustainable from increasing internal contradictions emerging from the development of the ] and technology. It was these advances in the productive forces combined with the old ] of capitalism that would generate contradictions, leading to working-class consciousness.<ref name="ComparingEconomic">''Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century'', 2003, by Gregory and Stuart. p. 62, ''Marx's Theory of Change''. {{ISBN|0-618-26181-8}}.</ref> | |||
| Marx and Engels held the view that the consciousness of those who earn a wage or salary (the ] in the broadest Marxist sense) would be moulded by their conditions of ], leading to a tendency to seek their freedom or ] by overthrowing ownership of the means of production by capitalists and consequently, overthrowing the state that upheld this economic order. For Marx and Engels, conditions determine consciousness and ending the role of the capitalist class leads eventually to a ] in which the ]. The Marxist conception of socialism is that of a specific historical phase that would displace capitalism and precede ]. The major characteristics of socialism (particularly as conceived by Marx and Engels after the ] of 1871) are that the ] would control the means of production through a ] erected by the workers in their interests. Economic activity would still be organised through the use of incentive systems and social classes would still exist, but to a lesser and diminishing extent than under capitalism. | |||
| For orthodox Marxists, socialism is the lower stage of communism based on the principle of "from each according to his ability, ]" while upper stage communism is based on the principle of "]", the upper stage becoming possible only after the socialist stage further develops economic efficiency and the automation of production has led to a superabundance of goods and services.<ref name="KS">{{cite book |last=Schaff |first=Kory |title=Philosophy and the Problems of Work: A Reader|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Md |year=2001 |page= |isbn=978-0-7425-0795-1}}</ref><ref name="WA">{{cite book |last=Walicki |first=Andrzej |title=Marxism and the leap to the kingdom of freedom: the rise and fall of the Communist utopia |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, Calif |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8047-2384-8 |page=95}}</ref> Marx argued that the material productive forces (in industry and commerce) brought into existence by capitalism predicated a cooperative society since production had become a mass social, collective activity of the working class to create commodities but with private ownership (the relations of production or property relations). This conflict between collective effort in large factories and private ownership would bring about a conscious desire in the working class to establish collective ownership commensurate with the collective efforts their daily experience.<ref name="ReferenceA">Karl Marx, Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859</ref> | |||
| === Role of the state === | |||
| Socialists have taken different perspectives on the ] and the role it should play in revolutionary struggles, in constructing socialism and within an established socialist economy. | |||
| In the 19th century the philosophy of state socialism was first explicitly expounded by the German political philosopher ]. In contrast to Karl Marx's perspective of the state, Lassalle rejected the concept of the state as a class-based power structure whose main function was to preserve existing class structures. Thus Lassalle also rejected the Marxist view that the state was destined to "wither away". Lassalle considered the state to be an entity independent of class allegiances and an instrument of justice that would therefore be essential for achieving socialism.{{Sfn | Berlau | 1949 | p = 21}} | |||
| Preceding the Bolshevik-led revolution in Russia, many socialists including ], ] currents such as ], anarchists and ] criticised the idea of using the state to conduct central planning and own the means of production as a way to establish socialism. Following the victory of Leninism in Russia, the idea of "]" spread rapidly throughout the socialist movement and eventually state socialism came to be identified with the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Screpanti and Zamagni|title=An Outline on the History of Economic Thought |edition=2nd |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford|quote=It should not be forgotten, however, that in the period of the Second International, some of the reformist currents of Marxism, as well as some of the extreme left-wing ones, not to speak of the anarchist groups, had already criticised the view that State ownership and central planning is the best road to socialism. But with the victory of Leninism in Russia, all dissent was silenced, and socialism became identified with ‘democratic centralism’, ‘central planning’, and State ownership of the means of production. |ref=p. 295}}</ref> | |||
| ] rejected the association of socialism (and social ownership) with state ownership over the means of production because the state as it exists in its current form is a product of capitalist society and cannot be transplanted to a different institutional framework. Schumpeter argued that there would be different institutions within socialism than those that exist within modern capitalism, just as ] had its own distinct and unique institutional forms. The state, along with concepts like ] and ], were concepts exclusive to commercial society (capitalism) and attempting to place them within the context of a future socialist society would amount to a distortion of these concepts by using them out of context.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumpeter |first=Joseph |title=Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy |publisher=Harper Perennial |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-06-156161-0 |page=169 |quote=But there are still others (concepts and institutions) which by virtue of their nature cannot stand transplantation and always carry the flavor of a particular institutional framework. It is extremely dangerous, in fact it amounts to a distortion of historical description, to use them beyond the social world or culture whose denizens they are. Now ownership or property – also, so I believe, taxation – are such denizens of the world of commercial society, exactly as knights and fiefs are denizens of the feudal world. But so is the state (a denizen of commercial society).}}</ref> | |||
| === Utopian versus scientific === | |||
| {{main|Utopian socialism|Scientific socialism}} | |||
| Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of ], ] and ], which inspired ] and other early socialists.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/synopsis.html |title=Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |publisher=Public Broadcasting System |accessdate=15 December 2011}}</ref> However, visions of imaginary ideal societies, which competed with revolutionary social democratic movements, were viewed as not being grounded in the material conditions of society and as reactionary.<ref name=Draper>{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Hal |title=Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume IV: Critique of Other Socialisms |year=1990 |publisher=Monthly Review Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0853457985 |pages=1–21}}</ref> Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label "utopian" by later socialists as a negative term in order to imply naivete and dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic.<ref name="SocialismAVeryShortIntroduction"/> | |||
| Religious sects whose members live communally such as the ], for example, are not usually called "utopian socialists", although their way of living is a prime example. They have been categorised as ] by some. Likewise, modern ] based on socialist ideas could also be categorised as "utopian socialist". | |||
| For Marxists, the development of capitalism in Western Europe provided a material basis for the possibility of bringing about socialism because according to '']'' "hat the bourgeoisie produces above all is its own grave diggers",<ref>Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto</ref> namely the working class, which must become conscious of the historical objectives set it by society. | |||
| === Reform versus revolution === | |||
| {{main|Revolutionary socialism|Reformism}} | |||
| Revolutionary socialists believe that a social revolution is necessary to effect structural changes to the socioeconomic structure of society. Among revolutionary socialists there are differences in strategy, theory and the definition of "revolution". Orthodox Marxists and left communists take an ] stance, believing that revolution should be spontaneous as a result of contradictions in society due to technological changes in the productive forces. Lenin theorised that under capitalism the workers cannot achieve class consciousness beyond organising into ] and making demands of the capitalists. Therefore, ] advocate that it is historically necessary for a ] of class conscious revolutionaries to take a central role in coordinating the social revolution to overthrow the capitalist state and eventually the institution of the state altogether.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Leninist Concept of the Revolutionary Vanguard Party |url=http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/socialistvoice/partyPR46.html |website=WRG |accessdate=9 December 2013}}</ref> "Revolution" is not necessarily defined by revolutionary socialists as violent insurrection,<ref>Schaff, Adam, 'Marxist Theory on Revolution and Violence', p. 263. in Journal of the history of ideas, Vol 34, no.2 (April–June 1973)</ref> but as a complete dismantling and rapid transformation of all areas of class society led by the majority of the masses: the working class. | |||
| Reformism is generally associated with ] and ] democratic socialism. Reformism is the belief that socialists should stand in parliamentary elections within capitalist society and if elected utilise the ] to pass political and social reforms for the purposes of ameliorating the instabilities and inequities of capitalism. | |||
| == Economics == | |||
| {{main|Socialist economics}} | |||
| {{see also|Production for use}} | |||
| Socialist economics starts from the premise that "individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members".<ref name="ReferenceB"/> | |||
