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Revision as of 20:36, 7 October 2020 editBrownHairedGirl (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, File movers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers2,942,733 editsm @Ohconfucius: Disable the categories on this page while it is still a draft, per WP:DRAFTNOCAT/WP:USERNOCAT (using Draft no cat v1.5). The easiest way to do this is by converting them to links, by adding a colon: "[[Category:" → "[[:Category:"← Previous edit Revision as of 10:43, 11 October 2020 edit undoOhconfucius (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers328,947 edits ←Replaced content with ''''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|p|ən|h|aʊ|.|ər}};<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|...'Tag: ReplacedNext edit →
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'''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|p|ən|h|aʊ|.|ər}};<ref>{{citation|last=Wells|first=John C.|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈaʁtʊʁ ˈʃoːpn̩haʊ̯ɐ|lang|De-Arthur Schopenhauer2.ogg}}; 22 February 1788&nbsp;– 21 September 1860) was a German ]. He is best known for his 1818 work '']'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the ] world as the product of a blind and insatiable ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|page=|url=https://archive.org/details/essaysaphorisms00scho/page/23}}</ref><ref>The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopenhauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. {{ISBN|978-0-19-861248-3}}.</ref> Building on the ] of ], Schopenhauer developed an ] metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of ].<ref name=WWR3>'']'', vol. 3, Ch. 50.</ref><ref name=Jacquette>{{cite book|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-04406-6|editor=Dale Jacquette|page=162|quote=For Kant, the mathematical sublime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer's atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant's distinction between the dynamical and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant's.}}</ref> He was among the first thinkers in ] to share and affirm significant tenets of ], such as ], denial of the ], and the notion of the ].<ref>See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer's philosophy by ]: ''Schopenhauer's Compass. An Introduction to Schopenhauer's Philosophy and its Origins''. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 ({{ISBN|978-3-906000-03-9}})</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the History of Psychology|edition=6th|year=2009|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-50621-8|last=Hergenhahn |first=B. R.|page=216|quote=Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had been part of several great religions; for example, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.}}<!--|accessdate=2 September 2012--></ref> His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Essays and Aphorisms|year=2004|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-044227-4|author=Arthur Schopenhauer|pages=|quote=…but there has been none who tried with so great a show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic outlook is ''justified'', that life itself is really bad. It is to this end that Schopenhauer’s metaphysic of will and idea exists.|url=https://archive.org/details/essaysaphorisms00scho/page/22}}</ref><ref>'''' – audiobook from ].</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2|year=2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-387-71801-9|editor1=David A. Leeming |editor2=Kathryn Madden |editor3=Stanton Marlan |page=824|quote=A more accurate statement might be that for a German—rather than a French or British writer of that time—Schopenhauer was an honest and open atheist.}}<!--|accessdate=2 September 2012--></ref>
