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The term apartheid commonly refers to South African apartheid, a former official policy of political, legal, and economic racial discrimination against nonwhites. The application of the term to situations other than apartheid in South Africa is controversial and disputed, because there is no agreed definition, and it is therefore regarded by many as a mere political epithet.

Definition of the International Criminal Court

According to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, "'The crime of apartheid' means inhumane acts... committed in the context of an institutionalised regime of systematic oppression and domination by one racial group over any other racial group or groups and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime".

The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court came into effect on April 11, 2002 when it was ratified by the minimum of 60 nations. As of October 2005, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court has been ratified by 100 nations and signed by an additional 39 nations. The 57 remaining nations (of the 197 nations recognized by the United Nations) that have not signed it (or have unsigned it), notably the United States, Russia, China and India, are not subject to its jurisdiction unless the matter is referred to it by the UN Security Council. For further details on national ratification and exceptions, see the list of states party to the treaty.

Allegations regarding countries

Afghanistan

Afghanistan, under Taliban religious leadership, has been characterized by feminist groups and others as a "gender apartheid" system where women are segregated from men in public and do not enjoy legal equality or equal access to employment or education. In 1997 the Feminist Majority Foundation launched a "Campaign to Stop Gender Apartheid in Afghanistan", which urged the U.S. government and the United Nations to "do everything in their power to restore the human rights of Afghan women and girls." The campaign included a petition to U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan and U.N. Assistant Secretary General Angela King which stated, in part, that "We, the undersigned, deplore the Taliban’s brutal decrees and gender apartheid in Afghanistan." In 1998 activists from the National Organization of Women picketed Unocal's Sugar Land, Texas office, arguing that its proposed pipeline through Afghanistan was collaborating with "gender apartheid". In a weekly presidential address in November 2001 Laura Bush also accused the Taliban of practising "gender apartheid". The Nation referred to the Taliban's 1997 order that medical services for women be partly or completely suspended in all hospitals in the capital city of Kabul as "Health apartheid". According to the Women's Human Rights Resource Programme of the University of Toronto Bora Laskin Law Library "Throughout the duration of Taliban rule in Afghanistan, the term "Gender Apartheid" was used by a number of women's rights advocates to convey the message that the rights violations experience by Afghan women were in substance no different than those experienced by blacks in Apartheid South Africa."

Australia

While there is no existing Australian government policy that segregates Aborigines, their poor socio-economic conditions typically leave them somewhat segregated from the rest of Australian society. This situation has led a number of commentators and civil rights groups to characterize the situation as "Apartheid". In fact, Australia's government policies are viewed by some as the original impetus for the Apartheid system in South Africa.

Brazil

Growing inequities in the economic and social status of Afro-Brazilians in Brazil have been described as "social apartheid". According to São Paulo Congressman Aloizio Mercadante, a leading member of Brazil's leftist Workers' Party (PT), "Just as South Africa had racial apartheid, Brazil has social apartheid." The exclusion of youth (particularly street youth) from Brazilian society has also been described as "social Apartheid". Carlos Verrisimo states these two inequities are often inter-related, and Cristovam Buarque, Governor of the Federal District from 1995 to 98, Minister of Education from 2003 to 2004, and currently PT senator for the Federal District argues that "Brazil is a divided country, home to the greatest income concentration in the world and to a model of apartation, Brazilian social apartheid." The Nation has described Brazilian president Lula as "fighting to bring the poor of Brazil out of economic apartheid".

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Jonathan Steele of The Guardian has argued that Bosnia and Herzegovina is "a dependent, stifled, apartheid regime". In his view, the U.N. control of Bosnia under the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, which he described as "UN-sanctioned liberal imperialism", creates "dependency, stifles civil society, and produces a highly visible financial apartheid in which an international salariat lords it over a war-wounded and jobless local population."

Canada

Canada's treatment of its native peoples has been described as "Canada's Apartheid". However, Canada's aboriginal people are not required to live on reserves and may work freely anywhere in the country without paying sales or income taxes. In 1966, Thomas Berger stated:

The history of the Indian people for the last century has been the history of the impingement of white civilization upon the Indian: the Indian was virtually powerless to resist the white civilization; the white community of B.C. adopted a policy of apartheid. This, of course, has already been done in eastern Canada and on the Prairies, but the apartheid policy adopted in B.C. was of a particularly cruel and degrading kind. They began by taking the Indians' land without any surrender and without their consent. Then they herded the Indian people on to Indian reserves. This was nothing more nor less than apartheid, and that is what it still is today.