| The original conception of socialism was an economic system whereby production was organised in a way to directly produce goods and services for their utility (or use-value in classical and Marxian economics): the direct allocation of resources in terms of physical units as opposed to financial calculation and the economic laws of capitalism (see ]), often entailing the end of capitalistic economic categories such as ], ], ] and money.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bockman |first=Johanna |title=Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7566-3 |page=20 |quote=According to nineteenth-century socialist views, socialism would function without capitalist economic categories – such as money, prices, interest, profits and rent – and thus would function according to laws other than those described by current economic science. While some socialists recognised the need for money and prices at least during the transition from capitalism to socialism, socialists more commonly believed that the socialist economy would soon administratively mobilise the economy in physical units without the use of prices or money.}}</ref> In a fully developed socialist economy, production and balancing factor inputs with outputs becomes a technical process to be undertaken by engineers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory and Stuart |first=Paul and Robert |title=Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century, Seventh Edition: "Socialist Economy" |publisher=George Hoffman |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-618-26181-9 |page=117 |quote=In such a setting, information problems are not serious, and engineers rather than economists can resolve the issue of factor proportions.}}</ref> | |||
| ] refers to an array of different economic theories and systems that utilise the market mechanism to organise production and to allocate factor inputs among socially owned enterprises, with the economic surplus (profits) accruing to society in a ] as opposed to private capital owners.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2 |publisher=] |date=September 2003 |isbn=978-0-415-24187-8 |page=70 |quote=Market socialism is a general designation for a number of models of economic systems. On the one hand, the market mechanism is utilised to distribute economic output, to organise production and to allocate factor inputs. On the other hand, the economic surplus accrues to society at large rather than to a class of private (capitalist) owners, through some form of collective, public or social ownership of capital.}}</ref> Variations of market socialism include ] proposals such as ], based on classical economics, and neoclassical economic models such as the ]. However, some economists such as ], ] and others not specifically advancing anti-socialists positions have shown that prevailing economic models upon which such democratic or market socialism models might be based have logical flaws or unworkable presuppositions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stiglitz |first=Joseph |title=Whither Socialism? |publisher=The MIT Press |date=January 1996 |isbn=978-0262691826|quote=.}}</ref><ref>Mancur Olson, Jr., 1965, 2nd ed., 1971. ''The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups'', Harvard University Press, , , and .</ref> | |||
| The ownership of the ] can be based on direct ownership by the users of the productive property through ]; or ] by all of society with management and control delegated to those who operate/use the means of production; or ] by a state apparatus. Public ownership may refer to the creation of ], ], ] or autonomous collective institutions. Some socialists feel that in a socialist economy, at least the "]" of the economy must be publicly owned.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amazon.com/dp/product-description/068483569X |title=Excerpt from Commanding Heights |publisher=Amazon.com |accessdate=30 November 2010}}</ref> However, ] and ] view ] of the ] and the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute, therefore they perceive ] of the ], ] and ] as infringements upon liberty.<ref name="milton">{{cite web |url=http://www.sangam.org/taraki/articles/2006/11-25_Friedman_MGR.php?uid=2075 |title=On Milton Friedman, MGR & Annaism |publisher=Sangam.org |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bellamy |first=Richard |title=The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-56354-3 |page=60}}</ref> | |||
| Management and control over the activities of enterprises are based on self-management and self-governance, with equal power-relations in the workplace to maximise occupational autonomy. A socialist form of organisation would eliminate controlling hierarchies so that only a hierarchy based on technical knowledge in the workplace remains. Every member would have decision-making power in the firm and would be able to participate in establishing its overall policy objectives. The policies/goals would be carried out by the technical specialists that form the coordinating hierarchy of the firm, who would establish plans or directives for the work community to accomplish these goals.<ref name="The Political Economy of Socialism, 1982. p. 197">''The Political Economy of Socialism'', by Horvat, Branko. 1982. (p. 197): "The sandglass (socialist) model is based on the observation that there are two fundamentally different spheres of activity or decision making. The first is concerned with value judgments, and consequently each individual counts as one in this sphere. In the second, technical decisions are made on the basis of technical competence and expertise. The decisions of the first sphere are policy directives; those of the second, technical directives. The former are based on political authority as exercised by all members of the organisation; the latter, on professional authority specific to each member and growing out of the division of labour. Such an organisation involves a clearly defined coordinating hierarchy but eliminates a power hierarchy."</ref> | |||
| The role and use of money in a hypothetical socialist economy is a contested issue. According to the ] economist ], an economic system that does not use ], financial calculation and ] would be unable to effectively value ]s and coordinate production and therefore these types of socialism are impossible because they lack the necessary information to perform economic calculation in the first place.<ref>Ludwig Von Mises, ''Socialism'', p. 119</ref><ref name="Mises">{{cite book |title=Economic calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth |accessdate=8 September 2008 |last=Von Mises |first=Ludwig |authorlink=Ludwig von Mises |year=1990 |format=PDF |publisher=] |url=https://mises.org/pdf/econcalc.pdf}}</ref> Socialists including ], ], ] and ] advocated various forms of ]s or labour credits, which like money would be used to acquire articles of consumption, but unlike money they are unable to become ] and would not be used to allocate resources within the production process. Bolshevik revolutionary ] argued that money could not be arbitrarily abolished following a socialist revolution. Money had to exhaust its "historic mission", meaning it would have to be used until its function became redundant, eventually being transformed into bookkeeping receipts for statisticians and only in the more distant future would money not be required for even that role.<ref> (1936). Full Text. Chapter 4: "Having lost its ability to bring happiness or trample men in the dust, money will turn into mere bookkeeping receipts for the convenience of statisticians and for planning purposes. In the still more distant future, probably these receipts will not be needed."</ref> | |||
| {{quotation|The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil... I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilised in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.| ], '']'', 1949<ref> by ], '']'', May 1949</ref>}} | |||
| === Planned economy === | |||
| {{main|Planned economy}} | |||
| A planned economy is a type of economy consisting of a mixture of public ownership of the means of production and the coordination of production and distribution through ]. There are two major types of planning: decentralised-planning and centralised-planning. ] provided a comprehensive theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy. In his model, assuming perfect computation techniques, simultaneous equations relating inputs and outputs to ratios of equivalence would provide appropriate valuations in order to balance supply and demand.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gregory and Stuart |first=Paul and Robert |title=Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century, Seventh Edition |publisher=George Hoffman |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-618-26181-9 |pages=120–21}}</ref> | |||
| The most prominent example of a planned economy was the ] and as such the centralised-planned economic model is usually associated with the ]s of the 20th century, where it was combined with a single-party political system. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency (see also the ]). The economic systems of the Soviet Union and the ] are further classified as "command economies", which are defined as systems where economic coordination is undertaken by commands, directives and production targets.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ericson |first=Richard E. |title=Command Economy |url=http://econ.la.psu.edu/~bickes/rickcommand.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Studies by economists of various political persuasions on the actual functioning of the Soviet economy indicate that it was not actually a planned economy. Instead of conscious planning, the Soviet economy was based on a process whereby the plan was modified by localised agents and the original plans went largely unfulfilled. Planning agencies, ministries and enterprises all adapted and bargained with each other during the formulation of the plan as opposed to following a plan passed down from a higher authority, leading some economists to suggest that planning did not actually take place within the Soviet economy and that a better description would be an "administered" or "managed" economy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nove |first=Alec |title=The Economics of Feasible Socialism, Revisited |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0043350492 |page=78 |quote=Several authors of the most diverse political views have stated that there is in fact no planning in the Soviet Union: Eugene Zaleski, J. Wilhelm, Hillel Ticktin. They all in their very different ways note the fact that plans are often (usually) unfulfilled, that information flows are distorted, that plan-instructions are the subject of bargaining, that there are many distortions and inconsistencies, indeed that (as many sources attest) plans are frequently altered within the period to which they are supposed to apply...}}</ref> | |||
| Although central planning was largely supported by ]s, some factions within the Soviet Union before the rise of ] held positions contrary to central planning. Leon Trotsky rejected central planning in favour of decentralised planning. He argued that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, would be unable to coordinate effectively all economic activity within an economy because they operated without the input and tacit knowledge embodied by the participation of the millions of people in the economy. As a result, central planners would be unable to respond to local economic conditions.<ref>''Writings 1932–33, p. 96'', Leon Trotsky.</ref> ] is unfeasible in this view because information cannot be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result in ].<ref name="hayek">F. A. Hayek, (1935), "The Nature and History of the Problem" and "The Present State of the Debate," om in F. A. Hayek, ed. ''Collectivist Economic Planning'', pp. 1–40, 201–43.</ref> | |||
