Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 18:38, 18 June 2020

The wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic has received varying recommendations from different public health agencies and governments. The World Health Organisation and other public health organisations agree that masks can limit the spread of respiratory viral diseases such as COVID-19. However, the topic has been a subject of debate, with some public health agencies and governments disagreeing on a protocol for wearing face masks.

As of early May 2020, 88% of the world's population lives in countries that recommend or mandate the use of masks in public; more than 75 countries have mandated the use of masks. Debates have emerged regarding whether masks should be worn even when social distancing at 2 meters (6 feet), and whether they should be worn during exercise. Additionally, public health agencies of some countries and territories have changed their recommendations regarding face masks over time. Face masks have been a subject of shortages, and not all have been certified. Moreover, substandard masks were reported on the market with significantly reduced performance .

Types of face masks include:

• cloth face masks
• medical (non-surgical) masks,
• surgical masks
• filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks and FFP masks

Face shields, medical goggles, and other types of personal protective equipment are sometimes used together with face masks.

Types of masks

Certified medical masks are disposable (except some faceshields). They are made of non-woven material. They are mostly multi-layer. Filter material may be made of microfibers with an electrostatic charge; that is, the fibers are electrets. An electret filter increases the chances that smaller particles will veer and hit a fiber, rather than going straight through (electrostatic capture). Typically, efficiency of the filtering materials decreases when washed or used multiple times.

Many medical masks are respirators; they are designed to protect the wearer. Surgical masks, on the other hand, are meant to protect others against infection transmission from the wearer (so called "source control"). Some respirators and masks have valves, which let exhaled air out unfiltered. This makes them bad for source control. It may, however, reduce inwards leakage, thus improving wearer protection.

Face shields

Face shields protect against splash and splatter. Cough simulation experiments show that they protect the wearer against large droplets immediately after the cough, but are less effective against smaller aerosols, which can remain airborne for extended periods and can easily flow around a face shield to be inhaled.

Because they lack a peripheral seal, face shields are used with nose-mouth masks, and to protect nose-mouth masks, but use of face shields alone is not recommended for healthcare workers.

Cloth masks

A cloth face mask is a mask made of a common textile, usually cotton, worn over the mouth and nose. Although they are less effective than medical-grade masks, many health authorities recommend that the general public use them because medical-grade masks are in short supply.

They were routinely used by healthcare workers starting from the late 19th century until the mid 20th century. In the 1960s they fell out of use in the developed world in favor of modern surgical masks, but their use has persisted in developing countries.

There were calls for research into the effectiveness of improvised masks even before the emergence of COVID-19, motivated also by past epidemics and modelling of likely mask shortages. However, little research has been done. There are no studies of the use of cloth masks by the general public, one study on the use of cloth masks in hospitals (by healthcare workers, not patients), and many controlled-setting/lab studies of cloth masks' effects on aerosols as of May 2020.

Cloth masks are low-cost and reusable. They vary widely in effectiveness depending on material, fit/seal, and number of layers, among other factors. Unlike disposable masks, there are no legal standards for cloth masks. Fit is important (as with disposable masks). Measures to improve fit, such as an outer layer made from sheer nylon stockings or sheer tights around the head, reduce leakage.

Improvised cloth masks seem to be worse than standard commercial disposable masks, but better than nothing. There is, however, little good evidence on them. A single study gives evidence that an improvised mask was better than nothing, but not as good as soft electret-filter surgical mask, for protecting health care workers simulating treating a simulated infected patient, regardless of whether "patient" or carers wore the mask. Another study had volunteers wear masks they made themselves, to a pattern like that of a standard surgical mask, but with ties rather than earloops, from cotton T-shirts, and found that the number of microscopic particles that leaked inside the homemade masks was twice the number that leaked into the commercial masks, and that the homemade mask let three times as many microorganisms expelled by the wearer escape (median averages). There is limited evidence that cloth masks can significantly reduce droplet dispersal.

Cloth masks are commonly made with one layer, two layers, or two layers with a pocket for a removable-filter interlayer (disposable surgical masks also have three layers, with the filter layer midmost). The CDC recommends more than one layer. There is no research on the usefulness of a filter interlayer, as of May 2020. There were until recently no non-disposable materials designed for making masks (see end of paragraph). Common household fabrics which could be utilized (turned to a new use) as mask materials have been tested. Cloth materials vary widely in filtration efficiency. Some cotton and polyester household fabrics have been found to compare with disposable surgical masks for dry particle filtering. Cotton T-shirt material, pillowcase material, and 70% cotton/30% polyester sweatshirt material are among the common materials that performed well in lab tests, with T-shirts preferred to pillowcases because it was thought that it would probably fit better. Teatowels and vacuum-cleaner bags were effective at filtering, but had a very high air resistance, so were not recommended. Scarves filtered poorly. Surgical sterilisation wrap, a polypropylene non-woven fabric made for wrapping sterilized things to keep them sterile, is designed to filter germs from the air. Using surgical sterilisation wrap to make masks, or as a filter interlayer in cloth masks, has been suggested. There are, however, no tests on using surgical sterilisation wrap for masks, as of May 2020.

Other suggested materials for filter interlayers include air filter materials used in ventilation, heating, and air conditioning, some of which are similar to rigid electret masks in the size ranges of particles they filter. Electrostatic cotton and non-woven, meltblown fabric are the conventional materials used in disposible masks, but are not readily available during the COVID-19 epidemic. A new type of filter, a washable electrostatic cotton filter, has been reported since the start of the pandemic; it is said to withstand repeated washing and folding. It is made of electrospun nanofibers; flanking insulating blocks lay these into quasi-aligned nonwoven sheets, which are layered criss-cross to make a meshlike multilayer mask. There is a need for research comparing how well these materials work.

Sterilizing and re-use

There is no research on sterilizing and reusing cloth masks, as of May 2020. The CDC recommends doffing the mask by handling only the ear loops or ties, placing it directly in a washing machine, and immediately washing one's hands in soap and water for at least 20 seconds. They also recommend handwashing before donning the mask and again immediately after one touches it.

There is no information on reusing a interlayer filter, and disposing of it after a single use may be desirable.

Surgical masks

A surgical mask is a loose-fitting, disposable device that creates a physical barrier between the mouth and nose of the wearer and potential contaminants in the immediate environment. If worn properly, a surgical mask is meant to help block large-particle droplets, splashes, sprays, or splatter that may contain viruses and bacteria, keeping it from reaching the wearer's mouth and nose. Surgical masks may also help reduce exposure of the wearer's saliva and respiratory secretions to others. A surgical mask, by design, does not filter or block very small particles in the air that may be transmitted by coughs, sneezes, or certain medical procedures. Surgical masks also do not provide complete protection from germs and other contaminants because of the loose fit between the surface of the face mask and the face. However, in practice, with respect to some infections like influenza, surgical masks appear as effective as respirators (such as N95 or FFP masks). Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental, or medical procedure masks. Surgical masks are made of a nonwoven fabric created using a melt blowing process.

Surgical masks made to different standards in different parts of the world have different ranges of particles which they filter. For example, the People's Republic of China regulates two types of such masks: single-use medical masks (Chinese standard YY/T 0969) and surgical masks (YY 0469). The latter ones are required to filter bacteria-sized particles (BFE ≥ 95%) and some virus-sized particles (PFE ≥ 30%), while the former ones are required to only filter bacteria-sized particles.

Disposable filtering respirators

An N95 mask is a particulate-filtering facepiece respirator that meets the N95 air filtration rating of the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, meaning that it filters at least 95 percent of airborne particles, while not resistant to oil like the P95. It is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator. It is an example of a mechanical filter respirator, which provides protection against particulates, but not gases or vapors. Like the middle layer of surgical masks, the N95 mask is made of four layers of melt-blown nonwoven polypropylene fabric. The corresponding face mask used in the European Union is the FFP2 respirator.

Hard electret-filter masks like N95 and FFP masks must fit the face to provide full protection. Untrained users often get a reasonable fit, but fewer than one in four gets a perfect fit. Fit testing is thus standard. A line of vaseline on the edge of the mask has been shown to reduce edge leakage in lab tests using manikins that simulate breathing.

Sterilizing and re-use

Hard electret-filter masks are designed to be disposable, for 8 hours of continuous or intermittent use. One laboratory found that there was a decrease in fit quality after five consecutive donnings.

Hard electret-filter masks are often reused, especially during pandemics when there are shortages. Infectious particles could survive on the masks for up to 24 hours after the end of use, according to studies using models of SARS-CoV-2; In the COVID-19 epidemic, the US CDC recommended that if masks run short, each health care worker should be issued with five masks, one to be used per day, such that each mask spends at least five days stored in a paper bag between each use. If there are not enough masks to do this, they recommend sterilizing the masks between uses. Some hospitals have been stockpiling used masks as a precaution. The US CDC issued guidelines on stretching N95 supplies, recommending extended use over re-use. They highlighted the risk of infection from touching the contaminated outer surface of the mask, which even professionals frequently unintentionally do, and recommended washing hands every time before touching the mask. To reduce mask surface contamination, they recommended face shields, and asking patients to wear masks too ("source masking").

Apart from time, other methods of disinfection have been tested. Physical damage to the masks has been observed when microwaving them, microwaving them in a steam bag, letting them sit in moist heat, and hitting them with excessively high doses of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI). Chlorine-based methods, such as chlorine bleach, may cause residual smell, offgassing of chlorine when the mask becomes moist, and in one study, physical breakdown of the nosepads, causing increased leakage. Fit and comfort do not seem to be harmed by UVGI, moist heat incubation, and microwave-generated steam.

Some methods may not visibly damage the mask, but they ruin the mask's ability to filter. This has been seen in attempts to sterilize by soaking in soap and water, heating dry to 160°C, and treating with 70% isopropyl alcohol, and hydrogen peroxide gas plasma (made under a vacuum with radio waves). The static electrical charge on the microfibers (which attracts or repels particles passing through the mask, making them more likely to move sideways and hit and stick to a fiber) is destroyed by some cleaning methods. UVGI (ultraviolet light), boiling water vapour, and dry oven heating do not seem to reduce the filter efficiency, and these methods successfully decontaminate masks.

UVGI (an ultraviolet method), ethylene oxide, dry oven heating and (highly toxic) vaporized hydrogen peroxide are currently the most-favoured methods in use in hospitals, but none have been properly tested. Where enough masks are available, cycling them and reusing a mask only after letting it sit unused for 5 days is preferred.