In the 1980s, the Urban Alliance on Race Relations compared Canada's practices to Apartheid, and stated "Perhaps the most severe and yet overlooked example of discriminatory practices towards Canadians is to be found in the treatment of our own indigenous people, the Native Canadians". Canada's citizenship laws (described as "apartheid laws") did not grant full citizenship to native peoples until 1985. Even in the 21st century, according to Canada's Globe and Mail newspaper, "Economically, socially, politically, culturally, we have come to accept a quiet apartheid that segregates, and thus weakens, native and non-native society", and in 2004 the Canadian Taxpayers Federation described Canada's Indian Act, and reserve system for native Indians, as "Apartheid: Canada's ugly secret". In November, 2006, Mohamed Ali Mohammed Saeed, who represented the Sudanese government, which was widely condemened for genocide against Christians, at the U.N., chastised Canada for the "tragic situation" of its "indigenous peoples and migrants", stating that "Canada and New Zealand's support for the practices of slavery and apartheid are well known". Unlike in Sudan, however, slavery has been illegal for more than 170 years.

People's Republic of China

Nobel Peace Prize winner Desmond Tutu has drawn explicit comparisons between the fight to end South African apartheid and the Tibetan struggle for independence from the People's Republic of China. In a speech made while being honored by fellow Nobel Peace Prize laureate the Dalai Lama and the International Campaign for Tibet, Tutu stated to the Chinese government "We used to say to the apartheid government: you may have the guns, you may have all this power, but you have already lost. Come: join the winning side. His Holiness and the Tibetan people are on the winning side." In 2001 representatives of Tibet succeeded in gaining accreditation at a United Nations-sponsored meeting of non-governmental organizations. On August 29 Jampal Chosang, the head of the Tibetan coalition, stated that China had introduced "a new form of apartheid" in Tibet because "Tibetan culture, religion, and national identity are considered a threat" to China. The Tibet Society of the UK has called on the British government to "condemn the apartheid regime in Tibet that treats Tibetans as a minority in their own land and which discriminates against them in the use of their language, in education, in the practice of their religion, and in employment opportunities."

China's houku system of residency permits, which has effectively discriminated against China's 800 million rural peasants for decades, has been also been described as "China's apartheid". According to Jiang Wenran, acting director of the China Institute at the University of Alberta, this system has been "one of the most strictly enforced "apartheid" social structures in modern world history." He states "Urban dwellers enjoy a range of social, economic and cultural benefits while peasants, the majority of the Chinese population, are treated as second-class citizens."

Cuba

Cuba's policy of providing access to special locations and services to tourists that are not available to local citizens is popularly described as "tourist apartheid", "tourism apartheid", and sometimes "economic apartheid". Human Rights Watch states "Cuban nationals are routinely barred from enjoying amenities open to foreigners. In a phenomenon popularly known as 'tourist apartheid,' the best hotels, resorts, beaches, and restaurants are off limits to most Cubans, as are certain government health institutions," and contrasts this practise with the Constitution of Cuba, which "bars discrimination based on 'race, skin color, sex, national origin, religious creeds, and any other type offending human dignity.'" Dr. Gillian Gunn, former fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies goes further, stating "The exclusion also flatly contradicts Article 43 of the Cuban constitution, which guarantees all Cubans, 'without regard to race, skin color, religious belief, or national origin,' the right to 'lodge themselves in any hotel,' 'be attended in all restaurants and establishments serving the public,' and 'enjoy the same spas, beaches, social clubs, and other centers of sport, recreation, and leisure'."

This policy was precipitated by the economic crisis known in Cuba as "the Special Period" which began in the early 1990's, and the government's resulting need to earn hard currency to make up for lost economic aid from the Soviet Union. According to Dr. María Dolores Espino, professor of Economics at St. Thomas University, the phrase arose in Cuba itself as a result of the tourism policies of the Cuban government, and its efforts to isolate citizens from the resulting dichotomy of enclaves of capitalism within the larger framework of Cuban communism. "To further isolate international tourism from Cuban society, tourism was to be promoted in enclaves where, as much as possible, tourists would be segregated from Cuban society. The growing dichotomy was not lost on the average Cuban citizen, and the government tourism policy soon began to be referred to as 'tourism apartheid.'"

In addition to use by Cubans, the phrase is now also widely used by non-Cuban sources, including the Encyclopædia Britannica, United States Department of State, the United States Agency for International Development, members of the United States Congress, political columnists, and others.

Paul Hare, British Ambassador to Cuba from 2001 to 2004, sees tourist apartheid as part of a larger system of "systematic elitism" in Cuban society, which includes special clinics and foreign trips "offered by the communist party and military to its own", though he describes tourist apartheid as "particularly distasteful". Tourist apartheid has been closely linked with jineterismo, the tourist sex industry in Cuba; according to Elisa Facio, the government "appeared to turn a blind eye in hopes the dollars jineteras earned would help overcome the Revolution's worst economic crisis.