| === Self-managed economy === | |||
| {{see also|Decentralised planning|Economic democracy|Workers' self-management}} | |||
| A self-managed, decentralised economy is based on autonomous self-regulating economic units and a decentralised mechanism of resource allocation and decision-making. This model has found support in notable classical and neoclassical economists including ], ] and ]. There are numerous variations of self-management, including labour-managed firms and worker-managed firms. The goals of self-management are to eliminate exploitation and reduce ].<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Phillip |title=Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2 |publisher=Routledge |date=September 2003 |isbn=978-0-415-24187-8 |pages=8–9 |quote=One finds favorable opinions of cooperatives also among other great economists of the past, such as, for example, John Stuart Mill and Alfred Marshall...In eliminating the domination of capital over labour, firms run by workers eliminate capitalist exploitation and reduce alienation.}}</ref> ] is a political movement advocating ] of industry through the medium of trade-related ]s "in an implied contractual relationship with the public".<ref name="britannica.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248652/Guild-Socialism |title=Guild Socialism |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=11 October 2013}}</ref> It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century.<ref name="britannica.com"/> It was strongly associated with ] and influenced by the ideas of ]. | |||
| One such system is the cooperative economy, a largely free ] in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labour divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the ] and rented to the workers, who would enjoy ] rights.<ref>Vanek, Jaroslav, ''The Participatory Economy'' (Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University Press, 1971).</ref> Another form of decentralised planning is the use of ], or the use of computers to manage the allocation of economic inputs. The socialist-run government of ] in Chile experimented with ], a real-time information bridge between the government, state enterprises and consumers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cybersyn.cl/ingles/cybersyn/cybernet.html |title=CYBERSYN/Cybernetic Synergy |publisher=Cybersyn.cl |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> Another, more recent variant is ], wherein the economy is planned by decentralised councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less.<ref>] and ], ''The Political Economy of Participatory Economics'' (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1991).</ref> A contemporary model for a self-managed, non-market socialism is ]'s model of negotiated coordination. Negotiated coordination is based upon social ownership by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with decisions made by those at the most localised level of production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gesd.free.fr/devine.pdf |title=Participatory Planning Through Negotiated Coordination |format=PDF |accessdate=30 October 2011}}</ref> | |||
| ] identifies the emergence of the open software movement and ] as a new alternative ] to the capitalist economy and centrally planned economy that is based on collaborative self-management, common ownership of resources and the production of use-values through the free cooperation of producers who have access to distributed capital.<ref name="Ctheory">{{cite news |url=http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=499 |title=The Political Economy of Peer Production |date=12 January 2005 |publisher=CTheory}}</ref> | |||
| ] is a theory of ] which advocates the abolition of the ], ] and capitalism in favour of ] of the ].<ref name=Mayne>{{cite book|author=Alan James Mayne|title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&pg=PA131|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-96151-0|page=131}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jeiudz5sBV4C&pg=PA14 |title=Anarchism for Know-It-Alls |publisher=Filiquarian Publishing |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-59986-218-7}}</ref> ] was practiced in ] and other places in the ] during the Spanish Civil War. ] estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution.<ref name=Dolgoff1974>{{citation |last=Dolgoff |first=S. |title=The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-914156-03-1|title-link=The Anarchist Collectives }}</ref> | |||
| The economy of the former ] established a system based on market-based allocation, social ownership of the means of production and self-management within firms. This system substituted Yugoslavia's Soviet-type central planning with a decentralised, self-managed system after reforms in 1953.<ref>Estrin, Saul. 1991. "Yugoslavia: The Case of Self-Managing Market Socialism." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5(4): 187–94.</ref> | |||
| The ] ] argues that "re-organising production so that workers become collectively self-directed at their work-sites" not only moves society beyond both capitalism and ] of the last century, but would also mark another milestone in human history, similar to earlier transitions out of slavery and feudalism.<ref>] (2012). . ]. {{ISBN|1608462471}}. . | |||
| * "The disappearances of slaves and masters and lords and serfs would now be replicated by the disappearance of capitalists and workers. Such oppositional categories would no longer apply to the relationships of production, Instead, workers would become their own collective bosses. The two categories – employer and employee – would be integrated in the same individuals."</ref> As an example, Wolff claims that ] is "a stunningly successful alternative to the capitalist organisation of production".<ref>] (24 June 2012). . ''].'' Retrieved 12 August 2013.</ref> | |||
| === State-directed economy === | |||
| {{see also|State socialism}} | |||
| State socialism can be used to classify any variety of socialist philosophies that advocates the ownership of the ] by the ], either as a transitional stage between capitalism and socialism, or as an end-goal in itself. Typically it refers to a form of technocratic management, whereby technical specialists administer or manage economic enterprises on behalf of society (and the public interest) instead of workers' councils or workplace democracy. | |||
| A state-directed economy may refer to a type of mixed economy consisting of public ownership over large industries, as promoted by various Social democratic political parties during the 20th century. This ideology influenced the policies of the British Labour Party during Clement Attlee's administration. In the biography of the 1945 United Kingdom Labour Party Prime Minister ], Francis Beckett states: "he government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy".<ref>Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', (2007) Politico's.</ref> | |||
| Nationalisation in the United Kingdom was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation). ] was a combination of major aircraft companies ], ] and others. ] was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including ], ], ] and ], whereas the nationalisation of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.<ref>{{cite book |author=Socialist Party of Great Britain |authorlink=Socialist Party of Great Britain |title=The Strike Weapon: Lessons of the Miners' Strike |publisher=Socialist Party of Great Britain |location=London |year=1985 |url=http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/pdf/ms.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=28 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614065637/http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/pdf/ms.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hardcastle |first=Edgar |authorlink=Edgar Hardcastle |title=The Nationalisation of the Railways |journal=] |volume=43 |issue=1 |year=1947 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/hardcastle/1947/02/railways.htm |accessdate=28 April 2007}}</ref> | |||
| === Market socialism === | |||
| {{main|Market socialism}} | |||
| Market socialism consists of publicly owned or cooperatively owned enterprises operating in a ]. It is a system that utilises the market and ] for the allocation and accounting of the ], thereby retaining the process of ]. The profit generated would be used to directly remunerate employees, collectively sustain the enterprise or finance public institutions.<ref>''Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century'', 2003, by Gregory and Stuart. {{ISBN|0-618-26181-8}}. p. 142: "It is an economic system that combines social ownership of capital with market allocation of capital...The state owns the means of production, and returns accrue to society at large."</ref> In state-oriented forms of market socialism, in which state enterprises attempt to maximise profit, the profits can be used to fund government programs and services through a ], eliminating or greatly diminishing the need for various forms of taxation that exist in capitalist systems. ] ] believed that a socialist economy based on state ownership of land and natural resources would provide a means of public finance to make income taxes unnecessary.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bockman |first=Johanna |title=Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7566-3 |page=21 |quote=For Walras, socialism would provide the necessary institutions for free competition and social justice. Socialism, in Walras's view, entailed state ownership of land and natural resources and the abolition of income taxes. As owner of land and natural resources, the state could then lease these resources to many individuals and groups, which would eliminate monopolies and thus enable free competition. The leasing of land and natural resources would also provide enough state revenue to make income taxes unnecessary, allowing a worker to invest his savings and become 'an owner or capitalist at the same time that he remains a worker.}}</ref> Yugoslavia implemented a market socialist economy based on cooperatives and worker self-management. | |||
| ], main theorist of ] and influential French socialist thinker]] | |||
| ] is an ] and ] that advocates a society where each person might possess a ], either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labour in the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mutualist.org/ |title=Introduction |publisher=Mutualist.org |accessdate=29 April 2010}}</ref> Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration.<ref>Miller, David. 1987. "Mutualism." The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11</ref> Mutualism is based on a ] that holds that when labour or its product is sold, in exchange it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labour necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".<ref>Tandy, Francis D., 1896, '']'', chapter 6, paragraph 15.</ref> | |||