Elastomeric respirators

Elastomeric respirators are reusable devices with exchangeable cartridge filters that offer comparable protection to N95 masks. They were used as a substitute for N95 masks among shortages during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The filters must be replaced when soiled, contaminated, or clogged. These components may be hard to find amidst shortages; the filters may thus be sterilized, in a way that does not harm the filter, and re-used. In medical use, they must be cleaned and disinfected, as some germs can survive on them for weeks.

Full-face versions of elastomeric respirators seal better and protect the eyes. If they have exhalation valves, then they are counterrecommended in settings where the unfiltered exhaled air might infect others (for instance, surgery). Fitting and inspection is essential to effectiveness.

Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)

PAPRs are expensive masks with a battery-powered blower that blows air through a filter to the wearer. Because they create positive pressure, they need not be tightly-fitted. PAPRs typically do not filter exhaust from the wearer. They are not generally designed for healthcare use, as of 2017.

Novel face masks (research and development)

On 15 April 2020 scientists claimed to have developed a biodegradable material for face masks which is effective at removing particles smaller than 100 nanometres including viruses and has a high breathability. Two Israeli companies reportedly have developed antiviral face masks – one of which is infused with antiviral copper oxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles, the other is made out of cotton embedded with accelerated copper oxide particles and a nanofiber textile. Other Israeli researchers have developed a 3D-printed nanoscale fiber sticker coated with antiseptics which can be attached to a traditional mask for extra protection. Other reseachers report that laser-induced graphene may be used to add self-cleaning and photothermal properties to face masks. In March 2020, Huang Jiaxingq became the first scientist to receive a $200,000 grant by the United States' National Science Foundation to develop a chemical which can be safely built into common face masks to make them protect against SARS-CoV-2 and self-sanitize passing droplets.

Recommendations

Health organizations have recommended that people cover their mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when coughing or sneezing, and dispose of any tissue immediately. Surgical masks are recommended for those who may be infected, as wearing a mask can limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing.

Masks have also been recommended for use by those who are taking care of someone who may have the disease. The WHO has recommended the wearing of masks by healthy people only if they are at high risk, such as those who are caring for a person with COVID-19, though they also acknowledge that wearing masks may help people avoid touching their face. Several countries have started to encourage the use of face masks by members of the public.

As of May 2020, 88% of the world's population lived in countries where their government and leading disease experts recommended the use of masks in public places to limit the spread of COVID-19.

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization recognizes that wearing a medical mask can limit the spread of certain respiratory viral diseases, including COVID-19, but believes that the use of a mask alone is not sufficient to provide an adequate level of protection and that other measures such as physical distancing and hand hygiene should be adopted.

Regarding cloth masks and their recommendation by countries as a means of source control in the general population, the WHO has stated that their protective effectiveness to the wearer is still unknown, however they may protect others if the wearer is a pre-symptomatic or asymptomatic carrier. The WHO recommends that decision makers adopt a risk-based approach when deciding in which settings and circumstances non-medical masks should be used in the community.

WHO's advice to the public in the context of COVID-19 endorsed the use of medical masks under the following conditions:

• If you are healthy, you only need to wear a mask if you are taking care of a person with suspected 2019-nCoV infection.
• Wear a mask if you are coughing or sneezing.
• Masks are effective only when used in combination with frequent hand-cleaning with alcohol-based hand sanitizer or soap and water.
• If you wear a mask, then you must know how to use it and dispose of it properly.

— World Health Organization

On 5 June, the WHO changed its advice on face masks, instead recommending that cloth face masks should be worn by general public where social distancing is not possible (e.g., on public transportation, in shops or in other confined or crowded environments). Those aged over 60 or with underlying health risks were advised to wear medical masks (surgical or procedure) in such settings or in areas with increased risk of infection.

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommended in April 2020 that the general public wear cloth face coverings in public settings where other social distancing measures are difficult to maintain, such as grocery stores and pharmacies, especially in areas of significant community-based transmission, due to the significance of asymptomatic and pre-symptomatic disease transmission.

In March 2020, the CDC recommended that if neither respirators nor surgical masks are available, as a last resort, it may be necessary for healthcare workers to use masks that have never been evaluated or approved by NIOSH or homemade masks, though caution should be exercised when considering this option.

The CDC faced backlash over earlier advice that most healthy people did not need to wear a mask. When asked by National Public Radio about the April 3 reversal, the CDC cited studies from February and March showing presymptomatic and asymptomatic transmission. Professor of public health Larry Gostin said that the CDC could have revised its recommendation sooner; by maintaining its initial recommendation throughout March, it had given the public the impression that widespread mask usage was ineffective even though scientific evidence to the contrary was already available. The earlier recommendation damaged the agency's credibility, and in June 2020 Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, admitted that the delay in recommending general mask use was motivated by a desire to conserve dwindling supplies for medical professionals.

China and Asia

The People's Republic of China has specifically recommended the use of disposable non-surgical medical masks by healthy members of the public, particularly when coming into close contact (1 metre (3 ft) or less) with other people. Hong Kong recommends wearing a surgical mask when taking public transport or in crowded places. Thailand's health officials are encouraging people to make cloth face masks at home and wash them daily. The Republic of China (Taiwan), South Korean, and Japanese governments have also recommended the use of face masks in public.

When asked about the mistakes that other countries were making in the pandemic in March, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention director-general George Fu Gao said:

"The big mistake in the U.S. and Europe, in my opinion, is that people aren't wearing masks. This virus is transmitted by droplets and close contact. Droplets play a very important role − you've got to wear a mask, because when you speak, there are always droplets coming out of your mouth. Many people have asymptomatic or presymptomatic infections. If they are wearing face masks, it can prevent droplets that carry the virus from escaping and infecting others."

Rationale for wearing masks

Among the reasons cited by Chinese health officials for the wearing of masks, even by healthy individuals, are the following:

1. Asymptomatic transmission. Many people can be infected without symptoms or only with mild symptoms.
2. Impossibility of appropriate social distancing in many public places at all times.
3. Cost-benefit mismatch. If only the infected individuals wear a mask, they would possibly have a negative incentive to do so. An infected individual might get nothing positive, but only bear the costs such as inconvenience, purchasing expenses, and even prejudice.
4. There is no shortage of masks in China, which has been producing 100 million masks per day since early March.

Leading microbiologist Yuen Kwok-yung from the University of Hong Kong cites a large viral load in sputum and saliva of an infected person and asymptomatic cases as the reasons why even healthy individuals should wear a mask.

According to Stephen Griffin, a virologist at the University of Leeds, "Wearing a mask can reduce the propensity people to touch their faces, which is a major source of infection without proper hand hygiene." The precautionary principle has also been cited by the British Medical Journal as a reason some may encourage universal face mask wearing.

Asian health officials and experts have been promoting universal masking. For instance, Wang Linfa (a leading infectious disease expert who heads a joint Duke University and National University of Singapore research team) stated that masking is about "preventing the spread of disease rather than preventing getting the disease", remarking that the point is to cover the faces of people who are infected but do not know it, so it is imperative for everyone to wear one in public.

Studies beginning in the 2000s suggested that the required six feet of social distancing is insufficient and based on debunked studies from the 1930s or error.

Efficiency studies for COVID-19

In June 2020, a WHO-funded analysis of 172 coronavirus-related studies reported that face mask use accounted for a large reduction in risk of infection. The study also found that N95 masks are superior to surgical masks, by providing 96% vs 67% protection on their metric. Eye protection was also associated with less infection.

One study concluded that SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted by respiratory droplets or airborne droplet nuclei in a Syrian hamster model for COVID-19 and that such transmission could be reduced by usage of surgical masks, especially when worn by infected individuals.

A study in mainland China found that the wearing of face masks by infected individuals at home before symptom onset was effective in reducing the risk of spreading the disease to family members. It also found that the use of a face mask after the illness onset provided little protection.

By analyzing the trend and mitigation measures in Italy and New York City, one group of scientists concluded that wearing of face masks in public corresponds to the most effective measure to prevent interhuman transmission.

Shortages of face masks

Early epidemic in mainland China

As the epidemic accelerated, the mainland market in China saw a shortage of face masks due to increased public demand. In Shanghai, customers had to queue for nearly an hour to buy a pack of face masks; stocks were sold out in another in half an hour. Hoarding and price gouging drove up prices, so the market regulator said it would crack down on such acts. In January 2020, price controls were imposed on all face masks on Taobao and Tmall. Other Chinese e-commerce platforms – JD.com, Suning.com, Pinduoduo – did likewise; third-party vendors would be subject to price caps, with violators subject to sanctions.

By March, the PRC had quadrupled its production capacity to 100 million masks per day.

National stocks and shortages

At the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak in the United States, the U.S.'s Strategic National Stockpile contained just 12 million N95 respirators, far fewer than estimates of the amount required. Millions of N95s and other supplies were purchased from 2005 to 2007 using congressional supplemental funding, but 85 million N95s were distributed to combat the 2009 swine flu pandemic, and Congress did not make the necessary appropriations to replenish stocks. The Stockpile's primary focus has also primarily been on biodefense (defense against a terrorist or weapon of mass destruction attack) and response to natural disaster, with infectious disease a secondary focus. By 1 April 2020, the Stockpile was nearly emptied of protective gear. In January and February 2020, U.S. manufacturers, with the encouragement of the Trump administration, shipped millions of face masks and other personal protective equipment to the PRC, a decision that subsequently prompted criticism given the mask shortage that the U.S. faced during the pandemic.

In France, 2009 H1N1-related spending rose to €382 million, mainly on supplies and vaccines, which was later criticized. It was decided in 2011 to not replenish its stocks and rely more on supply from China and just-in-time logistics. In 2010, its stock included 1 billion surgical masks and 600 million FFP2 masks; in early 2020, it was 150 million and zero respectively. While stocks were progressively reduced, a 2013 rationale stated the aim to reduce costs of acquisition and storage, now distributing this effort to all private enterprises as an optional best practice to ensure their workers' protection. This was especially relevant to FFP2 masks, more costly to acquire and store. As the COVID-19 pandemic in France took an increasing toll on medical supplies, masks and PPE supplies ran low, causing national outrage. France needs 40 millions masks per week, according to French president Emmanuel Macron. France instructed its few remaining mask-producing factories to work 24/7 shifts, and to ramp up national production to 40 million masks per month. French lawmakers opened an inquiry on the past management of these strategic stocks. The mask shortage has been called a "scandal d'État" (State scandal).