France

The long-term policies of successive governments of France, and the current policies of Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy, have been accused of constituting "urban apartheid" and "social apartheid" against the country's Muslim residents. According to Ralph Peters, France's "5 million brown and black residents" have "failed to appreciate discrimination, jobless rates of up to 50 percent, public humiliation, crime, bigotry and, of course, the glorious French culture that excluded them through an informal apartheid system." Le Monde diplomatique has stated that "universalist France has allowed a kind of educational apartheid to develop between its good and bad schools." More fundamentalist Muslims in France have also been accused of practising a form of "Muslim apartheid", based on their alleged "deliberate separatism". George Mason University law professor Harry Hutchison has warned that France's refusal to implement its 2006 First Employment Contract law will disproportionally harm poor youth, particularly immigrants; in his view, "France will continue to mirror apartheid-era South Africa". According to Tariq Ramadan, "France is disintegrating before our eyes into socioeconomic communities, into territorial and social apartheid."

India

India's treatment of its lower-class dalits has been described by UNESCO as "India's hidden apartheid". According to Rajeev Dhavan, of India's leading English-language newspaper The Hindu, "casteism is India's apartheid which will continue in its most vicious and persistent forms for decades to come." Eric Margolis has claimed that India "frantically tr to prevent its caste system, which is often called ‘hidden apartheid" from being put on the agenda of the 2001 World Conference against Racism in Durban.

Critics of the analogy refute claims of equivalency between Caste and Racial discrimination, pointing out that the caste issues as essentially intra-racial and intra-cultural. The only reason India wants caste discrimination kept off the agenda of anti-racism is that it is a needless detraction from the issue of racism. Caste discrimination in India is undeniable but caste and race are entirely distinct..

In addition, the view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed by many scholars. Sociologists describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, emprical and contextual stratification. Others have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India.. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.

Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. For details see sanskritization.

Iran

Iran has also been accused of implementing a "gender apartheid" system at the behest of religious leaders. In an article titled "Islamic gender apartheid" Phyllis Chesler asserts that:

"In a democratic, modern, and feminist era, women in the Islamic world are not treated as human beings. Women in Iran and elsewhere in the Islamic world are viewed as the source of all evil. Their every move is brutally monitored and curtailed. The smallest infraction – a wanton wisp of hair escaping a headscarf – merits maximum punishment: Flogging in public, or worse. This is happening in Iran even as we speak. In 2005, a hospital in Tehran was accused of refusing entry to women who did not wear head-to-toe covering. In 2002, in Saudi Arabia, religious policemen prevented 14 year old schoolgirls from leaving a burning school building because they were not wearing their headscarves and abayahs. Fifteen girls died."

Israel

Allegations of Israeli apartheid draw a controversial analogy from South Africa's treatment of non-whites during the apartheid era to Israel's treatment of Arabs living in the West Bank and Israel. Those who reject the analogy argue that it has no basis in fact and is intended as political slander to malign Israel.

Malaysia

In 2006 Marina Mahathir, the daughter of Malaysia's former Prime Minister, and a campaigner for women's rights, described the status of Muslim women in Malaysia as similar to that of Black South Africans under apartheid. She was apparently doing so in response to new family laws which make it easier for Muslim men to divorce wives, or take multiple wives, or gain access to their property. Mahathir stated ""In our country, there is an insidious growing form of apartheid among Malaysian women, that between Muslim and non-Muslim women." According to the BBC, she sees Muslim Malaysian women as "subject to a form of apartheid - second-class citizens held back by discriminatory rules that do not apply to non-Muslim women." Her comments were strongly criticized: the Malaysian Muslim Professionals Forum stated "Her prejudiced views and assumptions smack of ignorance of the objectives and methodology of the Sharia, and a slavish capitulation to western feminism's notions of women's rights, gender equality and sexuality," and Dr Harlina Halizah Siraj, women's chief of the reform group Jamaah Islah Malaysia said "Women in Malaysia are given unlimited opportunities to obtain high education level, we are free to choose our profession and career besides enjoying high standard of living with our families."

New Zealand

New Zealand's treatment (both preferential and discriminatory) of its native Māori population has been referred to as "apartheid". In the 1950s the still-current practice of reserving parliamentary seats for Māoris was described by some politicians as "as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa". In June, 2000, Winston Peters, leader of the New Zealand First party, described New Zealand's "Closing the gaps" program, its allocation of almost a billion dollars for Māori and Pacific Islanders, as "social apartheid". In November, 2006, Mohamed Ali Mohammed Saeed, the Sudanese representative at the U.N. chastised New Zealand for the "tragic situation" of its "indigenous peoples and migrants", stating that "Canada and New Zealand's support for the practices of slavery and apartheid are well known".