| The current economic system in China is formally referred to as a ]. It combines a large state sector that comprises the commanding heights of the economy, which are guaranteed their public ownership status by law,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-12/19/content_762056.htm |title=China names key industries for absolute state control |website=China Daily |date=19 December 2006 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> with a private sector mainly engaged in commodity production and light industry responsible from anywhere between 33%<ref>{{cite web |author=English@peopledaily.com.cn |url=http://english.people.com.cn/200507/13/eng20050713_195876.html |title=People's Daily Online – China has socialist market economy in place |publisher=English.people.com.cn |date=13 July 2005 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> to over 70% of GDP generated in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |title=CHINA AND THE OECD |date=May 2006 |format=PDF |accessdate=2 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010154017/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archivedate=10 October 2008 |df=}}</ref> Although there has been a rapid expansion of private-sector activity since the 1980s, privatisation of state assets was virtually halted and were partially reversed in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |last=Talent |first=Jim |url=http://www.heritage.org/Research/Reports/2010/01/10-China-Myths-for-the-New-Decade#_ftn23 |title=10 China Myths for the New Decade | The Heritage Foundation |publisher=Heritage.org |accessdate=2 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100910011308/http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2010/01/10-china-myths-for-the-new-decade#_ftn23 |archivedate=10 September 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The current Chinese economy consists of 150 ] state-owned enterprises that report directly to China's central government.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/2008/07/08/china-enterprises-state-lead-cx_jrw_0708mckinsey.html |title=Reassessing China's State-Owned Enterprises |work=Forbes |accessdate=2 June 2010 |date=8 July 2008}}</ref> By 2008, these state-owned corporations had become increasingly dynamic and generated large increases in revenue for the state,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id=fto031620081407384075 |title=InfoViewer: China's champions: Why state ownership is no longer proving a dead hand |publisher=Us.ft.com |date=28 August 2003 |accessdate=2 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711045431/https://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id=fto031620081407384075 |archivedate=11 July 2011 |df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ufirc.ou.edu/publications/Enterprises%20of%20China.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=18 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720024533/http://ufirc.ou.edu/publications/Enterprises%20of%20China.pdf |archivedate=20 July 2011 |df=}}</ref> resulting in a state-sector led recovery during the 2009 financial crises while accounting for most of China's economic growth.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8153138.stm |work=BBC News |title=China grows faster amid worries |date=16 July 2009 |accessdate=7 April 2010}}</ref> However, the Chinese economic model is widely cited as a contemporary form of state capitalism, the major difference between Western capitalism and the Chinese model being the degree of state-ownership of shares in publicly listed corporations. | |||
| The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has adopted a similar model after the ] economic renovation, but slightly differs from the Chinese model in that the Vietnamese government retains firm control over the state sector and strategic industries, but allows for private-sector activity in commodity production.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vietnamembassy-usa.org/news/story.php?d=20031117235404 |title=VN Embassy : Socialist-oriented market economy: concept and development soluti |publisher=Vietnamembassy-usa.org |date=17 November 2003 |accessdate=2 June 2010}}</ref> | |||
| == Politics == | |||
| ], New York City on ] 1912]] | |||
| The major socialist political movements are described below. Independent socialist theorists, ] authors and academic supporters of socialism may not be represented in these movements. Some political groups have called themselves socialist while holding views that some consider antithetical to socialism. The term "socialist" has also been used by some politicians on the ] as an epithet against certain individuals who do not consider themselves to be socialists and against policies that are not considered socialist by their proponents. | |||
| There are many variations of socialism and as such there is no single definition encapsulating all of socialism. However, there have been common elements identified by scholars.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|pp=1–3}}</ref> In his ''Dictionary of Socialism'' (1924), Angelo S. Rappoport analysed forty definitions of socialism to conclude that common elements of socialism include: general criticisms of the social effects of ] and control of capital – as being the cause of poverty, low wages, unemployment, economic and social inequality and a lack of economic security; a general view that the solution to these problems is a form of collective control over the ], ] and ] (the degree and means of control vary amongst socialist movements); an agreement that the outcome of this collective control should be a society based upon ], including social equality, economic protection of people and should provide a more satisfying life for most people.<ref>{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|pp=1–2}}</ref> In ''The Concepts of Socialism'' (1975), ] identifies four core principles of socialism and particularly socialist society: sociality, social responsibility, cooperation and planning.<ref name="Peter Lamb 2006. p. 2">{{harvnb|Lamb|Docherty|2006|p=2}}</ref> In his study ''Ideologies and Political Theory'' (1996), ] states that all socialists share five themes: the first is that socialism posits that society is more than a mere collection of individuals; second, that it considers human welfare a desirable objective; third, that it considers humans by nature to be active and productive; fourth, it holds the belief of human equality; and fifth, that history is progressive and will create positive change on the condition that humans work to achieve such change.<ref name="Peter Lamb 2006. p. 2"/> | |||
| === Anarchism === | |||
| {{main|Anarchism}} | |||
| Anarchism is a ] that advocates ] often defined as ] voluntary institutions,<ref>"ANARCHISM, a social philosophy that rejects authoritarian government and maintains that voluntary institutions are best suited to express man's natural social tendencies." George Woodcock. "Anarchism" at The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref><ref>"In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions." </ref><ref>"Anarchism." The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. p. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."</ref><ref>Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85</ref> but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-] ].<ref name="iaf-ifa.org"/><ref>"as many anarchists have stressed, it is not government as such that they find objectionable, but the hierarchical forms of government associated with the nation state." Judith Suissa. ''Anarchism and Education: a Philosophical Perspective''. Routledge. New York. 2006. p. 7</ref><ref>"That is why Anarchy, when it works to destroy authority in all its aspects, when it demands the abrogation of laws and the abolition of the mechanism that serves to impose them, when it refuses all hierarchical organisation and preaches free agreement – at the same time strives to maintain and enlarge the precious kernel of social customs without which no human or animal society can exist." ]. </ref><ref>"anarchists are opposed to irrational (e.g., illegitimate) authority, in other words, hierarchy – hierarchy being the institutionalisation of authority within a society." in ]</ref> Anarchism holds the ] to be undesirable, unnecessary or harmful.<ref name="definition"> | |||
| {{cite journal |last=Malatesta |first=Errico |title=Towards Anarchism |journal=MAN! |oclc=3930443 |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107221404/http://marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm |archivedate=7 November 2012 |deadurl=no |authorlink=Errico Malatesta |ref=harv}} {{cite journal |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516094548/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070514.wxlanarchist14/BNStory/lifeWork/home |archivedate=16 May 2007 |deadurl=yes |title=Working for The Man |journal=] |accessdate=14 April 2008 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=14 May 2007 |ref=harv}} {{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285 |title=Anarchism |year=2006 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service |accessdate=29 August 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214085638/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285 |archivedate=14 December 2006<!--Added by DASHBot-->}} {{cite journal |year=2005 |title=Anarchism |journal=The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |page=14 |quote=Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable. |ref=harv}} The following sources cite anarchism as a political philosophy: | |||
| {{cite book |last=Mclaughlin |first=Paul |title=Anarchism and Authority |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7546-6196-2 |page=59}} {{cite book |last=Johnston |first=R. |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-631-20561-6 |page=24}}</ref><ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> While anti-statism is central, some argue<ref>"Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short."</ref> that anarchism entails opposing ] or ] in the conduct of human relations including, but not limited to, the state system.<ref name="iaf-ifa.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |title=IAF principles |publisher=] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105095946/http://www.iaf-ifa.org/principles/english.html |archivedate=5 January 2012 |deadurl=yes |quote=The IAF – IFA fights for : the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual.}}</ref><ref name="auto">"Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations." ]. "What it Really Stands for Anarchy" in '']''.</ref><ref name="Ward 1966">{{cite web |url=http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html |last=Ward |first=Colin |year=1966 |title=Anarchism as a Theory of Organization |accessdate=1 March 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325081119/http://www.panarchy.org/ward/organization.1966.html |archivedate=25 March 2010<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref><ref name="Brown 2002 106">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=L. Susan |chapter=Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism |title=The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism |publisher=Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing |year=2002 |page=106}}</ref><ref>"Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explored in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."</ref><ref>Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism ... Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx." ]. </ref><ref>Anarchist historian ] report of ]'s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9) ... Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Bern Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."</ref> ] advocate market socialism, ]s ]s and salaries based on the amount of time contributed to production, ] advocate a direct transition from capitalism to ] and a ] and ]s worker's ] and the ]. | |||
