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Nubia (/ˈnuːbiə, ˈnjuː-/) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the blue and white Niles (south of Khartoum in central Sudan) or, more strictly, Al Dabbah. It was the seat of one of the earliest civilizations of ancient Africa, as the Kerma culture lasted from around 2500 BC until its conquest by the New Kingdom of Egypt under pharaoh Thutmose I around 1500 BC. Nubia was home to several empires, most prominently the kingdom of Kush, which conquered Egypt during the 8th century BC during the reign of Piye and ruled the country as its Twenty-fifth Dynasty (to be replaced a century later by the native Egyptian Twenty-sixth Dynasty).

The collapse of Kush, in the 4th century AD after more than a thousand years of existence, was precipitated by an invasion by Ethiopia's Kingdom of Aksum and saw the rise of three Christian kingdoms, Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia. Makuria and Alodia also lasted for roughly a millennium. Their eventual decline initiated not only the partition of Nubia into the northern half conquered by the Ottomans and the southern half by the Sennar sultanate in the 16th century, but also a rapid Islamization and partial Arabization of the Nubian people. Nubia was again united with the Khedivate of Egypt in the 19th century. Today, the region of Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan.

The primarily archaeological science dealing with ancient Nubia is called Nubiology.

Linguistics

Nubia in hieroglyphs
Ta-seti T3-stj Curved land
Setiu Stjw Curved land of the Nubians
Nehset / Nehsyu / Nehsi Nḥst / Nḥsyw / Nḥsj Nubia / Nubians
Nubia

The name Nubia is derived from that of the Noba people, nomads who settled the area in the 4th century AD following the collapse of the kingdom of Meroë. The Noba spoke a Nilo-Saharan language, ancestral to Old Nubian. Old Nubian was mostly used in religious texts dating from the 8th and 15th centuries. Before the 4th century, and throughout classical antiquity, Nubia was known as Kush, or, in Classical Greek usage, included under the name Ethiopia (Aethiopia).

Historically, the people of Nubia spoke at least two varieties of the Nubian language group, a subfamily that includes Nobiin (the descendant of Old Nubian), Kenuzi-Dongola, Midob and several related varieties in the northern part of the Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan. Until at least 1970, the Birgid language was spoken north of Nyala in Darfur, but is now extinct. However, the linguistic identity of the ancient Kerma Culture of southern and central Nubia (also known as Upper Nubia), is uncertain, with some suggesting that it belonged to the Cushitic branch of Afroasiatic languages, and other more recent research indicating that the Kerma culture instead belonged to the Eastern Sudanic branch of Nilo-Saharan languages, and that other peoples of northern (or Lower) Nubia north of Kerma (such as the C-group culture and the Blemmyes) spoke Cushitic languages before the spread of Eastern Sudanic languages from southern (or Upper) Nubia.

Geography

Nubia was divided into three major regions: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia, in reference to their locations along the Nile. Lower refers to regions downstream and upper refers to regions upstream. Lower Nubia lies between the First and the Second Cataracts, within the current borders of Egypt. Middle Nubia lies between the Second and the Third Cataracts. Upper Nubia lies south of the Third Cataract.

History

6000-3500 BCE: Prehistory

In prehistoric times, north Africa was mostly occupied by nomadic cattle herders. The Khartoum Mesolithic was a highly advanced culture in southern Nubia (near modern Khartoum). They created sophisticated pottery that is "perhaps the oldest known in the world." By the 5th millennium BC, the Sahara became drier and people began to domestic sheep, goats, and cattle. Nubian rock art depicts hunters using bows and arrows. Megaliths discovered at Nabta Playa are early examples of what seems to be one of the world's first astronomical devices, predating Stonehenge by almost 2,000 years. This complexity as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

3500-3000 BCE: Pre-Kerma; A-Group

The poorly known "pre-Kerma" culture existed in Upper (Southern) Nubia on a stretch of fertile farmland just south of the Third Cataract.

Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. This history is often intertwined with Egypt to the north. Around 3500 BCE, the second "Nubian" culture, termed the Early A-Group, arose in Lower (Northern) Nubia They were sedentary agriculturalists. They were also engaged in trade with the Egyptians and exported gold. Imports consisted of gold objects, copper tools, faience amulets and beads, seals, slate palettes, stone vessels, and a variety of pots. During this time, the Nubians began creating distinctive black topped, red pottery.