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia's practices with respect to women have been referred to as "gender apartheid". Andrea Dworkin refers to these practices simply as "apartheid":

Seductive mirages of progress notwithstanding, nowhere in the world is apartheid practiced with more cruelty and finality than in Saudi Arabia. Of course, it is women who are locked in and kept out, exiled to invisibility and abject powerlessness within their own country. It is women who are degraded systematically from birth to early death, utterly and totally and without exception deprived of freedom. It is women who are sold into marriage or concubinage, often before puberty; killed if their hymens are not intact on the wedding night; kept confined, ignorant, pregnant, poor, without choice or recourse. It is women who are raped and beaten with full sanction of the law. It is women who cannot own property or work for a living or determine in any way the circumstances of their own lives. It is women who are subject to a despotism that knows no restraint. Women locked out and locked in.

Saudi Arabia's treatment of women has also been described as "sexual apartheid". Colbert I. King quotes an American official who accuses Western companies of complicity in Saudi Arabia's sexual apartheid:

One of the (still) untold stories, however, is the cooperation of U.S. and other Western companies in enforcing sexual apartheid in Saudi Arabia. McDonald's, Pizza Hut, Starbucks, and other U.S. firms, for instance, maintain strictly segregated eating zones in their restaurants. The men's sections are typically lavish, comfortable and up to Western standards, whereas the women's or families' sections are often run-down, neglected and, in the case of Starbucks, have no seats. Worse, these firms will bar entrance to Western women who show up without their husbands. My wife and other women were regularly forbidden entrance to the local McDonald's unless there was a man with them."

Azar Majedi, of the Centre for Women and Socialism, attributes sexual apartheid in Saudi Arabia to political Islam:

Women are the first victims of political Islam and Islamic terrorist gangs. Sexual apartheid, stoning, compulsory Islamic veil and covering and stripping women of all rights are the fruits of this reactionary and fascistic movement. Political Islam has committed countless crimes both where they are in power, like the Islamic Republic in Iran, the Mujahedin and the Taliban in Afghanistan, in the Sudan and in Saudi Arabia, and where they are in opposition, as in Algeria, Pakistan and Egypt. Terrorising the population is the policy and strategy of this force for seizing power.

According to The Guardian, "n the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, sexual apartheid rules", and this sexual apartheid is enforced by mutawa, religious police, though not as strongly in some areas:

The kingdom's sexual apartheid is enforced, in a crude fashion, by the religious police, the mutawa. Thuggish, bigoted and with little real training in Islamic law, they are much feared in some areas but also increasingly ridiculed. In Jeddah - a more laid-back city than Riyadh - they are rarely seen nowadays.

Saudi Arabia's treatment of religious minorities has also been described by both Saudis and non-Saudis as "apartheid" and "religious apartheid". Testifying before the Congressional Human Rights Caucus, Ali Al-Ahmed, Director of the Saudi Institute, stated:

Saudi Arabia is a glaring example of religious apartheid. The religious institutions from government clerics to judges, to religious curriculums, and all religious instructions in media are restricted to the Wahhabi understanding of Islam, adhered to by less than 40% of the population. The Saudi government communized Islam, through its monopoly of both religious thoughts and practice. Wahhabi Islam is imposed and enforced on all Saudis regardless of their religious orientations. The Wahhabi sect does not tolerate other religious or ideological beliefs, Muslim or not. Religious symbols by Muslims, Christians, Jewish and other believers are all banned. The Saudi embassy in Washington is a living example of religious apartheid. In its 50 years, there has not been a single non-Sunni Muslim diplomat in the embassy. The branch of Imam Mohamed Bin Saud University in Fairfax, Virginia instructs its students that Shia Islam is a Jewish conspiracy.

Amir Taheri quotes a Shi'ite businessman from Dhahran as saying "It is not normal that there are no Shi'ite army officers, ministers, governors, mayors and ambassadors in this kingdom. This form of religious apartheid is as intolerable as was apartheid based on race." According to Alan Dershowitz, "in Saudi Arabia apartheid is practiced against non-Muslims, with signs indicating that Muslims must go to certain areas and non-Muslims to others." On December 14, 2005, Republican Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen and Democrat Representative Shelley Berkley introduced a bill in Congress urging American divestiture from Saudi Arabia, and giving as its rationale (among other things) "Saudi Arabia is a country that practices religious apartheid and continuously subjugates its citizenry, both Muslim and non-Muslim, to a specific interpretation of Islam." Freedom House shows, as an example of "religious apartheid in Saudi Arabia", a picture of a sign showing Muslim-only and non-Muslim roads. Until March 1, 2004, the official government website stated that Jews were forbidden from entering the country.