{{other uses}}
{{short description|Star in the constellation Orion}}
{{Starbox begin
| name = Rigel
}}
{{Starbox image
| image =
{{Location mark
| image = Orion constellation map.svg | width = 280
| alt = Map of the constellation Orion | float = center
| mark = Red circle.svg | mark_width = 15
| x = 730 | y = 742
}}
| caption = Rigel in the constellation Orion (circled)
}}
{{Starbox observe 2s
| epoch = J2000.0
| constell = ]
| pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|aɪ|dʒ|əl}}<ref name=Kunitzsch/> or {{IPAc-en|-|g|əl}}<ref name=ddc/>
| component1 = A
| ra1 = {{RA|05|14|32.27210}}<ref name=aaa474_2_653/>
| dec1 = {{DEC|−08|12|05.8981}}<ref name=aaa474_2_653/>
| appmag_v1 = 0.13<ref name=ducati/> {{nowrap|(0.05–0.18<ref name=guinan/>)}}
| component2 = BC
| ra2 = {{RA|05|14|32.049}}<ref name=DENIS/>
| dec2 = {{DEC|−08|12|14.78}}<ref name=DENIS/>
| appmag_v2 = 6.67<ref name=sanford/> {{nowrap|(7.5/7.6<ref name=WDS/>)}}
}}
{{Starbox character
| component1 = A
| type=]
| class = B8&nbsp;Ia<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/>
| b-v = −0.03<ref name=aass34_1/>
| u-b = −0.66<ref name=aass34_1/>
| variable = ]<ref name=apj2012_749_74/>
| component2 = BC
| type2=]
| class2 = B9V + B9V<ref name=msc/>
| b-v2 =
| u-b2 =
| variable2 =
}}
{{Starbox astrometry
| radial_v = {{val|17.8|0.4}}<ref name=Gontcharov/>
| prop_mo_ra = +1.31<ref name=aaa474_2_653/>
| prop_mo_dec = +0.50<ref name=aaa474_2_653/>
| parallax = 3.78
| p_error = 0.34
| parallax_footnote = <ref name=aaa474_2_653/>
| absmag_v = –7.84<ref name=schultz2011/>
}}
{{Starbox orbit
| reference = <ref name=msc/>
| name=BC
| primary=A
| period=24,000
}}
{{Starbox orbit
| reference = <ref name=sanford/>
| primary = Ba
| name = Bb
| period =
| period_unitless = 9.860 days
| axis =
| axis_unitless =
| eccentricity = 0.1
| inclination =
| node = <!--Longitude of node (in degrees)-->
| periastron = <!--Periastron epoch-->
| periarg = <!--Argument of periastron (in degrees), secondary -->
| periarg_primary = <!--Argument of periastron (in degrees), primary -->
| k1 = 25.0
| k2 = 32.6
}}
{{Starbox orbit|reference = <ref name=msc/>|primary=B|name=C|period=63}}
{{Starbox detail
| component1 = A
| age_myr = {{val|8|1}}<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/>
| metal_fe = {{val|-0.06|0.10}}<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/>
| mass = {{val|21|3}}<ref name=schultz/>
| radius = {{val|78.9|7.4}}<ref name=apj2012_747_108/>
| rotational_velocity = {{val|25|3}}<ref name=przybilla/>
| luminosity_bolometric = {{val|1.20|+0.25|-0.21}}×10<sup>5</sup><ref name=apj2012_747_108/>
| temperature = {{val|12100|150|fmt=commas}}<ref name=przybilla/>
| gravity = {{val|1.75|0.10}}<ref name=przybilla/>
}}
{{Starbox detail|no_heading=y
| component1 = Ba
| age_myr =
| metal_fe =
| mass = 3.84<ref name=msc/>
| radius =
| rotational_velocity =
| luminosity_bolometric =
| temperature =
| gravity =
| component2 = Bb
| mass2 = 2.94<ref name=msc/>
}}
{{Starbox detail|no_heading=y
| component1 = C
| age_myr =
| metal_fe =
| mass = 3.84<ref name=msc/>
}}
{{Starbox catalog
| names = ], ]&nbsp;3823, ]&nbsp;668, ]&nbsp;555,<ref name=WDS/> ]&nbsp;33,<ref name="Herschel1782"/> ]&nbsp;J05145-0812, ]&nbsp;J05145-0812<ref name="simbad"/>
| component1 = A
| names1 = Rigel, Algebar, Elgebar, ], ]&nbsp;34085, ]&nbsp;1713, ]&nbsp;24436, ]&nbsp;131907, ]-08°1063, ]&nbsp;194
| component2 = B
| names2 = Rigel B, ]&nbsp;3111
}}
{{Starbox reference
| Simbad = RIGEL|sn=Rigel
| Simbad2 = Rigel+B|sn2=Rigel B
}}
{{Starbox end}}