In late-March/early-April 2020, as Western countries were in turn dependent on China for supplies of masks and other equipment, China was seen as making soft-power play to influence world opinion. However, a batch of masks purchased by the Netherlands was reportedly rejected as being sub-standard. The Dutch health ministry issued a recall of 600,000 face masks from a Chinese supplier on 21 March which did not fit properly and whose filters did not work as intended despite them having a quality certificate. The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs responded that the customer should "double-check the instructions to make sure that you ordered, paid for and distributed the right ones. Do not use non-surgical masks for surgical purposes". Eight million of 11 million masks delivered to Canada in May also failed to meet standards.

N95 and FFP masks

N95 and FFP masks were in short supply and high demand during the COVID-19 pandemic. Production of N95 masks was limited due to constraints on the supply of nonwoven polypropylene fabric (which is used as the primary filter), as well as the cessation of exports from China. China controls 50 percent of global production of masks, and facing its own coronavirus epidemic, dedicated all its production for domestic use, only allowing exports through government-allocated humanitarian assistance.

In March 2020, US President Donald Trump applied the Defense Production Act against the American company 3M, which allows the Federal Emergency Management Agency to obtain N95 respirators from 3M. White House trade adviser Peter Navarro stated that there were concerns that 3M products were not making their way to the US. 3M replied that it has not changed the prices it charges, and was unable to control the prices its dealers or retailers charge.

In early April 2020, Berlin politician Andreas Geisel alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks that it had ordered from American producer 3M's China facility were intercepted in Bangkok and diverted to the United States. Berlin police president Barbara Slowik stated that she believed "this is related to the US government's export ban." 3M said they had no knowledge of the shipment, stating "We know nothing of an order from the Berlin police for 3M masks that come from China," and the US government denied that any confiscation had taken place and said that they use appropriate channels for all their purchases.

Berlin police later confirmed that the shipment was not seized by US authorities, but was said to have simply been bought at a better price, widely believed to be from a German dealer or China. This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose CDU parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". FDP interior expert Marcel Luthe said "Big names in international politics like Berlin's senator Geisel are blaming others and telling US piracy to serve anti-American clichés." Politico Europe reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story." The Guardian also reported that "There is no solid proof Trump approved the heist".

Jared Moskowitz, head of the Florida Division of Emergency Management, accused 3M of selling N95 masks directly to foreign countries for cash, instead of the US. Moskowitz stated that 3M agreed to authorized distributors and brokers to represent they were selling the masks to Florida, but instead his team for the last several weeks "get to warehouses that are completely empty." He then said the 3M-authorized US distributors later told him the masks Florida contracted for never showed up because the company instead prioritized orders that came in later, for higher prices, from foreign countries (including Germany, Russia, and France). As a result, Moskowitz highlighted the issue on Twitter, saying he decided to "troll" 3M. Forbes reported that "roughly 280 million masks from warehouses around the US had been purchased by foreign buyers and were earmarked to leave the country, according to the broker — and that was in one day", causing massive critical shortages of masks in the US.

As more and more countries restricted the export of N95 masks, Novo Textiles in British Columbia announced plans to start producing N95 masks in Canada. AMD Medicom in Quebec had long been the main Canadian company producing N95s, but after China, France, the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the United States barred them from repatriating the masks produced by Medicom in their factories, the Government of Canada awarded them a 10 year contract to build a factory to produce masks in Montreal.

The mask industry

Manufacturing

As of 2019, mainland China manufactured half the world output of masks. As Covid-19 spread, enterprises in several countries quickly started or increased the production of face masks. Cottage industries and volunteer groups also emerged, manufacturing cloth masks for localized use. They used various patterns, including some with a bend-to-fit nosepiece inserts. Individual hospitals developed and requested a library of specific patterns.

In the first five months of 2020, 70802 new companies registered in China to make or trade face masks, a 1256% increase compared to 2019, and 7296 new companies registered to make or trade meltblown fabric, a key component of face masks, a 2277% rise from 2019.

In April, however, the Chinese government stepped in with tighter regulations. 867 producers of the meltblown fabric were shut down in Yangzhong city alone. Many speculative manufacturers have been forced to quit due to changing export rules and tighter licensing requirements in China and weaker demand for lower quality products globally.

Distribution

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2020)

Some clinical stockpiles have proved inadequate in scale, and markets have expanded as non-medical consumers started obeying mandated mask-wearing or determined that masks might help or encourage them. Worldwide demand for face masks has resulted in masks shipping around the globe as a result of commercial transactions or of donations.

Society and culture

Attitudes

In East Asian societies, a primary reason for mask-wearing is to protect others from oneself. It is seen as a collective responsibility to reduce the transmission of the virus. The broad assumption behind the act is that anyone, including seemingly healthy people, can be a carrier of the coronavirus. A face mask is thus seen as a symbol of solidarity. Elsewhere, the need for mask-wearing is often seen in an individual's perspective where masks only serve to protect oneself.

Cultural norms and social pressure may impede mask-wearing in public, which explains why masking has been avoided in the West. According to Joseph Tsang, a Hong Kong doctor and infectious disease expert, the promotion of universal masking may resolve perceptions against mask-wearing, because mask-wearing is intimidating if few people wear masks due to cultural barriers, but if all people wear masks it shows a message that people are in this together. Consistent with this intuition, empirical evidence shows that an individual's likelihood of voluntarily wearing a mask is positively correlated with the proportion of uptake in the surrounding area.

In the Western world, the public usage of masks still often carries a large stigma, as it is seen as a sign of sickness. This stigmatization is a large obstacle to overcome, because people may feel too ashamed to wear a mask in public and therefore opt to not wear one. Secondly, it is heavily racialized as an Asian phenomenon. This has been reinforced in a lot of media discourses, where unrelated stories about the pandemic are often accompanied by imagery of Asian people in masks. The focus on race has brought hostility towards Asians who are confronted with the choice to mask as precaution while they face discrimination for it. Huang Yinxiang, a sociologist from the University of Manchester, described maskaphobia—negative prejudice, fear or hatred against people wearing face masks—as making Asians in Western countries into targets for racists who want to normalize and justify xenophobia during the COVID-19 outbreak. However, there is also a divide within the western world, as seen in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where mass mobilization has occurred to reinforce the solidarity in mask-wearing since March 2020.

On social media, there has been an effort with the #masks4all campaign to encourage people to use masks. Mask-wearing has been called a prosocial behavior in which one protects others within their community.

Politics

In the United States, some who followed the CDC's recommendation to wear a face mask in public derided what they described as their opponents' ignorance, selfishness, anti-science stance and refusal to honor the social contract. Others, however, who chose not to wear a mask in public and criticized those who did invoked conspiracy theories to discredit their opponents while accusing mask enforcers and promoters of violating rights to free expression and inhibiting the development of herd immunity. Although partisan leanings did not strictly define the controversy, the issue of whether or not to wear a mask became, for some, a demarcation line in the culture war between supporters of President Donald Trump who rejected masks and opponents of Trump who wore masks. In the US, mask-wearing was politicized and seen as a political statement by some people. For instance, Democrats were more likely than Republicans to say they were wearing a mask when leaving home, 76% to 59% according to one poll.

Although authorities in especially Asia have been recommending people to wear masks in public, in many other parts of the world, conflicting advice have caused a lot of confusion among the general population. Several governments and institutions, such as the United States, have initially dismissed the use of face masks by the general population, often with misleading or incomplete information about the usefulness of masks. Commentators have attributed this messaging to efforts to manage the mask shortages, as governments did not act quickly enough, remarking that the claims go beyond the science or were simply lies. On 12 June 2020, Anthony Fauci, a key member of the White House coronavirus task force, confirmed that the American public were not told to wear masks from the beginning due to the anticipated shortages of masks, explaining that masks do actually work.

In April 2020, health officials from Taiwan's Central Epidemic Command Center (CECC) pushed back on school bullying of young boys in pink face masks. At a press conference breaking gender norm barriers, the health officials wore pink masks, as various government agencies demonstrated solidarity by changing the colors on their Facebook pages to pink. One of the officials participating in the press conference later tweeted, "Pink is for everyone and no color is exclusive for girls or boys. Gender equality lies at the heart of Taiwan values." The press conference was held amid reports that male students were too embarrassed to wear their pink face masks, jeopardizing their safety and the safety of others in the face of COVID-19.

Fashion

Face masks have had an impact on fashion, with the masks themselves becoming fashion statements, haute couture brands having pivoted to address both public health and aesthetic needs.

Mask use and policies by country and territory

% of population wearing face masks in public, by country/territory (as of May 5)

Country/territory	%
Hong Kong	90
Singapore	90
People's Republic of China	88
Italy	87
Republic of China (Taiwan)	87
Thailand	87
Japan	86
Vietnam	86
Malaysia	85
Indonesia	84
Philippines	84
India	82
United Arab Emirates	78
Spain	72
Mexico	67
United States	63
Germany	62
France	56
Saudi Arabia	56
Canada	41
Australia	25
United Kingdom	13
Finland	7
Norway	7
Denmark	5
Sweden	2