Former Soviet Union

Soviet propaganda often used the term "apartheid" as a political epithet during the Cold War, in order to contrast the "rotting capitalism" as colonialist and racist, with declared advantages of Marxism-Leninism such as proletarian internationalism. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the pejorative is still being used in the political discourse, for example to describe national problems within Russia, or the status of ethnic Russian minority in the Baltic states or the situation in Crimea.

Sri Lanka

Some Tamils have accused the ruling Sinhalese government in Sri Lanka of discriminating against them, exhibiting attitudes identical to those of apartheid South Africa, and of collaborating with that government. According to People Against Sri Lankan Oppression (PASLO) "No matter how the Sri Lankan government tries to camouflage the discrimination against the Tamil people of Ceylon, it is exactly the same as apartheid was in South Africa. We firmly believe that due to the collaboration between the Apartheid government of South Africa and the Sri Lankan government, the Sri Lankan government have learnt and is using the same tactics used by the White Racist government. The Sri Lankan government cannot deny that they received arms from the Apartheid regime." Opponents of Tamil separatism have in turn have accused the Tamils of apartheid; the Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity has stated that Tamil separatists wish to create an "apartheid-style state called 'Tamil Eelam'", and that attempts at devolution are examples of "apartheid and racism".

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has been accused of "sleepwalking toward apartheid" by Trevor Phillips, chair of that country's Commission for Racial Equality. Philips has said that Britain is fragmenting into isolated racial communities: "literal black holes into which no one goes without fear and trepidation and nobody escapes undamaged". Philips believes that racial segration in Britain is approaching that of the United States. "You can get to the point as they have in the U.S. where things are so divided that there is no turning back."

The BBC has reported that the latest crime statistics appear to support Phillips' concerns. They show that race-hate crimes increased by almost 600 per cent in London in the month after the July 7 bomb attacks, with 269 more offenses allegedly "motivated by religious hatred" reported to the Metropolitan Police, compared to the same period last year.

Archbishop Desmond Tutu has likened the British government's detention of terrorist suspects without charge to South Africa under apartheid. Tutu told the BBC: "Ninety days for a South African is an awful deja-vu because we had in South Africa in the bad old days a 90-day detention law."

United States

Jonathan Kozol has described what he claims are rapidly re-segregating schools in American inner-cities as "Apartheid education" and "Apartheid Schooling".

Archbishop Desmond Tutu has likened Guantanamo Bay Detainment Camp to an apartheid regime, saying that arguments used by South Africa during apartheid were being used to justify holding the Guantanamo prisoners without trial. According to the BBC, Tutu has said that "Under apartheid, as at Guantanamo," people were held for long periods then released. He said: "Are you able to restore to those people the time when their freedom was denied them? If you have evidence for goodness sake produce it in a court of law. People with power have an incredible capacity for wanting to be able to retain that power and don't like scrutiny." Tutu said that he was saddened by the "muted public outcry," particularly in America.

Other allegations

The term "apartheid" has been used to describe differential treatment of women in institutions such as the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. See, for example, Patricia Budd Kepler in her 1978 Theology Today article "Women Clergy and the Cultural Order".

Criticism of Islam has included use of the term Islamic apartheid to refer to alleged discrimination and segregation on the basis of religion or gender.

Sexual apartheid is also a term specifically used by some same-sex rights advocates to describe a legal system that "subjects lesbians and gays to separate and unequal treatment in terms of the laws governing sexual behaviour, marriage, employment, child adoption, membership of the armed forces and so on." The concept of "sexual apartheid" is used to argue against legal discrimination in age of consent between heterosexual and homosexual sex and the non-recognition of same-sex marriage or the advocacy of civil unions as a substitute are cited.

Global apartheid is a term used by some on the left to describe the First World's relationship to the Third World. It is defined as a "an international system of minority rule" in which a largely white minority in the West keeps the rest of the world, particularly Africa, poor. According to the theory an international mostly white minority enjoy greater access to human rights, economic wealth and power by virtue of structural racism endemic in the world economic system and the international power structure. Global apartheid makes acceptable the existence of inferior rights for a majority of the world's population due to their race, origin, location or gender.

Iran's foreign minister has described attempts to stop it from gaining nuclear capabilities as nuclear apartheid and scientific apartheid. In a November 2005 guest column in Le Monde, Manouchehr Mottaki said that the West's demands Iran "surrender its inalienable right to fully master nuclear technology" were "nuclear apartheid". In subsequent statements in February 2006 he insisted that "Iran rejects all forms of scientific and nuclear apartheid by any world power", and asserted that this "scientific and nuclear apartheid" was "an immoral and discriminatory treatment of signatories to the Non-Proliferation Treaty", and that Iran has "the right to a peaceful use of nuclear energy and we cannot accept nuclear apartheid". His words were later echoed in a June 2006 speech by Iran's deputy chief nuclear negotiator Javad Vaeedi, in which he claimed that "developing countries are moving towards destroying technological apartheid".