'''Rigel''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|aɪ|dʒ|əl}}, designated '''β Orionis''' (] to '''Beta Orionis''', abbreviated '''Beta Ori''', '''β Ori'''), is a blue ] star in the ] of ], approximately {{convert|860|ly|pc|sigfig=2|lk=on}} from Earth. Rigel is the brightest and most ] component—and the ]—of a ] of at least four ]s that appear as a single blue-white point of light to the ]. A
star of ] B8Ia, Rigel is calculated to be anywhere from 61,500 to 363,000 times ] as the Sun, and 18 to 24 times ], depending on the method and assumptions used. Its radius is over 70 times ], and its ] is {{val|12,100|ul=K|fmt=commas}}. Rigel's mass-loss due to its ] is estimated to be 10 million times more than that of the Sun. With an estimated age of 7 to 9 million years, Rigel has exhausted its core hydrogen fuel, expanded and cooled to become a supergiant. It will end its life as a ].

Rigel varies slightly in brightness, its ] ranging from 0.05 to 0.18. It is classified as an ] due to the amplitude and periodicity of its brightness variation, as well as its spectral type. Its ] is caused by pulsations in its unstable atmosphere. Rigel is generally the ] in the ] and the brightest star in Orion, though it is occasionally outshone by ], which varies over a larger range.

A triple-star system is separated from Rigel by {{val|9.5|ul=arc seconds}}. It has an apparent magnitude of 6.7, making it 1/400th as bright as Rigel. Two stars in the system can be resolved by large telescopes, and the brighter of the two is a ]. These three stars are all ], each three to four times as massive as the Sun. Rigel and the triple system orbit a common center of gravity with a period estimated to be 24,000 years. The inner stars of the triple system orbit each other every 10 days, and the outer star orbits the inner pair every 63 years. A much fainter star, separated from Rigel and the others by nearly an ], may be part of the same star system.

== Nomenclature ==
], with Rigel at bottom right, at optical wavelengths plus the Hα (]) spectral line to emphasize gas clouds]]

In 2016, the ] (IAU) included the name "Rigel" in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.<ref name="IAU-CSN"/><ref name="WGSN2018"/> According to the IAU, this proper name applies only to the primary component A of the Rigel system. In historical ], the system is listed variously as ]&nbsp;33, ]&nbsp;668, ]&nbsp;555, or ]&nbsp;3823. For simplicity, Rigel's companions are referred to as Rigel B,<ref name="WGSN2018"/> C, and D;<ref name="kalerrigel" /><ref name="garfinkle1997"/> the IAU describes such names as "useful nicknames" that are "unofficial".<ref name="WGSN2018"/> In modern comprehensive catalogs, the whole multiple star system is known as ] 05145-0812 or ] 05145–0812.<ref name=WDS/><ref name=CCDM>{{cite journal |bibcode=1994CoORB.115....1D |title=Catalogue des composantes d'etoiles doubles et multiples (CCDM) premiere edition – Catalogue of the components of double and multiple stars (CCDM) first edition |last1=Dommanget |first1=J. |last2=Nys |first2=O. |journal=Communications de l'Observatoire Royal de Belgique |volume=115 |pages=1 |year=1994 }}</ref> <!-- SIMBAD adds J; i.e. WDS J05145-0812 or CCDM J05145-0812-->

The designation of Rigel as β Orionis (] to Beta Orionis) was made by ] in 1603. The "beta" designation is commonly given to the second-brightest star in each constellation, but Rigel is almost always brighter than α Orionis (]).<ref name="schaaf"/> Astronomer ] has speculated that Rigel was designated by Bayer during a rare period when it was outshone by the variable star Betelgeuse, resulting in the latter star being designated "alpha" and Rigel designated "beta".<ref name="kalerrigel"/> Bayer did not strictly order the stars by brightness, instead grouping them by magnitude.<ref name=ridpath>{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Ridpath |title=Star Tales |chapter=Bayer's ''Uranometria'' and Bayer letters |publisher=Lutterworth Press | location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7188-2695-6 |chapter-url=http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/bayer.htm}}</ref> Rigel and Betelgeuse were both considered to be of the first magnitude class, and in Orion the stars of each class are thought to have been ordered north to south.<ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick|last= Moore|title=Brilliant Stars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWEOGwAACAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Cassell| location=London | isbn=978-0-304-34903-6}}</ref> Rigel is included in the ], but since it already has a ] it has no separate ].<ref name=baa/>