Around 3100 BCE the A-group transitioned from the Early to Classical phases. During this period, the wealth of A-group kings rivaled Egyptian kings. Royal A-group graves contained gold and richly decorated pottery. "Arguably royal burials are known only at Qustul and possibly Sayala." Some scholars believe that "Egypt and Nubia A-Group culture shared the same official culture. However, "most scholars do not agree with this hypothesis", as more recent finds in Egypt indicate that this iconography originated in Egypt not Nubia.

3000-2400 BCE: Early Kerma

East and West of Nubia, a uniform culture of nomadic herders, called the Gash group, existed from 3000 to 1500 BCE.

In Lower Nubia, the A-group moved from the Classical to Terminal phase. At this time, Kings at Qustul likely ruled all of Lower Nubia and demonstrated the political centralization of Nubian society. The A-Group culture came to an end around 3100 and 2900 BCE, when it was apparently destroyed by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt. There are no records of settlement in Lower Nubia for the next 600 years. Old Kingdom Egyptian dynasties (4th to 6th) controlled uninhabited Lower Nubia and raided Upper Nubia.

2400-1550 BCE: Early Kerma; C-Group

Upper Nubia

Pre-Kerma developed into the Middle phase Kerma group. Some A-group people (transitioning to C-group) settled the area and co-existed with the Pre-Kerma group. Like other Nubian groups, the Kerma group and C-group peoples made an abundance of red pottery with black tops. However, Kerma group and C-group pottery had different shapes. Traces of C-group peoples in Upper Nubia vanish by 2000 BCE and Kerma culture began to dominate Upper Nubia. The power of an independent Upper Nubia increased around 1700 BCE and Upper Nubia came to dominate Lower Nubia.

Lower Nubia

C-group Nubians resettled Lower Nubia by 2400 BCE. As trade between Egypt and Nubia increased, so did wealth and stability. Nubia was divided into a series of small kingdoms. There is debate over whether these C-Group peoples, who flourished from 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE, were another internal evolution or invaders. O'Connor states "a transition from A group into a later culture, the C-group, can be traced" and the C-group culture was typical of Lower Nubia from 2400 to 1650 BCE. C-Group pottery is characterized by all-over incised geometric lines with white infill and impressed imitations of basketry. Lower Nubia was controlled by Egypt from 2000 to 1700 BCE and Upper Nubia from 1700 BCE.

From 2200 to 1700 BCE another culture appeared in Lower Nubia, the Pan Grave culture. Some of the Pan Grave culture people, were likely the Medjay (mḏꜣ,) arriving from the desert east of the Nile river. One feature of Pan Grave culture was burial in shallow graves. The Pan Graves and C-Group definitely interacted. Pan Grave pottery is characterized by incised lines of a more limited character than those of the C-Group, generally having interspersed undecorated spaces within the geometric schemes.

1550-750 BCE: Kerma; Egyptian Empire

Upper Nubia

From the Middle Kerma phase, the first Nubian kingdom to unify much of the region arose. The Classic Kerma Culture, named for its royal capital at Kerma, was one of the earliest urban centers in the Nile region In fact, Kerma is the oldest city in Africa outside of Egypt. The Kerma group spoke Cushitic , or according to more recent research, spoke Nilo-Saharan languages. Although somewhat similar, Upper Nubia Kerma culture and Lower Nubia C-group culture were different, with pottery shape being one example. By 1650 BCE (Classic Kerma phase), the kings of Kerma were powerful enough to organize the labor for monumental town walls and large mud brick structures, such as the Eastern and Western Deffufas (50 by 25 by 18 meters). They also had rich tombs, with possessions for the afterlife and large human sacrifices.

Kerma culture was militaristic, as attested by the many archer burials and bronze daggers/swords found in their graves. Other signs of Nubia's military prowess are the frequent use of Nubians in Egypt's military and Egypt's need to construct numerous fortresses to defend their southern border from the Nubians. Egypt suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Kingdom of Kush. During Egypt's Second Intermediate period, the Kushites reached the height of their Bronze Age power and completely controlled southern trade with Egypt. They maintained diplomatic ties with the Thebans and Hyksos until the New Kingdom pharaohs brought all of Nubia under Egyptian rule from 1500 to 1070 BCE.