| === Democratic socialism === | |||
| {{main|Democratic socialism}} | |||
| Modern democratic socialism is a broad political movement that seeks to promote the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system. Some democratic socialists support ] as a temporary measure to reform the current system while others reject reformism in favour of more revolutionary methods. Modern social democracy emphasises a program of gradual legislative modification of capitalism in order to make it more equitable and humane, while the theoretical end goal of building a socialist society is either completely forgotten or redefined in a pro-capitalist way. The two movements are widely similar both in terminology and in ideology, although there are a few key differences. | |||
| The major difference between social democracy and democratic socialism is the object of their politics: contemporary social democrats support a ] and unemployment insurance as a means to "humanise" capitalism, whereas democratic socialists seek to replace capitalism with a socialist economic system, arguing that any attempt to "humanise" capitalism through regulations and welfare policies would distort the market and create economic contradictions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Schweickart |first=David |title=Democratic Socialism |website=Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice |year=2006 |url=http://orion.it.luc.edu/~dschwei/demsoc.htm |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617235335/http://orion.it.luc.edu/~dschwei/demsoc.htm |archivedate=17 June 2012 |df=dmy-all }} "Social democrats supported and tried to strengthen the basic institutions of the welfare state – pensions for all, public health care, public education, unemployment insurance. They supported and tried to strengthen the labour movement. The latter, as socialists, argued that capitalism could never be sufficiently humanised, and that trying to suppress the economic contradictions in one area would only see them emerge in a different guise elsewhere. (E.g., if you push unemployment too low, you'll get inflation; if job security is too strong, labour discipline breaks down; etc.)"</ref> | |||
| Democratic socialism generally refers to any political movement that seeks to establish an economy based on ] by and for the working class. Democratic socialism is difficult to define and groups of scholars have radically different definitions for the term. Some definitions simply refer to all forms of socialism that follow an electoral, ] or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one.<ref>This definition is captured in this statement by ], who "argued that the socialisms of the pre-war world (not just that of the ]s, but of the democratic socialists too) were now increasingly irrelevant". {{cite journal |first=Chris |last=Pierson |title=Lost property: What the Third Way lacks |journal=Journal of Political Ideologies |date=June 2005 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=145–63 |doi=10.1080/13569310500097265}} Other texts which use the terms "democratic socialism" in this way include Malcolm Hamilton ''Democratic Socialism in Britain and Sweden'' (St Martin's Press 1989).</ref> | |||
| {{quotation|You can't talk about ending the slums without first saying profit must be taken out of slums. You're really tampering and getting on dangerous ground because you are messing with folk then. You are messing with captains of industry. Now this means that we are treading in difficult water, because it really means that we are saying that something is wrong with capitalism. There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism. | ], 1966<ref>{{cite book |title=Liberating Visions: Human Fulfillment and Social Justice in African-American Thought |last=Franklin |first=Robert Michael |page=125 |publisher=Fortress Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8006-2392-0}}</ref><ref>Peter Dreier (20 January 2014). . ''].'' Retrieved 20 January 2014.</ref><ref>Osagyefo Uhuru Sekou (20 January 2014). . ''].'' Retrieved 20 January 2014.</ref>}} | |||
| === Leninism and precedents === | |||
| {{main|Blanquism|Marxism–Leninism}} | |||
| ] refers to a conception of revolution generally attributed to ] which holds that socialist revolution should be carried out by a relatively small group of highly organised and secretive conspirators.<ref>, last retrieved 25 April 2007</ref> Having seized power, the revolutionaries would then use the power of the state to introduce socialism. It is considered a particular sort of "putschism"—that is, the view that political revolution should take the form of a '']'' or ''coup d'état''.<ref>, last retrieved 25 April 2007</ref> ] and ]<ref name="bern">{{cite web |author=Lenin |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/ch06.htm#s2 |title=The State and Revolution |year=1917}}</ref> have criticised ] that his conception of revolution was elitist and essentially Blanquist.<ref>] as part of a longer section on Blanquism in her "Organizational Questions of Russian Social Democracy" (later published as "Leninism or Marxism?"), writes: "For Lenin, the difference between the ] and Blanquism is reduced to the observation that in place of a handful of conspirators we have a class-conscious proletariat. He forgets that this difference implies a complete revision of our ideas on organisation and, therefore, an entirely different conception of centralism and the relations existing between the party and the struggle itself. Blanquism did not count on the ] of the working class. It, therefore, did not need to organise the people for the revolution. The people were expected to play their part only at the moment of revolution. Preparation for the revolution concerned only the little group of revolutionists armed for the coup. Indeed, to assure the success of the revolutionary conspiracy, it was considered wiser to keep the mass at some distance from the conspirators.Rosa Luxemburg, , , last retrieved 25 April 2007</ref> ] is a political ideology combining ] (the ] concepts theorised by ] and ]) and ] (Lenin's theoretical expansions of Marxism which include ], ] and ]).<ref>''Marxism–Leninism''. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company.</ref> Marxism–Leninism was the official ideology of the ] and of the ] (1919–1943) and later it became the main guiding ideology for ], ] and ]. | |||
| === Libertarian socialism === | |||
| {{main|Libertarian socialism}} | |||
| ] journal to use the term "]" was ''], Journal du Mouvement Social'' and it was published in New York City between 1858 and 1861 by French ] ],<ref name="theanarchistlibrary">{{cite web |url=http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/The_Anarchist_FAQ_Editorial_Collective__150_years_of_Libertarian.html |title=150 years of Libertarian |website=theanarchistlibrary.org}}</ref> the first recorded person to describe himself as "libertarian"<ref name="Dejacque">Joseph Déjacque, (in French)</ref>]] | |||
| Libertarian socialism (sometimes called ],<ref name="Ostergaard 1991. p. 21">]. "Anarchism". ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref><ref name="Noam Chomsky 2004, p. 739">Chomsky, Noam (2004). ''Language and Politics''. In Otero, Carlos Peregrín. AK Press. p. 739</ref> ]<ref>Bookchin, Murray and Janet Biehl. ''The Murray Bookchin Reader''. Cassell, 1997. p. 170 {{ISBN|0-304-33873-7}}</ref><ref>Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E. Shannon. ''The American journal of economics and sociolology''. Blackwell Pub, 2003. p. 612</ref> and socialist libertarianism)<ref>Miller, Wilbur R. (2012). ''The social history of crime and punishment in America. An encyclopedia.'' 5 vols. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. {{ISBN|1412988764}}. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and ..."</ref> is a group of ]<ref>"It implies a classless and anti-authoritarian (i.e. libertarian) society in which people manage their own affairs" at ]</ref> political philosophies inside the ] movement that rejects socialism as centralised state ownership and control of the economy<ref>"unlike other socialists, they tend to see (to various different degrees, depending on the thinker) to be skeptical of centralised state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation..." ]. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. Pg. 305</ref> including criticism of ],<ref>"Therefore, rather than being an oxymoron, "libertarian socialism" indicates that true socialism must be libertarian and that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a phoney. As true socialists oppose wage labour, they must also oppose the state for the same reasons. Similarly, libertarians must oppose wage labour for the same reasons they must oppose the state." ]</ref> as well as the state itself.<ref name=":0">"So, libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy, along with the state as such. Through workers' self-management it proposes to bring an end to authority, exploitation, and hierarchy in production." ]</ref> It emphasises ] of the workplace<ref name=":0"/> and ],<ref>" ...preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations. ]. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. Pg. 305</ref> asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing ] institutions that control certain ] and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic ].<ref>Mendes, Silva. ''Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo'' Vol. 1 (1896): "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of ] (while retaining respect for ]) and ] by abolition of ]".</ref> Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in ] means of ] and ] or ] associations such as ], ], ]s, and ]s.<ref>"...preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local, voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations-sometimes as a complement to and check on state power..."