Rigel has many other ] taken from various catalogs, including the ] 19&nbsp;Orionis (19 Ori), the ] entry HR&nbsp;1713, and the ] number HD&nbsp;34085. These designations frequently appear in the scientific literature,<ref name=msc/><ref name=schultz/><ref name=markova/> but rarely in popular writing.<ref name=garfinkle1997/><ref name=burnham/>

==Observation==
Rigel is an ] star with an ] ranging from 0.05 to 0.18.<ref name=guinan/> It is typically the seventh-brightest star in the ], excluding the Sun, although occasionally fainter than Betelgeuse.<ref name=burnham/> It is fainter than ], which may also vary slightly in brightness.<ref name=Samus2017/> Rigel appears slightly blue-white and has a ] index of −0.06.<ref name="csiro"/> It contrasts strongly with reddish Betelgeuse.<ref name=DK/>

] every year at ] on 12 December, and at 9 pm on 24 January, Rigel is visible on winter evenings in the ] and on summer evenings in the ].<ref name="schaaf"/> In the Southern Hemisphere, Rigel is the first bright star of Orion visible as the constellation rises.<ref name=ellyard/> The star is a vertex of the "]", an ] that includes ], Capella, ], ], and ]. Rigel is a prominent ], being easily located and readily visible in all the world's oceans (the exception is the area north of the ]).<ref name=kerigan/>

=== Spectroscopy ===
Rigel's ] is a defining point of the classification sequence for supergiants.<ref name=morgan1978/><ref name=morgan1950/> The overall spectrum is typical for a ] B class star, with strong ]s of the hydrogen ] as well as neutral helium lines and some of heavier elements such as oxygen, calcium, and magnesium.<ref name=abetti/> The ] for B8 stars is estimated from the strength and narrowness of the hydrogen spectral lines, and Rigel is assigned to the ] class Ia.<ref name=mkk/> Variations in the spectrum have resulted in the assignment of different classes to Rigel, such as B8 Ia, B8 Iab, and B8 Iae.<ref name=schultz/><ref name=bally/>

As early as 1888, the heliocentric ] of Rigel, as estimated from the ]s of its spectral lines, was seen to vary. This was confirmed and interpreted at the time as being due to a spectroscopic companion with a period of about 22 days.<ref name=plaskett/> The radial velocity has since been measured to vary by about {{val|10|ul=km/s}} around a mean of {{val|21.5|u=km/s}}.<ref name=morrison/>

In 1933, the ] line in Rigel's spectrum was seen to be unusually weak and shifted {{val|0.1|ul=nm}} towards shorter wavelengths, while there was a narrow ] about {{val|1.5|u=nm}} to the long wavelength side of the main absorption line.<ref name=struve/> This is now known as a ] after a star that shows this feature strongly in its spectrum. It is associated with ] where there is simultaneously emission from a dense wind close to the star and absorption from circumstellar material expanding away from the star.<ref name=struve/>

The unusual Hα line profile is observed to vary unpredictably. Around a third of the time it is a normal absorption line. About a quarter of the time it is a double-peaked line, that is, an absorption line with an emission core or an emission line with an absorption core. About a quarter of the time it has a P Cygni profile; most of the rest of the time the line has an inverse P Cygni profile, where the emission component is on the short wavelength side of the line. Rarely, there is a pure emission Hα line.<ref name=morrison/><!-- cites 5 previous sentences --> The line profile changes are interpreted as variations in the quantity and velocity of material being expelled from the star. Occasional very high-velocity outflows have been inferred, and, more rarely, infalling material. The overall picture is one of large ] arising from the ] and driven by magnetic fields.<ref name=israelian/>