Lower Nubia

When the Middle Kingdom Egyptians pulled out of the Napata region around 1700 BCE, they left a lasting legacy that was merged with indigenous C-group customs. Archaeologists have found several large C-group tombs. Egyptians remaining at the garrison towns started to merge with the C-group Nubians in Lower Nubia. The C-group quickly adopted Egyptian customs and culture, as attested by their graves. The C-group Nubians and remaining Egyptians were living together in garrision towns, which was not the case prior. After Upper Nubia annexed Lower Nubia around 1700 BCE, the Kingdom of Kush began to control the area. At this point, C-group Nubians / Egyptians began to proclaim their subordination to the Kushite King in their inscriptions, which was a first in Africa outside of Egypt. Egypt conquered Lower (and Upper) Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BCE. However, the Kingdom of Kush survived longer than that of Egypt.

750-250 BCE: Napatan Empire

There are competing theories on the origins of the Kushite kings of the 25th dynasty. Some believe they were Nubian officials from Egyptian held Nubia in 1500 to 1070 BCE. An example would be the rebel Viceroy of Kush, Panehesy, who came to rule Upper Nubia and some of Lower Nubia after the withdrawal of Egyptian forces. Other scholars believe they are descended from families of the Egyptianized Nubian elite supported by Egyptian priests,, or Egyptian settlers.

The El Kurru chiefdom likely played a major role in the development of the Kingdom of Kush due to its access to gold producing areas, control of caravan routes, higher prevalence of arable land, and participation in international trade. "There can be no doubt that el-Kurru was the burial place of the ancestors of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty." The early el-Kurru burials resemble Nubian Kerma/C-group traditions (contracted body, circular stone structures, burial on a bed). However, by 880 to 815 BCE, Nubian burials at el-Kurru became more Egyptian in style with "mastabas, or pyramid on mastabas, chapels, and rectangular enclosures." Alara, the first el-Kurru prince, and his successor, Kashta, were buried at el-Kurru. Later documents mention Alara as the 25th dynasty's founder and he was "central to a myth of the origins of the kingdom."

The Napatan Empire ushered in the age of Egyptian archaism, or a return to a historical past, which was embodied by a concentrated effort at religious renewal and restoration of Egypt's holy places. In addition to architecture, the Kingdom of Kush was deeply influenced by Egyptian culture, including religion and arts.

Nubia in Egypt

Kashta peacefully became King of Upper and Lower Egypt with his daughter as Divine Adoratrice of amun in Thebes. From Napata Piye (spelled Piankhi or Piankhy in older works) invaded and took control of Egypt. Piye personally led the attack on Egypt and recorded his victory in a lengthy hieroglyphic filled stele called the "Stele of Victory." Piye's success in achieving the double kingship after generations of Kushite planning resulted from "Kushite ambition, political skill, and the Theban decision to reunify Egypt in this particular way", and not Egypt's utter exhaustion, "as frequently suggested in Egyptological studies." Piye constructed the oldest known pyramid at the royal burial site of El-Kurru.

According to the revised chronology, Shebitku "brought the entire Nile Valley as far as the Delta under the empire of Kush and is 'reputed' to have had Bocchoris, dynast of Sais, burnt to death." Shabaka "transferred the capital to Memphis". Shebitku's successor, Taharqa, was coronated in Memphis in 690 BCE

Taharqa's reign was a prosperous time in the empire with a particularly large Nile river flood and abundant crops and wine. Taharqa's inscriptions indicate that he gave large amounts of gold to the temple of amun at Kawa. Taharqa's army undertook successful military campaigns, as attested by the "list of conquered Asiatic principalities." Torok mentions the military success was due to Taharqa's efforts to strengthen the army through daily training and Assyria's preoccupation with other wars.