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rocker |first=Rudolf |title=Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice |page=65 |year=2004 |publisher=] |isbn=978-1-902593-92-0}}</ref> Relatedly, anarcho-syndicalist ] explained: "We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder...In a well-organized society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion". All of this is generally done within a general call for ]<ref>"LibSoc share with LibCap an aversion to any interference to freedom of thought, expression or choicce of lifestyle." ]. "Toward a libertarian theory of class." ''Social Philosophy and Policy''. Volume 15. Issue 02. Summer 1998. pp 305</ref> and ]<ref>"What is implied by the term 'libertarian socialism'?: The idea that socialism is first and foremost about freedom and therefore about overcoming the domination, repression, and alienation that block the free flow of human creativity, thought, and action...An approach to socialism that incorporates cultural revolution, women's and children's liberation, and the critique and transformation of daily life, as well as the more traditional concerns of socialist politics. A politics that is completely revolutionary because it seeks to transform all of reality. We do not think that capturing the economy and the state lead automatically to the transformation of the rest of social being, nor do we equate liberation with changing our life-styles and our heads. Capitalism is a total system that invades all areas of life: socialism must be the overcoming of capitalist reality in its entirety, or it is nothing." "What is Libertarian Socialism?" by Ulli Diemer. Volume 2, Number 1 (Summer 1997 issue) of ''The Red Menace''.</ref> through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.{{refn|<ref name="iaf-ifa.org"/><ref name="auto"/><ref name="Ward 1966"/><ref name="Brown 2002 106"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Soviet Union Versus Socialism |url=http://chomsky.info/1986____/ |website=chomsky.info |accessdate=22 November 2015 |quote=Libertarian socialism, furthermore, does not limit its aims to democratic control by producers over production, but seeks to abolish all forms of domination and hierarchy in every aspect of social and personal life, an unending struggle, since progress in achieving a more just society will lead to new insight and understanding of forms of oppression that may be concealed in traditional practice and consciousness.}}</ref><ref>"Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the "sociology of power") and the correlative duty to obey (as explred in the "philosophy of practical reason"). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations – by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power – and, practically, by its challenge to those "authoritative" powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation. "</ref><ref>Individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker defined anarchism as opposition to authority as follows "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left, – follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism...Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx." ]. </ref><ref>Anarchist historian ] report of ]'s anti-authoritarianism and shows opposition to both state and non-state forms of authority as follows: "All anarchists deny authority; many of them fight against it." (p. 9)...Bakunin did not convert the League's central committee to his full program, but he did persuade them to accept a remarkably radical recommendation to the Bern Congress of September 1868, demanding economic equality and implicitly attacking authority in both Church and State."</ref>}} As such, libertarian socialism within the larger socialist movement seeks to distinguish itself both from ]/] and from ].<ref>"It is forgotten that the early defenders of commercial society like ] were as much concerned with criticising the associational blocks to mobile labour represented by ] as they were to the activities of the state. The ] includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the political victory of the ] in the east and varieties of ] in the west. John O´Neil." ''The Market: Ethics, knowledge and politics''. Routledge. 1998. p. 3</ref> | |||
| Past and present political philosophies and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include ] (especially ], ], ]<ref>{{cite book |last=Sims |first=Franwa |title=The Anacostia Diaries As It Is |page=160 |year=2006 |publisher=Lulu Press}}</ref> and ])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html |title=A.4. ARE MUTUALISTS SOCIALISTS? |website=mutualist.org |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090609075437/http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html |archivedate=9 June 2009 |df=}}</ref> as well as ], ], ], ] and ] philosophies such as ] and ];<ref name="Graham-2005">Murray Bookchin, ''Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism''; ], ''The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution''</ref> as well as some versions of ]<ref>Kent Bromley, in his preface to ]'s book '']'', considered early French utopian socialist ] to be the founder of the libertarian branch of socialist thought, as opposed to the authoritarian socialist ideas of ] and ]." ]. ''The Conquest of Bread'', preface by Kent Bromley, New York and London, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906.</ref> and ].<ref>"] referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism." '']'' by Various Authors</ref><ref>French individualist anarchist ] shows clearly opposition to capitalism and centralised economies when he said that the individualist anarchist "inwardly he remains refractory – fatally refractory – morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him.)"</ref><ref>Anarchist Peter Sabatini reports that In the United States "of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and "utopian" counterculture groups (including the so-called ] movement). ]'s anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of ] and ]. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at ] during 1825. One member of this commune was ] (1798–1874), considered to be the first ]"</ref> | |||
| === Religious socialism === | |||
| {{main|Religious socialism}} | |||
| ] is a broad concept involving an intertwining of the Christian religion with the politics and economic theories of socialism. | |||
| ] is a term coined by various ] leaders to describe a more ] form of socialism. Muslim socialists believe that the teachings of the ] and ] are compatible with principles of ] and ] drawing inspiration from the early Medina welfare state established by ]. Muslim socialists are more conservative than their western contemporaries and find their roots in ], ] and ]. Islamic socialist leaders believe in democracy and deriving legitimacy from public ] as opposed to religious texts. | |||
| === Social democracy and liberal socialism === | |||
| {{main|Social democracy|Liberal socialism}} | |||
| Social democracy is a political ideology which "is derived from a socialist tradition of political thought. Many social democrats refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists, and some use these terms interchangeably. Others have opined that there are clear differences between the three terms, and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term ‘social democracy’ only".<ref>Nik Brandal, Øivind Bratberg, Dag Einar Thorsen. ''The Nordic Model of Social Democracy'' (2013). Pallgrave MacMillan. p. 7. {{ISBN|1137013265}}</ref> There are two main directions, either to establish ], or to build a welfare state within the framework of the capitalist system. The first variant has officially its goal by establishing ] through ] and ] methods.<ref name="Busky8">{{Cite journal |first=Donald F. |last=Busky |title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey |place=Westport, Connecticut, USA |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc., |year=2000 |page=8 |quote=The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International, which almost all social democratic parties are members of, declares the goal of the development of democratic socialism |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> In the second variant, social democracy becomes a policy regime involving a ], ] schemes, support for publicly financed public services and a capitalist-based economy like a ]. It is often used in this manner to refer to the social models and economic policies prominent in Western and Northern Europe during the later half of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sejersted and Adams and Daly |first=Francis and Madeleine and Richard |title=The Age of Social Democracy: Norway and Sweden in the Twentieth Century |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691147741}}</ref><ref name="Foundations of social democracy, 2009">''Foundations of social democracy'', 2004. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, p. 8, November 2009.</ref> It has been described by ] as "hybrid" economics, an active collaboration of capitalist and socialist visions and while such systems are not perfect they tend to provide high standards of living.<ref>] (24 July 2013). ''].'' Retrieved 12 August 2013.</ref> Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people tend to live happier lives in ] societies rather than ] ones.<ref>Andrew Brown (12 September 2014). ''].'' Retrieved 20 October 2014.</ref><ref>Richard Eskow (15 October 2014). . ourfuture.org. Retrieved 20 October 2014.</ref><ref>] (25 September 2013). . ''].'' Retrieved 20 October 2014.</ref><ref>Craig Brown (11 May 2009). . ]. Retrieved 20 October 2014.</ref> | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Social democrats supporting the first variant advocate for a peaceful, evolutionary transition of the economy to socialism through ] social reform of capitalism.<ref name=EB>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/551073/social-democracy |title=Social democracy |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=12 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Newman|title=Socialism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kN8llUabGh8C&pg=PT74|year=2005|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-157789-5|page=74}}</ref> It asserts that the only acceptable constitutional form of government is ] under the ].<ref name="Thomas Meyer 2007. p. 91">Thomas Meyer. ''The Theory of Social Democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 2007. p. 91.</ref> It promotes extending democratic decision-making beyond political democracy to include ] to guarantee employees and other economic stakeholders sufficient rights of ].<ref name="Thomas Meyer 2007. p. 91"/> It supports a ] that opposes the excesses of capitalism such as ], ] and ] of various groups, while rejecting both a totally ] or a fully ].<ref>Front Cover Ira C. Colby, Catherine N. Dulmus, Karen M. Sowers. Connecting Social Welfare Policy to Fields of Practice. John Wiley & Sons, 2012. p. 29.</ref> Common social democratic policies include advocacy of universal social rights to attain universally accessible ]s such as ], ], ] and other services, including ] and care for the elderly.<ref>Thomas Meyer, Lewis P. Hinchman. ''The theory of social democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK; Malden, Massachusetts, USA: Polity Press, 2007. p. 137.</ref> Social democracy is connected with the trade union ] and supports ] for workers.<ref>Martin Upchurch, Graham John Taylor, Andy Mathers. ''The crisis of social democratic trade unionism in Western Europe: the search for alternatives''. Surrey, England, UK; Burlington, Vermont, USA: Ashgate Publishing, 2009. p. 51.</ref> Most social democratic parties are affiliated with the ].<ref name="Busky8"/> | |||