• Argentina: After appearance of three asymptomatic cases, the capital Buenos Aires introduced compulsory masking since 14 April. Wearing a mask was made obligatory for everyone on public transit and everyone who contacts with the public in their position. Violators can face a fine. Authorities also prohibited the sale of N95 face masks to non-medical workers, suggesting the general public to use home-made masks instead.
• Austria: Everyone entering a supermarket, a grocery store, or a drug store or using public transportation must wear a face mask, mandatory since 14 April.
• Bahamas: On 19 April, the prime minister announced that wearing a mask or covering one's face with clothing is mandatory in public. Employers must provide their employees who are serving the general public with masks.
• Bahrain: The Kingdom made wearing face masks in public areas compulsory for citizens and residents as well as shop workers.
• Benin: From 8 April, Benin's authorities began enforcing the mandatory wearing of face masks to halt the coronavirus.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.
• Bulgaria: Bulgaria's government passed an order imposing an obligation to wear face masks on 30 March. The order was cancelled the next day and changed into a recommendation, due to legal complaints.
• Cambodia: Many Cambodians started wearing face masks soon after the outbreak began in Wuhan. Businesses started to require customers to wear masks.
• Cameroon: On 6 April, mayor of Douala announced that wearing a mask will be mandatory to slow the spread of coronavirus.
• Canada: Since 6 April, health officials recommend wearing non-medical masks in situations where physical distancing from others is difficult (like buying groceries, or public transit).
• Chile: From 8 April, Chilean Health Minister announced wearing a mask is mandatory in public transit.
• People's Republic of China: Healthy individuals are advised to wear disposable medical masks in public places. Some local governments require wearing masks when going outside. Shanghai makes wearing masks mandatory in public places.
  • Hong Kong: Members of the public are recommended to wear a surgical mask when taking public transport or staying in crowded places.
• Colombia: In response to recommendations from the WHO, Colombia changed its policy on the use of masks and made it mandatory throughout the country for the use of public transport during the coronavirus emergency.
• Cuba: On 11 March, the government urged citizens to make their own masks, while the textile industry was drafted to fabricate them. People were advised to carry several cloth masks with them, depending on how many hours they plan to spend in public areas. Later, wearing a mask was made mandatory.
• Czech Republic: Forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask, or covering one's nose and mouth.
• Dominican Republic: Since 16 April, the use of face masks is mandatory in all public spaces and in the workplace.
• DR Congo: Since 20 April, wearing masks in the capital of Kinshasa is mandatory.
• Denmark: The Danish Health Authority does not recommend the wearing of face masks in public places by healthy residents, arguing that it is unclear as to whether doing so will affect the outcome of the virus, and that doing so may provide residents with a false sense of security. Hand-made face masks are more strongly advised against than surgical face masks, as the Danish Health Authority perceives them to be less capable of protection from the virus than the latter. However, starting on 15 June 2020, face masks will become mandatory at all airports.
• Ecuador: On 8 April, the Emergency Operations Committee (COE) decided to make face masks obligatory in public spaces.
• Egypt: On 30 May 2020, the wearing of face masks in public places and on public transportation became mandatory; failure to comply can result in fines of up to EGP4,000 (US$247).
• Ethiopia: The Council of Ministers approved a regulation that outlaws handshakes, and obligates the use of face masks in public places.
• France: On 3 March, the government issued a degree announcing requisition of stocks of FFP2 and anti-splash masks until 31 May 2020. On 8 May 2020, the government announced that 200 million masks per week will be available starting on 11 May: 100 million for medical workers and 100 million for the general public.
• Gabon: On 10 April, the Gabonese government announced individuals in all parts of the country are required to wear masks in public to limit the spread of COVID-19.
• Germany: On 31 March, city-county Jena, Thuringia, was the first large German city to introduce an obligation to wear masks, or makeshift masks including scarves, in supermarkets, public transport, and buildings with public traffic, from 6 April, very successfully. On 2 April, the Robert Koch Institute, the federal epidemic authority, changed its previous recommendation that only people with symptoms should wear masks to also include people without symptoms. Later in April, Germany made the wearing of cloth face masks mandatory on public transport, as well as for shopping in most German states.
• Guinea: Guinean President Alpha Conde decided to make wearing masks compulsory.
• Honduras: From 7 April, Honduras President announced all citizens will now be required to cover their mouths when they are outside.
• India: On 3 April, the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India issued an advisory and manual, asking healthy people to wear handmade reusable face covers when stepping out of their homes, especially for those in densely populated areas. Some individual states, like Odisha, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh made wearing of masks compulsory in public places.
• Indonesia: Citizens were ordered to wear face masks when they leave the house.
• Ireland: From 18 May, the use of cloth face covering is recommend in enclosed public spaces where it's difficult to maintain social distance.
• Israel: All residents are asked to wear face masks when in public.
• Italy: Regions of Lombardy and Tuscany made wearing a face mask compulsory before going out in early April.
• Ivory Coast: From April, 26 masks have become compulsory to enter shopping malls or supermarkets in the Southern suburb of Abidjan, Marcory.
• Japan: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so. On 1 March, prime minister Shinzo Abe enacted a policy in Hokkaido instructing manufacturers to sell face masks directly to the government, which would then deliver them to residents.
• Kenya: Wearing a face mask is compulsory since 4 April. The government has Kenyans to strictly observe social distancing, which has been proved to one of the most efficient ways of preventing infection risks.
• Liberia: From 21 April, it is now compulsory to wear a face mask or covering in public.
• Lithuania: Wearing a face mask or any other means of covering one's nose and mouth in public places is compulsory since 10 April 2020.
• Luxembourg: From 20 April, wearing a mask is mandatory in places where it is not possible to keep enough distance to others such as supermarkets or on public transport.
• Malaysia: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so. On 17 March, Malaysia banned exports of medical and surgical masks, to meet local demand. In April, the government was set to distribute 24.62 million masks, four for each household, while advising people to only use them if they have symptoms.
• Mexico: From 17 April, all Mexico City Metro passengers must wear masks while inside stations and on trains, Mayor Claudia Sheinbaum announced on 15 April.
• Mongolia: Wearing a mask is now mandatory while riding public transportation in Ulaanbaatar. Public officials and news broadcasters had even adopted to wearing masks through press conferences and news broadcasts.
• Morocco: Wearing a face mask is compulsory.
• Mozambique: The Mozambican government announced on 8 April that wearing face masks is now compulsory on all forms of passenger transport, and wherever groups of people are gathered.
• North Macedonia: As of 22 April, citizens of Kumanovo, Tetovo, and Prilep must wear protective masks and gloves outside their homes, at public places, outdoor and indoor areas, markets, and shops announced the government.
• Pakistan: The Balochistan government on 18 April told citizens to wear face masks when going outside. According to provincial government spokesperson Liaquat Shahwani, citizens have been urged to wear masks or to cover their faces with any cloth in the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak.
• Panama: Panama has made it obligatory to wear a face mask whenever going outside, while also recommending the manufacture of a homemade cloth face mask to those who cannot purchase face masks.
• Peru: From 7 April, the Peruvian government started distributing free masks after decreeing their mandatory use in the streets to chase away the new coronavirus, said President Martin Vizcarra.
• Philippines: From 2 April, the government required all those living in areas under enhanced community quarantine to wear face masks.
• Poland: Since 16 April, covering lips and nose is compulsory before leaving one's house (e.g., by a disposable mask, cloth mask, or scarf).
• Russia: Khabarovsk has made the wearing of face masks obligatory to fight the spike in respiratory diseases and prevent the spread of the coronavirus.
• Rwanda: On 20 April, Cabinet Minister of Health Daniel Ngamije said the latest guidelines require everyone to wear a mask in public, and at home during the lockdown and thereafter.
• Singapore: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite initial absence of official advice to do so. General mask-wearing was no longer discouraged from 3 April, and made mandatory outside of one's residence from 14 April.
• Spain: Wearing masks has been required since 4 May while on public transportation, which includes taxis, trains and buses. The government is providing masks to the majority of people riding public transportation, regardless of if they have a mask on.On 9 June, the Spanish Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Transport maintains the mandatory nature of masks on public roads, in open air spaces, and in closed spaces for public use
• Slovakia: Face masks were compulsory in public transport and shops since March 15. On 25 March, it became forbidden to go out in public without wearing a mask or covering one's nose and mouth. Since May 20, face masks are no longer mandatory when distance between people is at least 5 meters.
• Slovenia: From 29 March, wearing a face mask, even one made at home, or equivalents such as scarves that cover the mouth and nose is mandatory along with protective gloves; the decree stipulates that masks and gloves need to be worn in indoor public spaces.
• South Africa: On 10 April, Minister of Health recommended that the general public use cloth face masks when going out in public (in addition to hand-washing and social distancing). After 1 May, covering one's nose and mouth will be mandatory in public (with a cloth mask, scarf, T-shirt, etc.).
• South Korea: Masks have been widely used by healthy individuals despite absence of official advice to do so. The government implemented a policy of centralized procurement and rationing of face masks, purchasing 80 percent of national production since early March. On 25 May, the Korean government / Central Disaster and Safety Countermeasure Headquarters required passengers on buses, taxis, subways, and flights to wear masks.
• Sweden: Sweden's Public Health Agency states that the scientific evidence does not support public use of face masks, and that public use of face masks would undermine Sweden's COVID-19 response. The government has also warned that wearing them might create a false sense of security, and that public use of masks could do more harm than good.
• Republic of China (ROC, Taiwan): On 21 January, the government announced a temporary ban on the export of face masks. On 6 February, the government instituted a mask rationing system. The ROC has been producing ten million masks per day since mid-March. On 1 April, passengers on trains and intercity buses were required to wear face masks, unmasked riders facing a fine.
• Turkey: Residents will be required to wear masks at markets, as Turkish president announced.
• Ukraine: Since 6 April, wearing a face mask is required by the government in public places. In Kyiv, public places were clarified to include parks and streets.
• United Kingdom: From 15 June, face coverings are compulsory on public transport in England.
  • Scotland: On 28 April, the First Minister for Scotland Nicola Sturgeon advised the voluntary use of cloth face masks in enclosed spaces such as shops and public transport (but not generally in public), while noting their limitation.
• United States: In March 2020, the CDC recommended that if neither respirators nor surgical masks are available, as a last resort, it may be necessary for healthcare workers to use masks that have never been evaluated or approved by NIOSH or homemade masks, though caution should be exercised when considering this option. On 6 April, the CDC recommended the wearing of non-medical cloth face coverings when in public places. Since 17 April, residents of New York, must wear masks in public; New Jersey and Maryland issued similar requirements for their residents.
• Uzbekistan: Officials made protective masks mandatory in all major cities in order to prevent the spread of coronavirus. Officials on 22 March said citizens not wearing masks in public in major cities would be fined $22 for the first offense and $67 for repeat offenses.
• Venezuela: The government ordered the country’s citizens to wear face masks in public in response to the arrival of the novel coronavirus.
• Vietnam: Since 16 March, everyone must wear a face mask when going to public places (such as grocery stores, transportation hubs, and public transport).
• Zambia: The government made it mandatory to wear face masks to minimise the spread in the country.