=== Variability ===
Rigel has been known to vary in brightness since at least 1930. The small amplitude of Rigel's brightness variation requires ] or ] to be reliably detected. This brightness variation has no obvious period. Observations over 18 nights in 1984 showed variations at red, blue, and yellow wavelengths of up to 0.13 magnitudes on timescales of a few hours to several days, but again no clear period. Rigel's ] varies slightly, but this is not significantly correlated with its brightness variations.<ref name=guinan1985/>

From analysis of '']'' satellite photometry, Rigel is identified as belonging to the ] class of variable stars,<ref name="waelkens 1998"/> defined as "non-radially pulsating supergiants of the Bep–AepIa spectral types".<ref name=Samus2017/> In those spectral types, the 'e' indicates that it displays emission lines in its spectrum, while the 'p' means it has an unspecified spectral peculiarity. Alpha Cygni type variables are generally considered to be irregular<ref name=AAVSOvartyps/> or have ]s.<ref name=vangenderen/> Rigel was added to the General Catalogue of Variable Stars in the 74th name-list of variable stars on the basis of the Hipparcos photometry,<ref name=IBVS/> which showed variations with a photographic amplitude of 0.039 magnitudes and a possible period of 2.075 days.<ref name=lefevre/> Rigel was observed with the Canadian ] satellite for nearly 28 days in 2009. Milli-magnitude variations were observed, and gradual changes in flux suggest the presence of long-period pulsation modes.<ref name=apj2012_747_108/>

=== Mass loss ===
From observations of the variable Hα spectral line, Rigel's mass-loss rate due to stellar wind is estimated be {{val|1.5|0.4|e=−7}} solar masses per year ({{solar mass|link=n}}/yr)—around 10 million times more than the mass-loss rate from the ].<ref name=chesneau2010/> More detailed optical and ] infrared spectroscopic observations, together with ] interferometry, were taken from 2006 to 2010. Analysis of the Hα and ] line profiles, and measurement of the regions producing the lines, show that Rigel's stellar wind varies greatly in structure and strength. Loop and arm structures were also detected within the wind. Calculations of mass loss from the Hγ line give {{val|9.4|0.9|e=−7|u={{solar mass}}/yr}} in 2006-7 and {{val|7.6|1.1|e=−7|u={{solar mass}}/yr}} in 2009–10. Calculations using the Hα line give lower results, around {{val|1.5|e=−7|u={{solar mass}}/yr}}. The terminal wind velocity is {{val|300|u=km/s}}.<ref name=chesneau2014/> It is estimated that Rigel has lost around 3 solar masses ({{solar mass}}) since beginning life as a star of {{val|24|3|u={{solar mass}}}} 7 to 9 million years ago.<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/>

==Distance==
] ] in ]. Rigel B is not visible in the glare of the main star.]]
Rigel's distance from the Sun is somewhat uncertain, different estimates being obtained by different methods. The 2007 ] of Rigel's ] is {{val|3.78|0.34|ul=mas}}, giving a distance of {{convert|863|ly|pc|abbr=off}} with a ] of about 9%.<ref name=aaa474_2_653/> Rigel B, usually considered to be physically associated with Rigel and at the same distance, has a ] parallax of {{val|2.9186|0.0761|u=mas}}, suggesting a distance around {{convert|340|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}}. However, the measurements for this object may be unreliable.<ref name=dr2b/>

Indirect distance estimation methods have also been employed. For example, Rigel is believed to be in a region of ], its radiation illuminating several nearby clouds. Most notable of these is the 5°-long ] (Witch Head Nebula),<ref name=Guieu2010/><ref name="Jedicke1992"/> located at an ] of 2.5° from the star,<ref name=Guieu2010/> or a projected distance of {{convert|12|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}} away.<ref name="kalerrigel"/> From measures of other nebula-embedded stars, IC&nbsp;2118's distance is estimated to be {{convert|291|±|2|pc|ly|0|abbr=off|order=flip}}.<ref name=Kounkel2018/>