Taharqa diplomacy in the Levantine and Assyria's imperial ambitions led to war. In 701 BCE, Taharqa and his army aided Judah and King Hezekiah in withstanding a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians (2 Kings 19:9; Isaiah 37:9). There are various theories (Taharqa's army, disease, divine intervention, Hezekiah's surrender, Herodotus' mice theory) as to why the Assyrians failed to take Jerusalem and withdrew to Assyria. Sennacherib's annals record Judah was forced into tribute, however there was a 20 year cessation in Assyria's pattern of repeatedly invading Khor

After Sennacherib's death, his successor, King Esarhaddon, invaded Egypt proper in 674 BCE, but Taharqa and his army defeated the Assyrians outright, according to Babylonian records. (one of Assyria's worst defeats) However, Taharqa was defeated in Egypt in 671 BCE when Esarhaddon conquered Northern Egypt, captured Memphis, imposed tribute, and then withdrew. Pharaoh Taharqa escaped to the south, but Esarhaddon captured the Pharaoh's family, including "Prince Nes-Anhuret and the royal wives." In 669 BCE, Taharqa reoccupied Memphis, as well as the Delta After Esarhaddon's death in 668 BCE, the command passed to Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal and the Assyrians again defeated Taharqa and advanced as far south as Thebes, but direct Assyrian control was not established." Ashurbanipal appointed Necho I as his vassal ruler in Egypt. As late as 665 BCE, the vassal rulers of Sais, Mendes, and Pelusium were still making overtures to Taharqa in Kush. The vassal's plot was uncovered by Ashurbanipal and all rebels but Necho of Sais were executed.

Taharqa's successor, Tantamani, sailed north from Napata with a large army, through Elephantine, and to Thebes, where he was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt." From Thebes, Tantamani began his reconquest and regained control of Egypt, as far north as Memphis. Tantamani's dream stele states that he restored order from the chaos, where royal temples and cults were not being maintained. After defeating Sais and killing Assyria's vassal, Necho I, in Memphis, "some local dynasts formally surrendered, while others withdrew to their fortresses."

250BCE-400CE: Meroitic

Due to pressure from Assyrians and Egyptians, Meroë (800 BC – c. 350 AD) became the southern capital of the Kingdom of Kush. Together, Musawwarat_es-Sufra, Naqa, and Meroë formed the Island of Meroe. The importance of the town gradually increased when the royal burial ground was transferred to Meroë from Napata (Jebel Barkal). Meroë city was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealth was centered around a strong iron industry, as well as international trade involving India and China. Metalworking is believed to have gone on in Meroë, possibly through bloomeries and blast furnaces. At its peak, the rulers of Meroë controlled the Nile Valley north to south, over a straight-line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi). Musawwarat_es-Sufra the Great Enclosure (main site structure at 45,000 m), the Lion Temple of Apedemak (14×9×5 meters), and the Great Reservoir. According to Hintze, "the complicated ground plan of this extensive complex of buildings is without parallel in the entire Nile valley". The Great Reservoir is a Hafir to retain as much as possible of the rainfall of the short, wet season. It is 250 m in diameter and excavated 6.3 m into the ground.

The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and the Sudan during the Meroitic period (attested from 300 BCE). It became extinct about 400 CE (AD). They developed their own form of writing around 180-170 BCE, first utilizing Egyptian hieroglyphs, and later using a cursive alphabetic script with 23 signs. Meroitic Cursive, which was written with a stylus and was used for general record-keeping; and Meroitic Hieroglyphic, which was carved in stone or used for royal or religious documents. It is not well understood due to the scarcity of bilingual texts. They worshiped the Egyptian gods but did not abandon their gods, such as Apedemak and the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast).

Kandake, often Latinised as Candace, was the Meroitic term for the sister of the king of Kush who, due to the matrilineal succession, would bear the next heir, making her a queen mother. According to the scholar Basil Davidson, at least four Kushite queens — Amanirenas, Amanishakheto, Nawidemak and Amanitore — probably spent part of their lives in Musawwarat es-Sufra. Pliny writes that the "Queen of the Ethiopians" bore the title Candace, and indicates that the Ethiopians had conquered ancient Syria and the Mediterranean. In 25 BC the Kush kandake Amanirenas, as reported by Strabo, attacked the city of Syene, today's Aswan, in territory of the Roman Empire; Emperor Augustus destroyed the city of Napata in retaliation. In the New Testament biblical account, a treasury official of "Candace, queen of the Ethiopians", returning from a trip to Jerusalem met with Philip the Evangelist and was baptized.