References

1. ^ "Q&A: Masks and COVID-19". www.who.int. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
2. ^ "Recommendation Regarding the Use of Cloth Face Coverings, Especially in Areas of Significant Community-Based Transmission". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
3. "Using face masks in the community - Reducing COVID-19 transmission from potentially asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic people through the use of face masks". European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 8 April 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
4. ^ Tufekci, Z; Howard, J.; Greenhalgh, T. (22 April 2020). "The Real Reason to Wear a Mask. Much of the confusion around masks stems from the conflation of two very different uses". The Atlantic. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
5. ^ Masks4All. "What Countries Require Masks in Public or Recommend Masks?". Masks4All. Retrieved 6 May 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
6. Setti, L.; Passarini, F.; De Gennaro, G. (23 April 2020). "Airborne Transmission Route of COVID-19: Why 2 Meters/6 Feet of Inter-Personal Distance Could Not Be Enough". Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 17(8) 2932 (8): 2932. doi:10.3390/ijerph17082932. PMC 7215485. PMID 32340347.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
7. Parshina-Kottas, Y.; Saget, B.; Patanjali, B. (14 April 2020). "This 3-D Simulation Shows Why Social Distancing Is So Important". New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
8. Sheikh, K.; Gorman, J.; Chang, K. (14 April 2020). "Stay 6 Feet Apart, We're Told. But How Far Can Air Carry Coronavirus? Most of the big droplets travel a mere six feet. The role of tiny aerosols is the "trillion-dollar question."". New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
9. Reynolds, G. (15 April 2020). "For Runners, Is 15 Feet the New 6 Feet for Social Distancing? When we walk briskly or run, air moves differently around us, increasing the space required to maintain a proper social distance". New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
10. Ting, Victor (4 April 2020). "To mask or not to mask: WHO makes U-turn while US, Singapore abandon pandemic advice and tell citizens to start wearing masks". South China Morning Post.
11. Lam, Simon Ching; Suen, Lorna Kwai Ping; Cheung, Teris Cheuk Chi (May 2020). "Global risk to the community and clinical setting: Flocking of fake masks and protective gears during the COVID-19 pandemic". American Journal of Infection Control. doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2020.05.008. PMC 7219383. PMID 32405127.
12. ^ "For different groups of people: how to choose masks". NHC.gov.cn. National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. 7 February 2020. Archived from the original on 5 April 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2020. Disposable medical masks: Recommended for: · People in crowded places · Indoor working environment with a relatively dense population · People going to medical institutions · Children in kindergarten and students at school gathering to study and do other activities
13. ^ Choi, David (2 April 2020). "Chinese government rejects allegations that its face masks were defective, tells countries to 'double check' instructions". Business Insider France.
14. ^ Wei, Neo Kang (6 May 2019). "What is PM0.3 and Why Is It Important?". Smart Air Filters.
15. , "US 5496507 A - Method Of Charging Electret Filter Media The Lens - Free & Open Patent and Scholarly Search" 
16. "PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MASKS" (PDF). Governm,etn of New South Wales Clinical Excellence Commission. February 2020.
17. Jung, James (17 March 2020). "KAIST Researchers Develop Highly Reusable Mask Filter". KoreaTechToday.
18. ^ Radonovich, Lew (5 September 2017). "Elastomeric and Powered-Air Purifying Respirators in U.S. Healthcare" (PDF).
19. ^ Godoy, Laura R. Garcia; Jones, Amy E.; Anderson, Taylor N.; Fisher, Cameron L.; Seeley, Kylie M. L.; Beeson, Erynn A.; Zane, Hannah K.; Peterson, Jaime W.; Sullivan, Peter D. (1 May 2020). "Facial protection for healthcare workers during pandemics: a scoping review". BMJ Global Health. 5 (5): e002553. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002553. ISSN 2059-7908. PMC 7228486. PMID 32371574. Retrieved 8 May 2020.
20. "Using face masks in the community - Reducing COVID-19 transmission from potentially asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic people through the use of face masks". European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. 8 April 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
21. ^ "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 February 2020.
22. Lindsley, WG; Noti, JD; Blachere, FM; Szalajda, JV; Beezhold, DH (2014). "Efficacy of face shields against cough aerosol droplets from a cough simulator". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 11 (8): 509–18. doi:10.1080/15459624.2013.877591. PMC 4734356. PMID 24467190.
23. Theresa Tam offers new advice: Wear a non-medical face mask when shopping or using public transit,The Globe and Mail, 6 April 2020.
24. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
25. Reusability of Facemasks During an Influenza Pandemic: Facing the Flu. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 24 July 2006. pp. 6, 36–38. doi:10.17226/11637. ISBN 978-0-309-10182-0.
26. MacIntyre, C. R.; Chughtai, A. A. (9 April 2015). "Facemasks for the prevention of infection in healthcare and community settings" (PDF). BMJ. 350 (apr09 1): h694. doi:10.1136/bmj.h694. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 25858901.
27. Chughtai, Abrar Ahmad; Seale, Holly; MacIntyre, Chandini Raina (19 June 2013). "Use of cloth masks in the practice of infection control – evidence and policy gaps". International Journal of Infection Control. 9 (3). doi:10.3396/IJIC.v9i3.020.13. ISSN 1996-9783.
28. Davies, Anna; Thompson, Katy-Anne; Giri, Karthika; Kafatos, George; Walker, Jimmy; Bennett, Allan (22 May 2013). "Testing the Efficacy of Homemade Masks: Would They Protect in an Influenza Pandemic?". Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 7 (4): 413–418. doi:10.1017/dmp.2013.43. ISSN 1935-7893. PMC 7108646. PMID 24229526.
29. ^ Naveed, Hasan; Scantling-Birch, Yarrow; Lee, Hanbin; Nanavaty, Mayank A. (23 April 2020). "Controversies regarding mask usage in ophthalmic units in the United Kingdom during the COVID-19 pandemic". Eye: 1–3. doi:10.1038/s41433-020-0892-2. ISSN 1476-5454.
30. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 February 2020.
31. van der Sande, Marianne; Teunis, Peter; Sabel, Rob (9 July 2008). Pai, Madhukar (ed.). "Professional and Home-Made Face Masks Reduce Exposure to Respiratory Infections among the General Population". PLOS ONE. 3 (7). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e2618. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2618V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002618. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2440799. PMID 18612429.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
32. Davies, Anna; Thompson, Katy-Anne; Giri, Karthika; Kafatos, George; Walker, Jimmy; Bennett, Allan (22 May 2013). "Testing the Efficacy of Homemade Masks: Would They Protect in an Influenza Pandemic?". Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 7 (4). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 413–418. doi:10.1017/dmp.2013.43. ISSN 1935-7893. PMC 7108646. PMID 24229526.
33. Rengasamy, S.; Eimer, B.; Shaffer, R. E. (28 June 2010). "Simple Respiratory Protection—Evaluation of the Filtration Performance of Cloth Masks and Common Fabric Materials Against 20–1000 nm Size Particles". The Annals of Occupational Hygiene. 54 (7). Oxford University Press (OUP): 789–98. doi:10.1093/annhyg/meq044. ISSN 1475-3162. PMID 20584862.
34. Konda, Abhiteja; Prakash, Abhinav; Moss, Gregory A.; Schmoldt, Michael; Grant, Gregory D.; Guha, Supratik (24 April 2020). "Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks". ACS Nano. 14 (5). American Chemical Society (ACS): 6339–6347. doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c03252. ISSN 1936-0851. PMID 32329337.
35. "Washable Face Masks Thanks to Electrospun Nanofibers". Medgadget. 23 March 2020.
36. Hwang, Wontae; Pang, Changhyun; Chae, Heeyeop (28 October 2016). "Fabrication of aligned nanofibers by electric-field-controlled electrospinning: insulating-block method". Nanotechnology. 27 (43): 435301. Bibcode:2016Nanot..27Q5301H. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/27/43/435301. PMID 27651316.
37. Robertson, Paddy (21 April 2020). "The Ultimate Guide to Homemade Face Masks for Coronavirus". Smart Air Filters.
38. "How to Safely Wear and Take Off a Cloth Face Covering" (PDF). CDC.
39. ^ "N95 Respirators and Surgical Masks (Face Masks)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
40. Long, Y; Hu, T; Liu, L; Chen, R; Guo, Q; Yang, L; Cheng, Y; Huang, J; Du, L (13 March 2020). "Effectiveness of N95 respirators versus surgical masks against influenza: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Evidence-based Medicine. 13 (2): 93–101. doi:10.1111/jebm.12381. PMC 7228345. PMID 32167245.
41. "Not Enough Face Masks Are Made In America To Deal With Coronavirus". NPR.org. 5 March 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
42. "Chinese mask makers use loopholes to speed up regulatory approval". Financial Times. 1 April 2020. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
43. Robertson, Paddy (15 March 2020). "Comparison of Mask Standards, Ratings, and Filtration Effectiveness". Smart Air Filters.
44. 中华人民共和国医药行业标准：YY 0469–2011 医用外科口罩（Surgical mask） (in Chinese)
45. 中华人民共和国医药行业标准：YY/T 0969–2013 一次性使用医用口罩（Single-use medical face mask） (in Chinese)
46. "NIOSH-Approved N95 Particulate Filtering Facepiece Respirators - A Suppliers List". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 19 March 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
47. "Respirator Trusted-Source: Selection FAQs". U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 12 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
48. ^ Zie, John (19 March 2020). "World Depends on China for Face Masks But Can Country Deliver?". Voice of America.
49. Feng, Emily (16 March 2020). "COVID-19 Has Caused A Shortage Of Face Masks. But They're Surprisingly Hard To Make". NPR.
50. "Comparison of FFP2, KN95, and N95 and Other Filtering Facepiece Respirator Classes" (PDF). 3M Technical Data Bulletin. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
51. "Strategies for Optimizing the Supply of N95 Respirators: Crisis/Alternate Strategies". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 17 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
52. ^ Patel, Rajeev B.; Skaria, Shaji D.; Mansour, Mohamed M.; Smaldone, Gerald C. (28 April 2016). "Respiratory source control using a surgical mask: An invitro study". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 13 (7): 569–576. doi:10.1080/15459624.2015.1043050. ISSN 1545-9624. PMC 4873718. PMID 26225807.
53. ^ "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 February 2020.
54. Mills, Stu (10 April 2020). "Researchers looking at innovative ways to sterilize single-use masks". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
55. "Recommended Guidance for Extended Use and Limited Reuse of N95 Filtering Facepiece Respirators in Healthcare Settings". www.cdc.gov. NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. CDC. 27 March 2020.
56. "Hydrogen Peroxide Gas Plasma". www.cdc.gov. Disinfection & Sterilization Guidelines, Guidelines Library, Infection Control. 4 April 2019.