| Liberal socialism is a socialist ] that includes ] principles within it.<ref name="Gerald F. Gaus 2004. Pp. 420">Gerald F. Gaus, Chandran Kukathas. Handbook of political theory. London, England, UK; Thousand Oaks, California, USA; New Delhi, India: SAGE Publications, 2004. p. 420.</ref> Liberal socialism does not have the goal of abolishing ] with a ],<ref name="Adams1998">{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Ian |title=Ideology and Politics in Britain Today |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7t714alm68C&pg=PA127|year=1998 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-5056-5 |page=127}}</ref> instead it supports a mixed economy that includes both ] and ] in capital goods.<ref name="Stanislao G. Pugliese 1999. pp. 99">Stanislao G. Pugliese. ''Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile''. Harvard University Press, 1999. pp. 99.</ref><ref name="Noel W. Thompson 2006. Pp. 60-61">Noel W. Thompson. ''Political economy and the Labour Party: the economics of democratic socialism, 1884–2005''. 2nd edition. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2006. pp. 60–61.</ref> Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed market economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of ]<ref>Roland Willey Bartlett, Roland Willey Bartlett. The success of modern private enterprise. Interstate Printers & Publishers, 1970. pp. 32. "Liberal socialism, for example, is unequivocally in favour of the free market economy and of freedom of action for the individual and recognizes in legalistic and artificial monopolies the real evils of capitalism."</ref> and opposes an entirely unregulated economy.<ref name= ref72>Steve Bastow, James Martin. Third way discourse: European ideologies in the twentieth century. Edinburgh, Scotland, UK: Edinburgh University Press, Ltd, 2003. pp. 72.</ref> It considers both ] and ] to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other.<ref name="Gerald F. Gaus 2004. Pp. 420"/> Principles that can be described as "liberal socialist" have been based upon or developed by the following philosophers: ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Nadia Urbinati. ''J.S. Mill's political thought: a bicentennial reassessment''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007 Pp. 101.</ref> Other important liberal socialist figures include Guido Calogero, ], ], ] and ].<ref name= ref72/> Liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.<ref name= ref72/> | |||
| === Socialism and modern progressive social movements === | |||
| {{further|Socialist feminism|Socialism and LGBT rights|Eco-socialism|Anarcha-feminism|Green anarchism|Queer anarchism}} | |||
| ] ] and Rosa Luxemburg in 1910]] | |||
| ] is a branch of ] that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that ] can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and ] sources of women's ].<ref>, retrieved on 28 May 2007.</ref> ]'s foundation is laid by ] in his analysis of gender oppression in '']'' (1884). ]'s ''Woman under Socialism'' (1879), the "single work dealing with sexuality most widely read by rank-and-file members of the ] (SPD)".<ref>''Journal of Homosexuality'', 1995, Volume 29, Issue 2/3. {{ISSN|0091-8369}} – Simultaneously published as: Gay men and the sexual history of the political left, Gert Hekma et al. Eds. Harrington Park Press 1995, {{ISBN|1-56023-067-3}}. p. 14</ref> In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both ] and ] were against the ] of men and supported a ] revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible.<ref name=Stokes>{{cite book |last=Stokes |first=John |title=Eleanor Marx (1855–1898): Life, Work, Contacts |year=2000 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot |isbn=978-0-7546-0113-5}}</ref> As their movement already had the most radical demands in women's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin<ref>Zetkin, Clara, (1895).</ref><ref>Zetkin, Clara, .</ref> and ],<ref>Kollontai, Alexandra, (1909).</ref><ref>Kollontai, Alexandra, (1919).</ref> counterposed Marxism against ] rather than trying to combine them. ] began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists ] and ]<ref>Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (ed.). ''Quiet Rumours: An Anarcha-Feminist Reader'', Dark Star: 2002. {{ISBN|978-1-902593-40-1}}. p.9.</ref> In the ], an anarcha-feminist group, {{lang|es|]}} ("Free Women") linked to the {{lang|es|]}}, organised to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.<ref>Ackelsberg, Martha A. Free Women of Spain: Anarchism and the Struggle for the Emancipation of Women, AK Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1-902593-96-8}}.</ref> In 1972, the ] published "Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement", which is believed to be the first to use the term "socialist feminism" in publication.<ref name="CWLUOver">{{cite web |author1=Margeret "Peg" Strobel |author2=Sue Davenport |year=1999 |title=The Chicago Women's Liberation Union: An Introduction |website=The CWLU Herstory Website |publisher=University of Illinois |url=http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUAbout/abdoc1.html |accessdate=25 November 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104090301/http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/CWLUAbout/abdoc1.html |archivedate=4 November 2011 |df=}}</ref> | |||
| ], philosopher and activist who was instrumental in the foundation of the ] and the ] as well as in the early ] western movements]] | |||
| Many ]. For early socialist ], true freedom could only occur without suppressing passions, as the suppression of passions is not only destructive to the individual, but to society as a whole. Writing before the advent of the term "homosexuality", Fourier recognised that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality and ''androgénité''. He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration.<ref>], ''Le Nouveau Monde amoureux'' (written 1816–18, not published widely until 1967: Paris: Éditions Anthropos). pp. 389, 391, 429, 458, 459, 462, and 463.</ref> In ]'s '']'', he passionately advocates for an ] society where wealth is shared by all, while warning of the dangers of social systems that crush individuality. Wilde's ] politics were shared by other figures who actively campaigned for homosexual emancipation in the late 19th century such as ].<ref>According to his biographer Neil McKenna, Wilde was part of a secret organisation that aimed to legalise homosexuality, and was known among the group as a leader of "the Cause". (McKenna, Neil. 2003. ''The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde''.)</ref> '']: A Study of Some Transitional Types of Men and Women'' was a book from 1908 and an early work arguing for ] written by ]<ref>Flood, M. (2007) International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities, Routledge: Abingdon, p. 315</ref> who was also an influential personality in the foundation of the ] and the ]. After the ] under the leadership of ] and ], the ] abolished previous laws against homosexuality.<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Russell|title=The Gay 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Gay Men and Lesbians, Past and Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jACXalmJ3nEC|year=2002|publisher=Kensington Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-0-7582-0100-3|page=124}}</ref> ] was an early leader in the American ] movement as well as a member of the ]. He is known for his roles in helping to found several gay organisations, including the ], the first sustained gay rights group in the United States which in its early days had a strong marxist influence. The ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'' reports that "s Marxists the founders of the group believed that the injustice and oppression which they suffered stemmed from relationships deeply embedded in the structure of American society".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://williamapercy.com/images/Mattachine.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mattachine Society at Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) |website=Encyclopedia of Homosexuality}}</ref> Also emerging from a number of events, such as the May 1968 insurrection in France, the ] in the United States and the ] of 1969, militant gay liberation organisations began to spring up around the world. Many saw their roots in left radicalism more than in the established homophile groups of the time,<ref>, Lou Chabarro 2004 for the ].</ref> though the ] took an ] stance and attacked the ] and traditional ]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/glf-london.html |title=Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. London |origyear=1971 |year=1978}}</ref> | |||
| ], green socialism or socialist ecology is a political position merging aspects of ], socialism and/or ] with that of ], ecology and ]. Eco-socialists generally believe that the expansion of the capitalist system is the cause of ], poverty, war and ] through ] and ], under the supervision of repressive ] and transnational structures.<ref name="Manifesto">{{cite book |last=Kovel |first=J. |author2=Löwy, M. |title=An ecosocialist manifesto |year=2001}}</ref> Contrary to the depiction of ] by some environmentalists,<ref name=Eckersley>Eckersley, R., ''Environmentalism and Political Theory'', 1992 (Albany, NY: SUNY Press)</ref> ]<ref name=Clark>Clark, J., ''The Anarchist Moment'', 1984 (Montreal: Black Rose)</ref> and fellow socialists<ref name=Benton>Benton, T. (ed.), ''The Greening of Marxism'', 1996 (New York: Guildford)</ref> as a ] who favoured the domination of nature, eco-socialists have revisited Marx's writings and believe that he "was a main originator of the ecological world-view".<ref name=Kovel>Kovel, J., ''The Enemy of Nature'', 2002</ref> Eco-socialist authors, like ]<ref name=JBF>Foster, J. B., ''Marx's Ecology'', 2000 (New York: Monthly Review Press)</ref> and Paul Burkett,<ref name=Burkett>Burkett, P., ''Marx and Nature'', 1999 (New York: St. Martin's Press)</ref> point to Marx's discussion of a "metabolic rift" between man and nature, his statement that "private ownership of the globe by single individuals will appear quite absurd as private ownership of one man by another" and his observation that a society must "hand it down to succeeding generations in an improved condition".<ref name=Capital3>Marx, K., ''Capital Vol. 3.'', 1894</ref> The English socialist ] is largely credited with developing key principles of what was later called eco-socialism.<ref name=Babylon>Wall, D., ''Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-Capitalist, Anti-Globalist and Radical Green Movements'', 2005</ref> During the 1880s and 1890s, Morris promoted his eco-socialist ideas within the ] and ].<ref name=GLSite>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenleft.org.uk |title=www.greenleft.org.uk|website=greenleft.org.uk |accessdate=3 April 2016 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160405022509/http://www.greenleft.org.uk/ |archivedate=5 April 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> ], or ecoanarchism, is a ] within ] which puts a particular emphasis on ]. An important early influence was the thought of the American ] ] and his book '']''<ref name="Thoreau">"Su obra más representativa es Walden, aparecida en 1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía de los individuos con el entorno natural. Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por ]. Para George Woodcock, esta actitud puede estar también motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=26 May 2006 }}</ref> and ].<ref name="Reclus1">{{cite web |url=http://www.natustar.com/uk/naturism-begin.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=11 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025125935/http://www.natustar.com/uk/naturism-begin.html |archivedate=25 October 2012 |df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secA3.html#seca33 |title=A.3 What types of anarchism are there? |website=Anarchist Writers}}</ref> | |||