Achaemenid period

The Achaemenids occupied the Kushan kingdom, possibly from the time of Cambyses (circa 530 BC), and more probably from the time of Darius I (550–486 BC), who mentions the conquest on Kush (Kušiya) in his inscriptions.

Herodotus mentioned an invasion of Kush by the Achaemenid ruler Cambyses (c. 530 BC), however, Herodotus mentions that "his expedition failed miserably in the desert." Derek Welsby states "scholars have doubted that this Persian expedition ever took place, but... archaeological evidence suggests that the fortress of Dorginarti near the second cataract served as Persia's southern boundary."

Ptolemaic period

There is no record of conflict between the Kushites and Ptolemies. However, there was a serious revolt at the end of Ptolemy IV and the Kushites likely tried to interfere in Ptolemaic affairs. It is suggested that this led to Ptolemy V defacing the name of Arqamani on inscriptions at Philae. "Arqamani constructed a small entrance hall to the temple built by Ptolemy IV at Pselchis and constructed a temple at Philae to which Ptolemy contributed an entrance hall." There's evidence of Ptolemaic occupation as far south as the 2nd cataract, but recent finds at Qasr Ibrim, such as "the total absence of Ptolemaic pottery" have cast doubts on the effectiveness of the occupation. Dynastic struggles led to the Ptolemies abandoning the area, so "the Kushites reasserted their control...with Qasr Ibrim occupied" (by the Kushites) and other locations perhaps garrisoned.

Roman period

According to Welsby, after the Romans assumed control of Egypt, they negotiated with the Kushites at Philae and drew the southern border of Roman Egypt at Aswan. Theodore Mommsen and Welsby state the Kingdom of Kush became a client Kingdom, which was similar to the situation under Ptolemaic rule of Egypt. Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt that was supported by Kushite armies. The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt. According to Strabo, the Kushites "sacked Aswan with an army of 30,000 men and destroyed imperial statues...at Philae.". a "fine over-life-size bronze head of the emperor Augustus" was found buried in Meroe in front of a temple. After the initial victories of Kandake (or "Candace") Amanirenas against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated and Napata sacked. Remarkably, the destruction of the capital of Napata was not a crippling blow to the Kushites and did not frighten Candace enough to prevent her from again engaging in combat with the Roman military. In 22 BCE, a large Kushite force moved northward with intention of attacking Qasr Ibrim. After a Kushite attack on Primis (Qasr Ibrim), the Kushites sent ambassadors to negotiate a peace settlement with Petronius. The Kushites succeeded in negotiating a peace treaty on favourable terms. Trade between the two nations increased and the Roman Egyptian border being extended to "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa)." This arrangement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years" and there's "no definite evidence of further clashes."

During this time, the different parts of the region divided into smaller groups with individual leaders, or generals, each commanding small armies of mercenaries. They fought for control of what is now Nubia and its surrounding territories, leaving the entire region weak and vulnerable to attack. Meroë eventually met defeat by the Kingdom of Aksum to their south under King Ezana. A stele of Ge'ez of an unnamed ruler of Aksum was found at Meroë. In Greek, it said he was "King of the Aksumites and the Omerites" (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar). It is likely this king ruled sometime around 330 AD. Some believe the Axumites destroyed the kingdom of Meroe, while others note that archeological evidence points to an economic and political decline in Meroe around 300. At some point during the 4th century AD, the region was conquered by the Noba, from which the name Nubia may derive; another possibility is that it comes from the Egyptian word for gold. From then on, the Romans referred to the area as Nobatia.

Christian Nubia

Around 350 CE/AD, the area was invaded by the Kingdom of Aksum and the Meroitic kingdom collapsed. Eventually, three smaller Christian kingdoms replaced it: northernmost was Nobatia between the first and second cataract of the Nile River, with its capital at Pachoras (modern-day Faras, Egypt); in the middle was Makuria, with its capital at Old Dongola; and southernmost was Alodia, with its capital at Soba (near Khartoum). King Silky of Nobatia crushed the Blemmyes, and recorded his victory in a Greek language inscription carved in the wall of the temple of Talmis (modern Kalabsha) around 500 CE/AD.