57. Bach, Michael. "Understanding respiratory protection options in Healthcare: The Overlooked Elastomeric". NIOSH Science Blog. CDC.
58. Boškoski, Ivo; Gallo, Camilla; Wallace, Michael B.; Costamagna, Guido (27 April 2020). "COVID-19 pandemic and personal protective equipment shortage: protective efficacy comparing masks and scientific methods for respirator reuse". Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. doi:10.1016/j.gie.2020.04.048. ISSN 0016-5107. PMC 7184993.
59. The Use and Effectiveness of Powered Air Purifying Respirators in Health Care: Workshop Summary. 2. Defining PAPRs and Current Standards. National Academies Press (US). 7 May 2015. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
60. Layt, Stuart (14 April 2020). "Queensland researchers hit sweet spot with new mask material". Brisbane Times. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
61. Technology (QUT), Queensland University of. "New mask material can remove virus-size nanoparticles". QUT. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
62. Leichman, Abigail Klein (28 January 2020). "New antiviral masks from Israel may help stop deadly coronavirus". Israel21c. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
63. "Israel to receive 120,000 coronavirus-repelling face masks". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
64. ^ Karlin, Susan (12 May 2020). "Scientists are racing to design a face mask that can rip coronavirus apart". Fast Company. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
65. Vavra, Chris (18 April 2020). "Self-sanitizing face mask project for COVID-19 research receives NSF grant". Control Engineering. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
66. "Advice for public". World Health Organization. Retrieved 8 February 2020.
67. Home. "Novel Coronavirus". HPSC.ie. Health Protection Surveillance Centre of Ireland. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
68. "Severe Respiratory Disease associated with a Novel Infectious Agent". Government of Hong Kong. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
69. "Updates on Wuhan Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Local Situation". MoH.gov.sg. Ministry of Health of Singapore. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
70. ^ "Advice on the use of masks in the community, during home care and in health care settings in the context of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak". World Health Organization. Retrieved 21 February 2020.
71. "2019-nCoV: What the Public Should Do". US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4 February 2020. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
72. "Puede que Asia haya tenido razón sobre el coronavirus y las mascarillas, y el resto del mundo se está convenciendo de ello". 1 April 2020.
73. "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public: When and how to use masks". World Health Organization. World Health Organization. 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
74. "Coronavirus: WHO advises to wear masks in public areas". BBC News. 6 June 2020.
75. "Advice on the use of masks in the context of COVID-19". WHO. 5 June 2020.
76. ^ "Use of Cloth Face Coverings to Help Slow the Spread of COVID-19". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 4 April 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
77. "Strategies for Optimizing the Supply of N95 Respirators: Crisis/Alternate Strategies". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 17 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
78. ^ Jingnan, Huo (10 April 2020). "Why There Are So Many Different Guidelines For Face Masks For The Public". NPR. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
79. Tufekci, Zeynep (17 March 2020). "Why Telling People They Don't Need Masks Backfired". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
80. Jingnan, Huo; Aubrey, Allison; Worth, Carmel (31 March 2020). "Should We All Be Wearing Masks In Public? Health Experts Revisit The Question". NPR. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
81. Dayen, David (23 March 2020). "Mind the Trust Gap". The American Prospect. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
82. Jankowicz, Mia (15 June 2020). "Fauci said US government held off promoting face masks because it knew shortages were so bad that even doctors couldn't get enough". Business Insider.
83. 疫情通报 [Outbreak notification]. NHC.gov.cn (in Chinese). National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
84. ^ "关于印发公众科学戴口罩指引的通知引". NHC.gov.cn (in Chinese). Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 18 March 2020. Archived from the original on 20 March 2020.
85. ^ "Prevention of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)" (PDF). Centre for Health Protection. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
86. Leung, Hillary (12 March 2020). "Why Wearing a Face Mask Is Encouraged in Asia, but Shunned in the U.S." Time. Retrieved 22 March 2020. Nearly everyone on Hong Kong's streets, trains and buses has been wearing a mask for weeks ...
87. Kuhakan, Jiraporn (12 March 2020). "'Better than nothing': Thailand encourages cloth masks amid surgical mask shortage". Reuters.
88. Cohen, Jon (27 March 2020). "Not wearing masks to protect against coronavirus is a 'big mistake,' top Chinese scientist says". Science.
89. Tang, Julian W.; Nicolle, Andre D. G.; Pantelic, Jovan; Jiang, Mingxiu; Sekhr, Chandra; Cheong, David K. W.; Tham, Kwok Wai (22 June 2011). "Qualitative Real-Time Schlieren and Shadowgraph Imaging of Human Exhaled Airflows: An Aid to Aerosol Infection Control". PLOS ONE. 6 (6): e21392. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...621392T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021392. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3120871. PMID 21731730.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
90. ^ "Why healthy Chinese wearing face masks outdoors?". NHC.gov.cn. Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. 23 March 2020. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020.
91. Li, Isabelle; Zuoyan, Zhao (10 March 2020). "Q&A with HK microbiologist Yuen Kwok-yung who helped confirm coronavirus' human spread". The Straits Times.
92. To, Kelvin Kai-Wang; Tsang, Owen Tak-Yin; Yip, Cyril Chik-Yan; Chan, Kwok-Hung; et al. (12 February 2020). "Consistent Detection of 2019 Novel Coronavirus in Saliva". Clinical Infectious Diseases. Oxford University Press: ciaa149. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa149. PMC 7108139. PMID 32047895.
93. "How to avoid touching your face so much". BBC News. 18 March 2020.
94. Greenhalgh, Trisha; Schmid, Manuel B; Czypionka, Thomas; Bassler, Dirk; Gruer, Laurence (9 April 2020). "Face masks for the public during the covid-19 crisis". BMJ. 369: m1435. doi:10.1136/bmj.m1435. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 32273267. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
95. ^ Winn, Patrick (1 April 2020). "Will the US ever mimic Asia's culture of 'universal masking'?". Public Radio International.
96. Xie, X.; Li, Y.; Chwang, A. T.; Ho, P. L.; Seto, W. H. (June 2007). "How far droplets can move in indoor environments – revisiting the Wells evaporation–falling curve". Indoor Air. Vol. 17 211-225, no. 3. pp. 211–25. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2007.00469.x. PMID 17542834.
97. Letzter, R. (31 March 2020). "Is 6 feet enough space for social distancing? Not everyone thinks that's enough distance". Live Science. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
98. Chu DK, Akl EA, Duda S, Solo K, Yaacoub S, Schünemann HJ (1 June 2020). "Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31142-9.
99. Chan JF, Yuan S, Zhang AJ, Poon VK, Chan CC, Lee AC, Fan Z, Li C, Liang R, Cao J, Tang K, Luo C, Cheng VC, Cai JP, Chu H, Chan KW, To KK, Sridhar S, Yuen KY (30 May 2020). "Surgical mask partition reduces the risk of non-contact transmission in a golden Syrian hamster model for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)" (PDF). Clinical Infectious Diseases. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa644. ISSN 1058-4838.
100. Vandinther, Jackie (28 May 2020). "New study suggests wearing a face mask at home could help limit spread of COVID-19". CTVNews.ca.
101. Zhang R, Li Y, Zhang AL, Wang Y, Molina MJ (11 June 2020). "Identifying airborne transmission as the dominant route for the spread of COVID-19". PNAS. doi:10.1073/pnas.2009637117.
102. 谢斌 张纯 (21 January 2020). "一罩难求：南都民调实测走访发现，线上线下口罩基本卖脱销". 南方都市报. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
103. 徐榆涵 (23 January 2020). "全球各地瘋搶口罩 專家：不必買N95". 聯合報. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 25 January 2020.
104. 刘灏 (21 January 2020). "广东市场监管部门：将坚决打击囤积居奇、哄抬价格等行为". 南方网. Retrieved 21 January 2020.
105. "市场价格行为提醒书". n.d. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020.
106. 陈泽云 (22 January 2020). "口罩买不到怎么办？这些药店平台春节期间持续供应". 金羊网. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
107. 新京报 (22 January 2020). "京东：禁止第三方商家口罩涨价". 新京报网. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
108. 新京报 (22 January 2020). "苏宁易购：口罩等健康类商品禁涨价，并开展百亿补贴". 新京报网. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
109. 新京报 (22 January 2020). "拼多多：对口罩等产品进行监测，恶意涨价者将下架". 新京报网. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
110. ^ Olga Khazan, Why We're Running Out of Masks, The Atlantic (April 10, 2020).
111. Nick Miroff. "Protective gear in national stockpile is nearly depleted, DHS officials say". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2020.
112. Juliet Eilperin, Jeff Stein, Desmond Butler & Tom Hamburger, U.S. sent millions of face masks to China early this year, ignoring pandemic warning signs, Washington Post (April 18, 2020).
113. ^ "Pénurie de masques : une responsabilité partagée par les gouvernements". Public Senat (in French). 23 March 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
114. BFMTV. "Pénurie de masques: pourquoi la France avait décidé de ne pas renouveler ses stocks il y a neuf ans" (in French). BFMTV. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
115. Roy, Soline; Barotte, Nicolas (19 March 2020). "Quand l'État stratège a renoncé à renouveler ses stocks de masques". Le Figaro.fr (in French). Retrieved 6 April 2020.
116. ^ "France to produce 40 million face masks by end of April for domestic battle against Covid-19". Radio France Internationale. 31 March 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
117. "Covid-19: French lawmakers to investigate where one and a half billion masks sent". Radio France Internationale. 1 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
118. "Pénurie de masques : les raisons d'un "scandale d'État"". Franceinter.fr. n.d. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
119. ^ "Countries reject Chinese-made equipment". BBC News. 30 March 2020 – via bbc.com.
120. "Trudeau says Canada will not pay full price for 8 million sub-standard masks". CTVNews. 9 May 2020.
121. Bronskill, Jim (8 May 2020). "Federal government rejects 8 million N95 masks from single distributor". CBC.
122. Johnson, Marty (26 March 2020). "Feds have 1.5 million expired N95 masks in storage despite CDC clearing them for use on COVID-19: report". The Hill. Retrieved 12 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
123. Evan, Melanie; Hufford, Austen (7 March 2020). "Critical Component of Protective Masks in Short Supply - The epidemic has driven up demand for material in N95 filters; 'everyone thinks there is this magic factory somewhere'". The Wall Street Journal.
124. ^ Fabian, Jordan; Clough, Rick (2 April 2020). "Trump Attacks 3M Over Mask Production, Drawing Company Pushback". Bloomberg.