Kevin Watkins, the author of the 2006 United Nations Development Programme report (titled "Beyond scarcity"), has decried what he describes as water apartheid, the relative lack of access to clean water faced by poor people and people in poor countries. In his view, the reason little has been done about this, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, is because the children of the wealthy do not suffer from the disease and mortality caused by un-clean water.

References

1. "'Cultural apartheid' is a dangerous and unfair epithet for a more complex historical development." Paul Rabinow, Man, New Series, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 1984), pp. 176-177
2. "Apartheid is dead in South Africa but the word is alive in the world, especially as an epithet of abuse for Israel." Lee Green, Gilead Ini, Steven Stotsky. CAMERA ALERT: Guardian portrays Israel as an Apartheid State, Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America, February 8, 2006. Retrieved October 25, 2006.
3. "Anti-Israel ideologues have a well-worn tactic of taking the latest world outrage and foisting it upon Israel, no matter how absurd the comparison or epithet. So in the 1960s Israel was branded a "colonialist power," in the 1970s Israel became an "apartheid state,"..." Not an "Apartheid Wall", Honest Reporting, February 15, 2004. Retrieved October 25, 2006.
4. "The NPT contains a built-in difference in status, which has routinely been called over the years a form of “apartheid”. This kind of abusive epithet is excessive." Bruno Tertrais. "Saving the NPT: Past and Future Non-Proliferation Bargains", Nonproliferation Policy Education Center, January 29, 2005 (Presented at NPEC´s Conference "Is Nuclear Proliferation Inevitable?" held in Paris, France November 2004). Retrieved October 25, 2006.
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45. Gunn, Gillian. Template:PDFlink, Georgetown University Cuba Briefing Paper Series, "Tourist Apartheid", January 1993.
46. "The policy isn't actually new. It's been around for at least a decade, since Cuba started expanding its tourism industry to make up for lost economic aid from the Soviet Union." Cave, Damien. Tourism apartheid in Cuba, Salon.com, February 6, 2002. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
47. "Much of the economic decline and the desperation for hard currency is due to the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, which supplied Cuba with an estimated $4 billion annually in subsidized imports, principally petroleum products." Farah, Douglas. Catering to Foreigners Instead of Cubans Puts Castro on Defensive The Washington Post, August 9, 1992.
48. "The Cuban economy is still recovering from a decline in gross domestic product of at least 35% between 1989 and 1993 due to the loss of Soviet subsidies." Cuba's Economy, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
49. Espino, María Dolores. Template:PDFlink, Proceedings of the Annual Meetings of the Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (ASCE), Volume 10, August 3-5, 2000.
50. "Cubans refer to the disparity between the high life of tourists and their own austere, declining standard of living as “tourism apartheid.” Foreign tourists frequent dollar restaurants and dollar stores, use dollar taxis, eat food and use transportation that Cubans cannot, and spend no time standing in lines for goods and services. The government’s need for hard currency has led it to reverse its anti-tourist stance and to give foreigners preferential treatment." Facio, Elisa, Toro-Morn, Marua, and Roschelle, Anne R. Template:PDFlink, Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, Volume 14, Spring 2004. pp. 120-142.
51. "Cubans, who earn an average of £8 a month, cannot afford to enter Havana's new five-star hotels. Even if they have dollars - either from working with tourists or from remittances sent by relatives overseas - they are barred from tourist hotels or resorts. There are no signs on hotel doors, but the ban is very real - thanks to a catch-all law against 'harassment of tourists'. Cubans call it 'tourism apartheid'." Rennie, David. Cuba 'apartheid' as Castro pulls in the tourists, The Daily Telegraph, 08/06/2002.
52. "Along the way, the vagaries of what one young Cuban described, rather nervously, as tourist apartheid were at least as stunning and abundant as the towering royal palms." Karaeulter, Kirk. In Cuba, 2 Worlds Bridged by a Dollar Sign, The New York Times, June 11, 2000.
53. "However, the increased dependence on foreign tourism has been accompanied by growing concern over illegal activities (notably prostitution and drug trafficking) and socioeconomic inequalities, wherein tourist areas are provided with many comforts and conveniences that are unavailable to the general public—a situation sometimes described as a “tourism apartheid.”" Cuba, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2006.