| In the late 19th century, there emerged ] as the fusion of anarchism and ] philosophies within ] circles in France, Spain, Cuba<ref name="raforum.info">{{cite web |author=RA forum |url=http://raforum.info/spip.php?article3061&lang=fr |title=R.A. Forum > SHAFFER, Kirwin R. Anarchism and countercultural politics in early twentieth-century Cuba |website=raforum.info |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012003926/http://raforum.info/spip.php?article3061&lang=fr |archivedate=12 October 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and Portugal.<ref name="spanishind"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=26 May 2006 }}</ref> ] is closely related to the work and ideas of ] and influenced by anarchist ]. Bookchin's first book, ''],'' was published under the pseudonym Lewis Herber in 1962, a few months before ]'s '']''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/bio1.html |title=''A Short Biography of Murray Bookchin'' by Janet Biehl |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |accessdate=11 May 2012}}</ref> His groundbreaking essay "Ecology and Revolutionary Thought" introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/ecologyandrev.html |title=Ecology and Revolution |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=16 June 2004 |accessdate=11 May 2012}}</ref> In the 1970s, ], suggesting a left-wing response to the '']'' model that predicted catastrophic ] and spurred environmentalism, postulated that capitalist technologies were chiefly responsible for ] as opposed to ].<ref name=Commoner>Commoner, B., ''The Closing Circle'', 1972</ref> The 1990s saw the ] Mary Mellor<ref name=Mellor>Mellor, M., ''Breaking the Boundaries: Towards a Feminist, Green Socialism'', 1992</ref> and ]<ref name=Salleh>Saller, A., ''Ecofeminism as Politics: Nature, Marx and the Postmodern'', 1997</ref> address environmental issues within an eco-socialist paradigm. With the rising profile of the ] movement in the ], an "environmentalism of the poor" combining ecological awareness and ] has also become prominent.<ref name=Guha>Guha, R. and Martinez-Alier, J., ''Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South'', 1997</ref> In 1994, David Pepper also released his important work, ''Ecosocialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice'', which critiques the current approach of many within ], particularly ].<ref name=DPepper>Pepper, D., ''Ecosocialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice'', 1994</ref> Currently, many ] around the world, such as the ] (GroenLinks), contain strong eco-socialist elements. Radical ]s have been formed in many countries by eco-socialists, radical greens and other radical left groups. In ], the ] was formed as a coalition of numerous radical parties. Within the ], a number of far-left parties from Northern Europe have organised themselves into the ]. | |||
| === Syndicalism === | |||
| {{main|Syndicalism}} | |||
| Syndicalism is a social movement that operates through industrial trade unions and rejects ] and the use of establishment politics to establish or promote socialism. They reject using state power to construct a socialist society, favouring strategies such as the ]. Syndicalists advocate a socialist economy based on federated unions or syndicates of workers who own and manage the means of production. Some Marxist currents advocate syndicalism, such as ]. ] is a ] which views ] as a method for workers in ] to gain control of an economy and with that control influence broader society. The ] largely orchestrated by the anarcho-syndicalist trade union ] during the ] offers an historical example.<ref>]. '']''. Free Life Editions; 1st edition (1974)</ref> The ] is an international federation of ] ] and initiatives. | |||
| == Criticism == | |||
| {{main|Criticism of socialism}} | |||
| == See also == | |||
| {{Misplaced Pages books}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == Notes == | |||
| {{reflist|30em}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| * {{citation|first=A Joseph|last=Berlau|title=The German Social Democratic Party, 1914–1921|place=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1949}}. | |||
| * {{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Lamb|first1=Peter|last2=Docherty|first2=J. C.|title=Historical Dictionary of Socialism|edition=2nd|year=2006|publisher=The Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham|isbn=978-0-8108-5560-1}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| {{further reading cleanup|date=January 2016}} | |||
| {{refbegin|30em}} | |||
| * Sassoon, Donald. ''One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century''. New Press. 1998. {{ISBN|1-56584-486-6}}. | |||
| * Guy Ankerl, ''Beyond Monopoly Capitalism and Monopoly Socialism'', Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 1978. | |||
| * Beckett, Francis, ''Clem Attlee'', Politico's (2007) {{ISBN|978-1842751923}}. | |||
| * Nik Brandal, Øivind Bratberg, Dag Einar Thorsen. ''The Nordic Model of Social Democracy'' (2013) Pallgrave MacMillan. {{ISBN|1137013265}}. | |||
| * ]. ''Why Not Socialism?'' ], 2009. {{ISBN|0691143617}}. | |||
| * ], ''History of Socialist Thought, in 7 volumes'', Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1965; Palgrave Macmillan, 2003 reprint; 7 volumes, hardcover, 3160 pages, {{ISBN|1-4039-0264-X}}. | |||
| * ] (2014). ''.'' ]; 3 edition. {{ISBN|1107427320}}. | |||
| * ], ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific'', Pathfinder; 2r.e. edition (December 1989) {{ISBN|978-0873485791}}. | |||
| * Friedrich Engels, ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Zurich, 1884. {{LCC|HQ504.E6}}. | |||
| * Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders, eds., ''Socialist Thought: A Documentary History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1964. {{LCCN|64011312}}. | |||
| * Frances Goldin, Debby Smith, Michael Smith. ''Imagine: Living in a Socialist USA''. ], 2014. {{ISBN|0062305573}}. | |||
| * ], ''Histoire du Socialisme Européen''. Paris: Gallimard, 1948. | |||
| * ], ''Socialism'', New York: Bantam, 1972. {{LCCN|76154260}}. | |||
| * ]. ''Socialism: Past and Future.'' Arcade Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|1611453356}}. | |||
| * Hayes, Carlton J. H. "The History of German Socialism Reconsidered," ''American Historical Review'' (1917) 23#1 pp. 62–101 . | |||
| * ], (''Socialism, Economic Calculation, and Entrepreneurship''), Unión Editorial, 1992. {{ISBN|84-7209-420-0}}. | |||
| * Makoto Itoh, ''Political Economy of Socialism''. London: Macmillan, 1995. {{ISBN|0-333-55337-3}}. | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Kitching|first=Gavin|authorlink=Gavin Kitching|title=Rethinking Socialism|publisher=Meuthen|year=1983|url=http://www.gavinkitching.com/marx_0.htm|isbn=978-0-416-35840-7|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080118040529/http://www.gavinkitching.com/marx_0.htm|archivedate=18 January 2008|df=dmy-all}} | |||
| * ], ''On the Economic Theory of Socialism'', Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1938. {{LCCN|38012882}}. | |||
| * Michael Lebowitz, '''', , 2006. {{ISBN|1-58367-145-5}}. | |||
| * George Lichtheim, ''A Short History of Socialism''. Praeger Publishers, 1970. | |||
| * Alan Maass. ''The Case for Socialism.'' ], 2010 (Updated Edition). {{ISBN|1608460738}}. | |||
| * Marx, Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', Penguin Classics (2002) {{ISBN|978-0140447576}}. | |||
| * Marx, Engels, ''Selected works in one volume'', Lawrence and Wishart (1968) {{ISBN|978-0853151814}}. | |||
| * ], , San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002. {{ISBN|1-893554-45-7}}. | |||
| * Michael Newman, ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-19-280431-6}}. | |||
| * ], ed., ''Market Socialism: The Debate among Socialists'', Routledge, 1998. {{ISBN|0-415-91967-3}}. | |||
| * ], ''Renewing Socialism: Democracy, Strategy, and Imagination''. {{ISBN|0-8133-9821-5}}. | |||
| * Emile Perreau-Saussine, '''', in Patrick Riordan (dir.), Values in Public life: aspects of common goods (Berlin, LIT Verlag, 2007), pp. 11–34. | |||
| * ], ''Property and Freedom'', Vintage, 2000. {{ISBN|0-375-70447-7}}. | |||
| * John Barkley Rosser and Marina V. Rosser, ''Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-262-18234-8}}. | |||
| * ] and John Crump, ''Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries''. {{ISBN|0-312-00524-5}}. | |||
| * ] (editor), ''The ABCs of Socialism.'' Verso, 2016. {{ISBN|978-1784787264}}. | |||
| * Katherine Verdery, ''What Was Socialism, What Comes Next'', Princeton. 1996. {{ISBN|0-691-01132-X}}. | |||
| * {{cite web|last=Webb|first=Sidney|title=The Basis of Socialism – Historic|year=1889|publisher=Library of Economics and Liberty|authorlink=Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield}} | |||
| * ], ''Long Detour: The History and Future of the American Left'', , 2003, hardcover, 272 pages. {{ISBN|0-8133-4104-3}}. | |||
| * Peter Wilberg, , 2003. {{ISBN|1-904519-02-4}}. | |||
| * ], ''To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940. {{LCCN|40034338}}. | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| * {{dmoz|Society/Politics/Socialism/|Socialism}}. | |||
| * {{IEP|socialis/}} | |||
| * from the . | |||
| * {{cite EB1922|last=Cole|first=G. D. H.|authorlink=G. D. H. Cole|wstitle=Socialism|short=x}} | |||
| * {{cite NIE|last=Ely|first=Richard T.|authorlink=Richard T. Ely|last2=Adams|first2=Thomas Sewall|author2link=Thomas Sewall Adams|wstitle=Socialism|short=x}} | |||
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