125. Whalen, Jeanne; Helderman, Rosalind S.; Hamburger, Tom (3 April 2020). "Inside Americas Mask Crunch". Washington Post.
126. ^ Betschka, Julius; Fröhlich, Alexander (3 April 2020). "Berlins Innensenator spricht von "moderner Piraterie"". Der Tagesspiegel (in German).
127. "Schutzmasken konfisziert? Schwere Vorwürfe aus Berlin: Jetzt reagiert das Weiße Haus". t-online.de. 4 April 2020.
128. Fröhlich, Alexander (4 April 2020). "200,000 respirators not confiscated: Delivery for Berlin police was bought in Thailand at a better price". Der Tagesspiegel.
129. "Berlin lets mask slip on feelings for Trump's America". Politico Europe. 10 April 2020.
130. Tisdall, Simon (12 April 2020). "US's global reputation hits rock-bottom over Trump's coronavirus response". The Guardian.
131. Halon, Yael (3 April 2020). "Florida emergency management official says 3M selling masks to foreign countries: 'We're chasing ghosts'". Fox News. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
132. "Interview With Jared Moskowitz, Director of Florida's Division of Emergency Management". WFOR-TV. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
133. Man, Anthony (5 April 2020). "Florida emergency management chief says state will have enough ICU beds and ventilators". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved 5 April 2020.
134. DiSalvo, David (30 March 2020). "I Spent A Day In The Coronavirus-Driven Feeding Frenzy Of N95 Mask Sellers And Buyers And This Is What I Learned". Forbes. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
135. Natasha Bertrand; Gabby Orr; Daneil Lippman; Nahal Toosi (31 March 2020). "Pence task force freezes coronavirus aid amid backlash". Politico. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
136. "COVID-19: Coquitlam company retools, will be first in Canada to produce N95 respirators". 6 April 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
137. Toronto Star. Saturday May 23rd, front page.
138. Bradsher, Keith; Alderman, Liz (2 April 2020). "The World Needs Masks. China Makes Them, but Has Been Hoarding Them". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 May 2020. China made half the world's masks before the coronavirus emerged there, and it has expanded production nearly 12-fold since then.
139. For example: "Face mask production shows no sign of stopping". PAhomepage. Nexstar Broadcasting, Inc. 22 April 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020. Martz Technologies in Berwick turned their warehouse into a face mask factory.
140. Enrich, David; Abrams, Rachel; Kurutz, Steven (25 March 2020). "A Sewing Army, Making Masks for America". The New York Times.
141. Levy, Jason (4 May 2020). "Need for masks spawns cottage industry". Republican-American. Waterbury CT: Republican American. Retrieved 7 May 2020. Production of face masks is becoming a cottage industry of sorts with some hybrid operations that both donate and sell the sought-after coverings.
142. Bhanoo, Sindya. "Which DIY mask pattern should you use? Even experts can't pick one to recommend". Washington Post.
143. "Master Maskmaking Guide". Makemasks. well-known patterns such as the Deaconess, A.B. mask (For a nurse, by a nurse), We Can Sew It, the Cynthia, and the Erin... Full Pattern Library
144. ^ Zhou, Cissy (12 June 2020). "Coronavirus: wheels come off China's mask-making gravy train, as low-end manufacturers count their losses". SCMP.
145. For example: Blanchard, Ben (1 April 2020). "Taiwan to spend $35 billion fighting virus, to donate 10 million masks". Reuters. Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 April 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020. Taiwan said it would donate 10 million face masks to the most needy countries. The Foreign Ministry said seven million masks would be sent to Europe, including Spain, Italy and Britain, while two million would go to the United States, and the rest to the small band of countries which maintain formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan .
146. ^ Onishi, Norimitsu; Méheut, Constant (9 April 2020). "Mask-Wearing Is a Very New Fashion in Paris (and a Lot of Other Places)". The New York Times.
147. ^ Wong, Tessa (31 March 2020). "Why some countries wear face masks and others don't". BBC News.
148. ^ Zheng, Sarah (14 March 2020). "Face mask culture during the coronavirus: East vs West". South China Morning Post.
149. Leung, Hillary (12 March 2020). "Why Face Masks Are Encouraged in Asia, but Shunned in the U.S." Time.
150. Barceló, Joan; Sheen, Greg (6 May 2020). "Voluntary adoption of social welfare-enhancing behavior: Mask-wearing in Spain during the COVID-19 outbreak". doi:10.31235/osf.io/6m85q. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
151. ^ Tett, Gillian (1 April 2020). "Why wearing masks may be the way forward". Financial Times.
152. Friedman, Uri (2 April 2020). "Face Masks Are In". The Atlantic.
153. Burton, Nylah (6 March 2020). "Why Asians in masks should not be the "face" of the coronavirus". Vox.
154. Nabong, Pat (30 March 2020). "Wearing a mask while Asian". Chicago Reader.
155. "Asian Canadian women abused, punched, spat on. Is it racist maskaphobia?". South China Morning Post. 13 May 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
156. "Coronavirus: To Mask Or Not To Mask? #Masks4All Seeks Everyone To Cover Their Mouths". CBS New York. 31 March 2020.
157. Howard, Jeremy (28 March 2020). "Simple DIY masks could help flatten the curve. We should all wear them in public". Washington Post.
158. "New local website aims to promote mask wearing to help flatten the curve". News24. 7 April 2020.
159. "Coronavirus: Why etiquette, not social shaming, will get people to wear masks and keep a distance". The Mercury News. 18 April 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
160. "Coronavirus protesters, if you want people to listen, ditch Alex Jones. And wear masks". Star Telegram. 21 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
161. Pierce, Charles P. (21 May 2020). "An Illinois State Lawmaker Believes the Freedom to Infect Shall Not Be Infringed". Esquire. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
162. Brewster, Jack. "New Coronavirus Culture War: Some Republicans (Like Trump) Ditch Masks". Forbes. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
163. ^ Weissert, Will; Lemire, Jonathan (7 May 2020). "Face masks make a political statement in era of coronavirus". AP News.
164. Griffiths, James (2 April 2020). "Asia may have been right about coronavirus and face masks, and the rest of the world is coming around". CNN.
165. Watterson, Andrew (17 April 2020). "Through all the misinformation, what is the truth of wearing face masks?". The National.
166. Frank, T. A. (8 April 2020). ""I Was Looking at Them in the Wrong Way": Mask Misinformation and the Failure of the Elites". Vanity Fair.
167. ^ Huo, Jingnan (10 April 2020). "Why There Are So Many Different Guidelines For Face Masks For The Public". NPR.org.
168. "Coronavirus: Abrupt reversals on face mask policy raise new questions". France 24. 5 April 2020.
169. Walther, Matthew (4 April 2020). "The noble lie about masks and coronavirus should never have been told". The Week.
170. Tufekci, Zeynep (17 March 2020). "Why Telling People They Don't Need Masks Backfired". The New York Times.
171. Ross, Katherine (12 June 2020). "Dr. Fauci Explains Why Public Wasn't Told to Wear Masks When COVID-19 Pandemic Began". TheStreet.
172. Kelley, Alexandra (16 June 2020). "Fauci: why the public wasn't told to wear masks when the coronavirus pandemic began". TheHill.
173. McArdle, Mairead (16 June 2020). "Fauci Confirms Public-Health Experts Downplayed Efficacy of Masks to Ensure They Would Be Available to Health-care Workers". National Review.
174. Novak, Matt (17 June 2020). "Dr. Fauci Made the Coronavirus Pandemic Worse by Lying About Masks". Gizmodo.
175. Tu, Jessie (16 April 2020). "Taiwan challenges gender stereotypes with pink mask campaign". Women's Agenda. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
176. Friedman, Vanessa (17 March 2020). "Fashion and Masks in the Age of Coronavirus". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
177. Hine, Samuel (3 April 2020). "The Streetwear Face Mask Market Is Booming". GQ. Retrieved 18 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
178. Sanoff, Rachel (7 April 2020). "Coronavirus couture: the rise of the $60 designer face mask". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
179. Petrarca, Emilia (10 April 2020). "What Does Your Face Mask Say About You?". The Cut. Retrieved 18 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
180. "Lessons From Slovakia—Where Leaders Wear Masks". The Atlantic. 13 May 2020.
181. "Personal measures taken to avoid COVID-19 | YouGov". today.yougov.com. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
182. "COVID-19: Face masks mandatory in Buenos Aires as of next Wednesday". The Santiago Times. 14 April 2020.
183. Coronavirus: Expert panel to assess face mask use by public, BBC News, David Shukman, 1 April 2020.
184. Bell, Bethany (6 April 2020). "Coronavirus: Why you now have to wear a mask in Austrian shops". BBC News. Retrieved 11 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
185. mask duty - the most important questions and answers (german), news@ORF.at, 31 March 2020 and actualized later.
186. "Bahamas PM's National Press Conference: Update on COVID-19 Response". Eleutheran Newspaper. 19 April 2020.
187. "Bahrain makes face masks compulsory in public, allows shops to re-open". Arab News. 9 April 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
188. Benin Police Enforce Mask Wearing In Bid To Stop Virus,Barron's, 8 April 2020.
189. Andelane, Lana (7 April 2020). "Coronavirus: Countries where face masks are mandatory in COVID-19 fight". Newshub. Retrieved 11 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
190. Drew Hinshaw, Catherine Lucey (31 March 2020). "U.S. Reviews Guidance on Masks to Fight Coronavirus as Europe Embraces Their Use".
191. Carmen Paun; Ashleigh Furlong; Politico Europe; Judith Mischke (4 April 2020). "European authorities' shifting advice on face masks adds to confusion in coronavirus crisis".
192. Phorn Bopha; Sokummono Khan. "Cambodian Businesses Embrace Protective Measures Against Coronavirus". VOA Khmer.
193. Cameroon City Makes Wearing Mask Mandatory in Fight Against Coronavirus,VOA News, 7 April 2020.
194. Theresa Tam offers new advice: Wear a non-medical face mask when shopping or using public transit,The Globe and Mail, 6 April 2020.
195. Chile afirma estar en una 'guerra' por los recursos contra el COVID-19,Diario Libre, 6 April 2020.
196. Shanghai makes wearing masks mandatory in public places,Xinhuanet, 8 February 2020.
197. "El uso de mascarillas se vuelve obligatorio en todo Colombia". Infobae (in European Spanish). Retrieved 23 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
198. "Cuba confirms 1st coronavirus cases, urges citizens to make own masks". Reuters. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020.
199. 'Pregnant' phase for Jamaica,Jamaica Observer, 6 April 2020.
200. "Czechs get to work making masks after government decree". The Guardian. 30 March 2020.
201. Diario, Listin (16 April 2020). "El uso de mascarillas en el país será obligatorio en espacios públicos y lugares de trabajo". listindiario.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 26 April 2020.
202. ^ Tasamba, James (19 April 2020). "Rwanda, DR Congo make mask wearing mandatory".