54. "Moreover, workers in Cuba’s tourist sector--at resorts where native Cubans are prohibited unless they are on the job--have been prohibited by a Ministry of Tourism regulation from accepting gifts, tips, or even food from foreigners, in a further attempt at increasing the tourist apartheid that exists on the island." Background Note: Cuba, United States Department of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, December 2005.
55. "If Castro is sincere in his desire for international respect, he must earn that respect. He must stop throwing Cuban journalists and peaceful activists into prison, stop tolerating sexual tourism, stop promoting tourist apartheid, stop religious discrimination, abandon censorship, end his internal embargo of information, stop panhandling for international credits and other hand-outs, and permit others to carry forward a true transition to democracy in Cuba." Remarks by Adolfo A. Franco, Assistant Administrator for Latin America and the Caribbean, USAID, University of Miami Cuba Transition Seminar, October 17, 2002.
56. "Rep. Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, R.-Fla., an outspoken Castro opponent, said she would oppose the National Trust's effort. "I will first verify how the permission process took place, then why the U.S government believes that historic preservation in a terrorist country is of our national interest, why U.S. citizens should want to use monies to refurbish a tourist site in a tourist apartheid society," she said." Dart, Bob. Template:PDFlink, COX Newspapers, June 2, 2005.
57. "...the result, in part, of Cuba's 'tourist apartheid,' which bars ordinary Cubans from mixing with foreigners in hotels, restaurants, and beaches." Jacoby, Jeff. The U.S. embargo and Cuba's future, Jewish World Review, March 22, 2002.
58. "Quite simply, Castro cannot allow the distribution of a book in Cuba that talks about how blacks were not allowed equal access to restaurants, beaches and clubs in the United States. It would remind Cubans of their own tourist apartheid policy, which bans them from places built for foreigners who pay in dollars or euros." Martinez, Guillermo I. No more fuel on fire, South Florida Sun-Sentinel, June 15, 2006.
59. "And the signs in hotels reading 'Solamente Turistas' should finally be taken down ." Nordlinger, Jay. A Cuba Policy to Cheer, National Review, May 21, 2002.
60. "However, the humanitarian Glover has never raised his voice on behalf of the Cuban people's human rights, the existence of the shameful tourist apartheid, the disproportionate majority of black Cubans in Castro's dungeons or the absence of black Cubans in key government positions." Blazquez, Agustin. Hollywood's Cuban Connection, The Washington Dispatch, February 4, 2003.
61. "U.S. tourism under current conditions would freeze in place Castro’s tourist apartheid, and likely exacerbate it." Calzon, Frank. Should American Taxpayers Subsidize Fidel Castro?, Center for a Free Cuba. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
62. Hare, Paul. U.S. Foreign Policy Towards Latin America and the Caribbean, Revista: Harvard Review of Latin America, David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies at Harvard University, Spring 2005.
63. "Jinterísmo, Tourist Apartheid and the State for Itself? Evaluating the Nature, Purpose and Impact of Cuba's Radical Reforms and State Capitalism since 1993", History 362a, Colony, Nation and Diaspora: Cuba and Puerto Rico, course syllabus, Yale University Faculty of History. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
64. A Cultural Primer: Tourist Apartheid & Jineterismo, Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
65. Facio, Elisa. During the Special Period, Global Development Studies, I, 3-4 (Winter 1998-Spring 1999), 57-78. Republished in DES: A Scholarly Journal of Ethnic Studies, Volume 1 Number 1, University of Colorado Department of Ethnic Studies.
66. Dominique Vidal, The fight against urban apartheid, Le Monde diplomatique, December 2005
67. Collon, Michel. Racism and Social Apartheid, Centre for Research on Globalization, November 22, 2005.
68. Peters, Ralph. France's Intifada, The New York Post, November 8, 2005.
69. Felouzis, Georges and Perroton, Joëlle. The trouble with the schools, Le Monde diplomatique, December, 2005.
70. Marrin, Minette. Muslim apartheid burns bright in France, The Sunday Times, November 13, 2005.
71. France Will Continue to Mirror Apartheid-Era South Africa, DiverseEducation.com May 4,2006. Accessed June 25, 2006.
72. Follath, Erich. Tariq Ramadan on the crisis in France, Salon.com, November 16, 2005.
73. http://www.unesco.org/courier/2001_09/uk/doss22.htm
74. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/08/24/stories/05242523.htm
75. http://www.ericmargolis.com/archives/2001/08/indias_hidden_a.php
76. An Untouchable Subject?
77. James Silverberg (Nov 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology. 75 (3): 443–444. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
78. Srinivas, M.N, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India by MN Srinivas, Page 32 (Oxford, 1952)