While bishop Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated one Marcus as bishop of Philae before his death in 373 CE/AD, showing that Christianity had penetrated the region by the 4th century CE/AD, John of Ephesus records that a Miaphysite priest named Julian converted the king and his nobles of Nobatia around 545 CE/AD. John of Ephesus also writes that the kingdom of Alodia was converted around 569. However, John of Biclarum records that the kingdom of Makuria was converted to Catholicism the same year, suggesting that John of Ephesus might be mistaken. Further doubt is cast on John's testimony by an entry in the chronicle of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria Eutychius of Alexandria, which states that in 719 CE/AD the church of Nubia transferred its allegiance from the Greek to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Long after the official Christianization of Nubia, the Isis cult of Philae remained for the sake of the Nubians. The edict of Theodosius I (390 CE/AD) was not enforced at Philae. Later attempts to suppress the cult of Isis led to armed clashes between the Nubians and Romans. Finally, in 453 CE/AD, a treaty was signed recognizing the traditional religious rights of Nubians at Philae.

By the 7th century CE/AD, Makuria expanded becoming the dominant power in the region. It was strong enough to halt the southern expansion of Islam after the Arabs had taken Egypt. After several failed invasions the new Muslim rulers agreed to a treaty with Dongola, called Baqt, allowing for peaceful coexistence and trade, contingent on the Nubians making an annual payment consisting of slaves and other tribute to the Islamic Governor at Aswan. This treaty held for six hundred years; it also guaranteed that any runaway slaves were returned to Nubia. Throughout this period, Nubia's main exports were dates and slaves, though ivory and gold were also exchanged for Egyptian ceramics, textiles, and glass. Over time the influx of Arab traders introduced Islam to Nubia and it gradually supplanted Christianity; furthermore, following an interruption in the annual tribute of slaves, the Egyptian Mamluk ruler invaded in 1272 CE and declared himself sovereign over half of Nubia. While there are records of a bishop at Qasr Ibrim in 1372 CE, his see had come to include that located at Faras. It is also clear that the cathedral of Dongola had been converted to a mosque in 1317 CE.

The influx of Arabs and Nubians to Egypt and Sudan had contributed to the suppression of the Nubian identity following the collapse of the last Nubian kingdom around 1504 CE. A vast majority of the Nubian population is currently Muslim, and the Arabic language is their main medium of communication in addition to their indigenous Nubian language. The unique characteristic of Nubian is shown in their culture (dress, dances, traditions, and music).

Islamic Nubia

In the 14th century, the Dongolan government collapsed and the region became divided and dominated by Arabs. The next centuries would see several Arab invasions of the region, as well as the establishment of a number of smaller kingdoms. Northern Nubia was brought under Egyptian control, while the south came under the control of the Kingdom of Sennar in the 16th century. The entire region would come under Egyptian control during the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, and later became a joint Anglo-Egyptian condominium.

21st century archaeology

In 2003, archaeologist Charles Bonnet heading a team of Swiss archaeologists excavating near Kerma discovered a cache of monumental black granite statues of the Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt now exposed in the Kerma Museum. Among the sculptures were ones belonging to the dynasty's last two pharaohs, Taharqa and Tanoutamon, whose statues are described as "masterpieces that rank among the greatest in art history." Craniometric analysis of Kerma fossils comparing them to various other early populations inhabiting the Nile Valley and Maghreb found that they were morphologically close to Predynastic Egyptians from Naqada (4000–3200 BC). Dental trait analysis of Kerma fossils found affinities with various populations inhabiting the Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, and Northeast Africa, especially to other ancient populations from the central and northern Sudan. Among the sampled populations, the Kerma people were overall nearest to the Kush populations in Upper Nubia, the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia, and to Ethiopians.

Contemporary issues

With the end of colonialism and the establishment of the Republic of Egypt (1953), and the secession of the Republic of Sudan from unity with Egypt (1956), Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan.

During the early-1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians were forcibly resettled to make room for Lake Nasser after the construction of the dams at Aswan. Nubian villages can now be found north of Aswan on the west bank of the Nile and on Elephantine Island; and many Nubians now live in large cities, such as Cairo.