203. "Questions and answers on novel coronavirus". Other questions: 4. "Should I be wearing a mouth or face mask in public if I am healthy?": Danish Health Authority. 29 May 2020. Retrieved 6 June 2020. The Danish Health Authority does not encourage healthy individuals who go about their daily business to wear mouth or face masks as it is uncertain that they have any effect on virus transmission.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
204. "Denmark to make face masks mandatory at airports". The Local. Ritzau/The Local. 4 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
205. LatAm countries turn to face masks to contain pandemic,Xinhuanet, 8 April 2020.
206. Morsy, Ahmed (2 June 2020). "Masks in public places: 'Even a piece of cloth will do'". Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
207. Samuel, Gelila (12 April 2020). "Ethiopia Outlaws Handshakes, Obliges Masks in Public Places".
208. "Décret n° 2020-190 du 3 mars 2020 relatif aux réquisitions nécessaires dans le cadre de la lutte contre le virus covid-19". Legifrance (in French). 3 March 2020.
209. "Coronavirus : le gouvernement promet 200 millions de masques par semaine dès lundi". DNA.fr (in French). 8 May 2020.
210. "COVID-19 Information". U.S. Embassy in Gabon. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
211. "Plötzlich ändert das Robert-Koch-Institut seine Einschätzung zum Mundschutz". Die Welt (in German). dpa/AP. 2 April 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
212. Rottmann, Kerstin (28 April 2020). "Berlin und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern weiten Maskenpflicht aus – das gilt in Ihrem Bundesland". Welt (in German). Retrieved 20 May 2020.
213. "Coronavirus: Germans don compulsory masks as lockdown eases". BBC News. 27 April 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
214. Masilela, Brenda (14 April 2020). "Guinean president makes masks compulsory in bid to curb the spread of coronavirus".,IOL
215. Archeta, Kisa (7 April 2020). "Honduras makes it mandatory to wear face masks in public".,COVID-19 World News
216. "Advisory on use of Homemade Protective Cover for Face and Mouth" (PDF). Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
217. Mohan, Vishwa (1 April 2020). "Govt's scientific adviser 'differs' with ministry, pitches for home-made masks". The Times of India. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
218. COVID-19 In Odisha: State Govt Mandates Wearing Face Masks, Ommcom News, 6 April 2020.
219. Bhandari, Ankita (12 April 2020). "West Bengal makes wearing mask mandatory in public places". Zee News. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
220. India TV News Desk (12 April 2020). "West Bengal joins other states in making face mask mandatory in public spaces". IndiaTV. Retrieved 16 June 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
221. ^ Ngui, Yantoultra (8 April 2020). "Malaysia to Give Out Masks to Households as Guidance Shifts". Bloomberg. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
222. Hennessy, Michelle. "Taoiseach advises public to wear face coverings on public transport and in retail stores". TheJournal.ie. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
223. "Gov.ie - Guidance on safe use of face coverings". www.gov.ie. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
224. "Netanyahu tells Israelis to wear masks outside; gives stipends for kids, elderly". timesofisrael.com.
225. "Coronavirus: Lombardy, Tuscany make face masks compulsory". ANSA. 6 April 2020.
226. ""Très touchée" par le covid-19, Marcory rend le port de masques obligatoire dans les grandes surfaces". Agence Ivoirienne de Presse. 16 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
227. Takahashi, Ryusei. "Amid virus outbreak, Japan stores scramble to meet demand for face masks". Japan Times. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
228. "16th Meeting of the Novel Coronavirus Response Headquarters". Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet, 1 March 2020.
229. Muraya, Joseph (5 April 2020). "Kenya: Masks Now Mandatory in Public Places, Kenya Declares".,All Africa
230. Senkpeni, Alpha Daffae (21 April 2020). "Will You Wear Mask? Liberia's Lawmakers Want Compulsory Wearing of 'Protective Device' In Public".,Front Page Africa
231. Five stories you may have missed,Luxembourg Times, 18 April 2020.
232. Harun, Hana Naz; Teh, Athira Yusof; Solhi, Farah (31 January 2020). "Demand for face masks, hand sanitisers soars". New Straits Times. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
233. Lim, Ida (17 March 2020). "Minister bans Malaysia from exporting face masks". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 19 March 2020. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
234. Use of face masks declared mandatory in at least 11 states, Mexico City,Mexico News Daily, 17 April 2020.
235. Wilson, Brenda (16 March 2020). "Mongolia Announces 3 New COVID-19 Cases, Totaling 4: How They Got Coronavirus Precautions Right".,Forbes
236. Eljechtimi, Ahmed (6 April 2020). "Morocco makes face masks compulsory due to coronavirus". Reuters. Retrieved 11 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
237. "Mozambique: Government Orders Wearing of Masks". allAfrica.com. 9 April 2020. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
238. Kolekjevski, Ivan (19 April 2020). "Citizens of Kumanovo, Tetovo and Prilep must wear protective masks and gloves as of wednesday: gov't".,MIA
239. Balochistan govt makes face masks mandatory,Pakistan Today, 18 April 2020.
240. "Es 'obligatorio' usar mascarilla si va a salir de casa, según ministra consejera de Salud". TVN. 7 April 2020.
241. Mercado, David. "Mascarillas gratis: Perú decreta su uso obligatorio para enfrentar el coronavirus". Infobae (in European Spanish). Retrieved 22 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
242. "Philippines requires people to wear masks in public". 2 April 2020.
243. "Wychodzisz z domu? Zasłoń usta i nos!". Gov.pl. 16 April 2020.
244. Face masks made mandatory in Russia’s Khabarovsk to prevent coronavirus spread,Tass, 7 April 2020.
245. Khalik, Salma (31 January 2020). "Wuhan virus: Who needs to wear a mask and what's the proper way to wear it?". The Straits Times. Singapore. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
246. "Coronavirus: Singapore Govt will no longer discourage wearing of masks, to give reusable masks to all households". The Straits Times. 3 April 2020. Retrieved 24 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
247. "COVID-19: Compulsory to wear mask when leaving the house, says Lawrence Wong". CNA. 14 April 2020. Retrieved 24 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
248. "Spain to hand out free face masks for commuters to help return to work". The Telegraph. 11 April 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
249. Linde, Elena G. Sevillano, Pablo (2 May 2020). "Sánchez anuncia la obligación de llevar mascarilla en el transporte público a partir del lunes". EL PAÍS (in Spanish). Retrieved 4 May 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
250. "Press releases The Government approves the royal decree that establishes the measures that will govern the new normal". Ministerio de Sanidad. 9 June 2020. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
251. "Slovensko pritvrdilo v boji s vírusom. Nosenie rúšok je povinné". spravy.pravda.sk (in Slovak). 15 March 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
252. "Opatrenie Úradu verejného zdravotníctva Slovenskej republiky pri ohrození verejného zdravia" (PDF). uvzsr.sk (in Slovak). Retrieved 24 March 2020.
253. a.s, Petit Press. "Rúška už nebudú povinné všade, povolia cesty do zahraničia na krátky čas". domov.sme.sk (in Slovak). Retrieved 20 May 2020.
254. COVID-19 & Slovenia, Night 29 March: Movement Restrictions, Mandatory Masks, More Aid for Individuals,Total Slovenia News, 29 March 2020.
255. "Everyone should wear a face mask". COVID-19 South African online portal. 10 April 2020. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
256. "South Africans must wear masks after COVID-19 lockdown eases: Minister". CNA. 25 April 2020.
257. Feng, Shuo; Shen, Chen; Xia, Nan; Song, Wei; Fan, Mengzhen; Cowling, Benjamin J. (20 March 2020). "Rational use of face masks in the COVID-19 pandemic". Lancet Respiratory Medicine. 8 (5): 434–436. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30134-X. PMC 7118603. PMID 32203710. ... the use of face masks has become ubiquitous in China and other Asian countries such as South Korea and Japan.
258. Kim, E. Tammy (1 April 2020). "How South Korea Solved Its Face Mask Shortage". New York Times.
259. "Face masks mandatory on public transport". The Korea Herald. 25 May 2020. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
260. "Frågor och svar om covid-19 (coronavirus) — Folkhälsomyndigheten". www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 14 May 2020.
261. Cederblad/TT, Johanna. "Munskydd eller inte? – frågan vägrar försvinna". Ny Teknik (in Swedish). Retrieved 11 June 2020.
262. "Coronavirus: Does China have enough face masks to meet its needs?". BBC News Online. 6 February 2020. Archived from the original on 9 February 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2020.
263. Ku, Chuan; Kao, Evelyn (3 February 2020). "WUHAN VIRUS/Taiwan approves new rationing system for surgical masks". Central News Agency. Archived from the original on 5 February 2020. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
264. Wu Po-wei; Lee Wan-lin; Ko Lin (9 March 2020). "Taiwan mask output to hit 10 million per day by next week: minister". Focus Taiwan.
265. Everington, Keoni (1 April 2020). "Masks mandatory on Taiwan trains, inter-city buses starting today". Taiwan News.
266. Lin, Chia-nan (4 April 2020). "Virus Outbreak: Fines authorized for unmasked riders". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 7 April 2020. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
267. Coronavirus: Turkey imposes curfew on youth, shuts borders of 31 cities,Middle East Eye, 3 April 2020.
268. "У масках - скрізь на вулиці, на в'їзді мірятимуть температуру. Нові обмеження в Києві". BBC Ukraine (in Ukrainian). 5 April 2020.
269. "Coronavirus: Face coverings to be mandatory on public transport". BBC News. 4 June 2020. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
270. "Scottish government suggests covering face in shops". BBC News. 28 April 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2020.
271. "Strategies for Optimizing the Supply of N95 Respirators: Crisis/Alternate Strategies". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 17 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
272. "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
273. Landsverk, Gabby (7 April 2020). "The CDC released a guide on how to make a face mask without sewing skills. Materials include a bandana, a coffee filter, and hair ties". Business Insider. Retrieved 12 April 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
274. Ferré-Sadurní, Luis; Cramer, Maria (15 April 2020). "New York Orders Residents to Wear Masks in Public". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
275. Afghanistan reports first coronavirus fatality, Uzbekistan makes protective masks mandatory,The Times of Central Asia, 23 March 2020.
276. Walderrama, Shaylim (20 March 2020). "Venezuelans sew homemade face masks amid coronavirus quarantine".,Reuters
277. "All in Vietnam must wear face mask in public places for coronavirus prevention". The Star. 16 March 2020. Retrieved 21 March 2020.
278. Zambia records four new cases of Covid-19, total active now 20,Daily Nation, 18 April 2020.

• Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
• National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic
• Medical masks