79. Caste in Modern India; And other essays: Page 48. (Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Bombay; First Published: 1962, 11th Reprint: 1994)
80. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3327/is_199409/ai_n8033813
81. Phyllis Chesler, "Islamic Gender Apartheid", FrontPageMagazine.com, December 16, 2005
82. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4795808.stm
83. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4784784.stm
84. "In the 1950s and 1960s the National government occasionally talked of abolishing the Maori seats. Some politicians described special representation as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa." "History of the Vote: Māori and the Vote", Elections New Zealand website, April 9 2005. Retrieved November 3, 2006.
85. "Better Economics But Socially 'Racial Apartheid'", Scoop, Jun 15, 2000.
86. Jensen, Rita Henley. Taking the Gender Apartheid Tour in Saudi Arabia, Women's eNews, 03/07/2005.
87. Handrahan, L.M. Gender Apartheid and Cultural Absolution: Saudi Arabia and the International Criminal Court, Human Rights Internet, Human Rights Tribune, Vol. 8, No. 1, Spring 2001.
88. Dworkin, Andrea. A Feminist Looks at Saudi Arabia, 1978. In "Letters from a War Zone: Writings 1976-1989", Lawrence Hill Books, Reprint edition (May 28, 1993). ISBN 1-55652-185-5
89. http://www.rationalist.org.uk/newhumanist/5thColumn/WomenandIslamicLaw.shtml
90. King, Colbert I. Saudi Arabia's Apartheid, The Washington Post, December 22, 2001.
91. Majedi, Azar. Sexual Apartheid is a Product of Political Islam, Medusa - the Journal of the Centre for Women and Socialism.
92. Whitaker, Brian. Veil power, "Special Report: Saudi Arabia", The Guardian, February 21, 2006.
93. http://www.shianews.com/hi/americas/news_id/0000232.php
94. Human Rights in Saudi Arabia: The Role of Women, Congressional Human Rights Caucus, Testimony of Ali Al-Ahmed, Director of the Saudi Institute, June 4, 2002.
95. Taheri, Amir. Apartheid, Saudi Style, New York Post, May 22, 2003.
96. Dershowitz, Alan. Treatment of Israel strikes an Alien Note, National Post, November 5, 2002.
97. To express the policy of the United States to ensure the divestiture... 109th CONGRESS, 1st Session, H. R. 4543.
98. Religious Apartheid in Saudi Arabia, Freedom House website. Retrieved July 11, 2006.
99. United States Department of State. Saudi Arabia, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2004, February 28, 2005.
100. Template:Ru icon Soviet language (BBC)
101. Lenin's expression
102. Template:Ru icon Introduce Apartheid? (2001)
103. Template:Ru icon The Russian People as a Consolidator (RFERL, 2005)
104. Template:Ru icon Apartheid in Latvia (1996)
105. Template:Ru icon Apartheid with Baltic flavor (2004)
106. Template:Ru icon Latvia discontinues Russian language education in schools (2003)
107. Template:Ru icon "Soft Apartheid" is flourishing in Crimea (2006)
108. South Africa & the Tamil Struggle, People Against Sri Lankan Oppression (PASLO) Press Release, November 14, 1998.
109. The Devolution Law of Sri Lanka "A Critique", Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.
110. ^ Freeman, Simon. "Britain urged to wake up to race crisis", The Times, September 22, 2005.
111. "Blair: Guantánamo is an anomaly", The Guardian, February 17, 2006.
112. Kozol, Jonathan. Overcoming Apartheid, The Nation, December 19, 2005. Adapted from Kozol's "The Shame of the Nation: The Restoration of Apartheid Schooling in America", Three Rivers Press (August 1, 2006). ISBN 1-4000-5245-9
113. Cite error: The named reference BBCTutu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
114. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,580180,00.html
115. http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1978/v34-4-article6.htm
116. http://www.petertatchell.net/discrimination/discrimination%20-%20sexual%20apartheid.htm
117. http://www.scottishgreens.org.uk/site/id/3927/title/CIVIL_PARTNERSHIPS_BILL_DOES_NOT_END_SEXUAL_APARTHEID.html
118. • Global Apartheid by Salih Booker and William Minter in The Nation, July 9 2001
     • Global Apartheid resources from the Africa Action website.
     • Global Apartheid in the Twenty-First Century by Manning Marable.
     • Global Apartheid Continues to Haunt Global Democracy by Charles Mutasa
     • Global Village or Global Apartheid from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives
119. Iran rejects nuclear ‘apartheid’, Aljazeera, December 26, 2005.
120. Iran blasts 'nuclear apartheid', News24.com, November 30, 2005.
121. FM lashes out at big powers' nuclear apartheid, globalsecurity.org, February 15, 2006.
122. Iran's Mottaki quoted: won't suspend research Iran Press News, February 27, 2006.
123. Iran's diplomat condemns technological apartheid, Islamic Republic News Agency, June 23, 2006.
124. Lyon, David. "UN urges end to 'water apartheid'", BBC News, November 9, 2006.

See also

• Racial segregation
• Religious segregation
• Racial segregation in the United States

• International relations
• Racism
• Development
• Globalization
• Discrimination
• Gender