Nubian Images

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• Nubian terracotta female figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BC Brooklyn Museum
• Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BCE, Univ. of Chicago Museum
• Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112
• Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy
• Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal
• Taharqa's kiosk and column, Karnak temple
• Entrance to Great Enclosure, Musawwarat es-Sufra
• Column and elephant – part of temple complex in Musawwarat es-Sufra
• Pyramid of Amanishakheto
• Jewelry of Kandake Amanishakheto
• Copy of relief from Naqa depicting Amanitore (second from left), Natakamani (second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headed Apedemak.
• The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BCE. National Museum of Sudan.
• Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia
• The Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly Djer, over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BCE.

See also

• Kerma culture
• List_of_monarchs_of_Kerma
• Kingdom_of_Kush
• List of monarchs of Kush
• Napata
• Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
• Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
• Meroë
• Kandake, Queens of Meroe
• Nubian pyramids
• Nubiology
• Merowe Dam

Notes

1. Elshazly, Hesham. "Kerma and the royal cache". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
2. ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517055-9.
3. ^ Janice Kamrin; Adela Oppenheim. "The Land of Nubia". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2020-07-31.
4. Raue, Dietrich (2019-06-04). Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-042038-8.
5. ^ Elmar Edel: Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre, Teil 2. In: Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Nr. 5. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1964, pp. 118–119.
6. ^ Christian Leitz et al.: Lexikon der ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen, Bd. 6: H̱-s. Peeters, Leuven 2002, ISBN 90-429-1151-4, p. 697.
7. ^ Bechaus-Gerst, Marianne; Blench, Roger (2014). Kevin MacDonald (ed.). The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography – "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000). Routledge. p. 453. ISBN 978-1135434168. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
8. ^ Behrens, Peter (1986). Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 – "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch". Unesco. p. 30. ISBN 9231023764. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
9. ^ Rilly C (2010). "Recent Research on Meroitic, the Ancient Language of Sudan" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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Further reading

• Adam, William Y. (1977): Nubia: Corridor to Africa, London.
• Bell, Herman (2009): Paradise Lost: Nubia before the 1964 Hijra, DAL Group.
• "Black Pharaohs", National Geographic, Feb 2008
• Bulliet et al. (2001): Nubia, The Earth and Its Peoples, pp. 70–71, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston.
• Drower M. (1970): Nubia A Drowning Land, London: Longmans.
• Emberling, Geoff (2011): Nubia: Ancient Kingdoms of Africa. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World.
• Fisher, Marjorie, et al. (2012): Ancient Nubia: African Kingdoms on the Nile. The American University in Cairo Press.
• Hassan, Yusuf Fadl (1973): The Arabs and the Sudan, Khartoum.
• Jennings, Anne (1995) The Nubians of West Aswan: Village Women in the Midst of Change, Lynne Reinner Publishers.
• O'Connor, David (1993): Ancient Nubia: Egypt's Rival in Africa, Philadelphia, The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
• Thelwall, Robin (1978): "Lexicostatistical relations between Nubian, Daju and Dinka", Études nubiennes: colloque de Chantilly, 2–6 juillet 1975, 265–286.
• Thelwall, Robin (1982) 'Linguistic Aspects of Greater Nubian History', in Ehret, C. & Posnansky, M. (eds.) The Archeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. Berkeley/Los Angeles, 39–56.
• Török, László (1997): The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Brill Academic Publishers.
• Valbelle, Dominique, and Bonnet, Charles (2006): The Nubian Pharaohs. New York: The American University in Cairo Press.

External links

Media related to Nubia at Wikimedia Commons

• African Kingdoms
• Ancient Sudan Website
• Racism and the Rediscovery of Ancient Nubia
• Medieval Sai Project
• "Journey to Ethiopia, Eastern Sudan, and Nigritia" was written by Pierre Trémaux in 1862-63. It features extensive descriptions and drawings of Nubia.
• 1960s Nubia Scrapbook
• Nubian Foundation for Preserving a Cultural Heritage

• Misplaced Pages articles needing copy edit from August 2020
• Nubia
• History of Nubia
• Ancient peoples
• Nubian people
• Historical regions
• Ancient Greek geography-East Africa