Rigel is an outlying member of the ], which is located at a distance of up to {{convert|500|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}} from Earth. It is a member of the loosely defined ], somewhat closer at {{convert|360|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}}.<ref name=markova/><ref name=racine/> Rigel is thought to be considerably closer than most of the members of Orion OB1 and the ]. Betelgeuse and ] lie at a similar distance to Rigel, although Betelgeuse is a ] with a complex history and might have originally formed in the main body of the association.<ref name=bally/>

== Stellar system ==
<div style="float:left; width:240px; border:solid black 1px; text-align: center; margin: 8px; padding: 4px; font-size: 90%;">
{{chart/start}}
{{chart|border=1| |, |S1| |S1='''Rigel''' }}
{{chart|border=0| |! |PA|PA=Separation=9.5″<br />Period=24,000&nbsp;y }}
{{chart|border=1|-|( | |, |- |S2|S2='''Ba''' }}
{{chart|border=0| |! |, |( |PB|PB=Separation={{val|0.58|u=mas}}<br />Period={{Val|9.860|u=days}} }}
{{chart|border=1| |! |! |` |- |S3|S3='''Bb''' }}
{{chart|border=0| |` |( |PC|PC=Separation={{Val|0.1|u=arcsecond}}<br />Period=63&nbsp;y }}
{{chart|border=1| | |` |S4| |S4='''C''' }}
{{chart/end}}
] for Rigel's components<ref name=msc/>
<!--This hierarchy structure separates stars into subsystems which are assumed to be gravitationally attached. As some stars in the Rigel system have little evidence of orbital motion, which is questioned by some astronomers, we cannot say it is a 'Hierarchy of orbits'. -->
</div>

The ] of which Rigel is a part has at least four components. Rigel (sometimes called Rigel A to distinguish from the other components) has a ], which is likely a close triple-star system. A fainter star at a wider separation might be a fifth component of the Rigel system.

] discovered Rigel to be a visual double star on 1 October 1781, cataloguing it as star 33 in the "second class of double stars" in his Catalogue of Double Stars,<ref name="Herschel1782"/> usually abbreviated to H&nbsp;II&nbsp;33, or as H&nbsp;2&nbsp;33 in the Washington Double Star Catalogue.<ref name="WDS"/> ] first measured the relative position of the companion in 1822, cataloguing the visual pair as Σ 668.<ref name=FGWStruve/><ref name="Webb1917"/> The secondary star is often referred to as Rigel B or β Orionis B. The angular separation of Rigel B from Rigel A is 9.5 arc seconds to its south along ] 204°.<ref name="WDS"/><ref name=bakich/> Although not particularly faint at ] 6.7, the overall difference in brightness from Rigel A (about 6.6 magnitudes or 440 times fainter) makes it a challenging target for telescope apertures smaller than {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=1}}.<ref name=sanford/>

At Rigel's estimated distance, Rigel B's ] from Rigel A is over 2,200&nbsp;]s (AU). Since its discovery, there has been no sign of orbital motion, although both stars share a similar ].<ref name="Jedicke1992" /><ref name=sb9/> The pair would have an estimated orbital period of 24,000&nbsp;years.<ref name=msc/> Gaia Data Release 2 (DR2) contains a somewhat unreliable parallax for Rigel B, placing it at about {{convert|340|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}}, further away than the Hipparcos distance for Rigel, but similar to the Taurus-Orion R1 association. There is no parallax for Rigel in Gaia DR2. The Gaia DR2 proper motions for Rigel B and the Hipparcos proper motions for Rigel are both small, although not quite the same.<ref name=dr2b/>

In 1871, ] suspected Rigel B to be a binary system, and in 1878, he resolved it into two components.<ref name="burnham1900"/> This visual companion is designated as component C (Rigel C), with a measured separation from component B that varies from less than {{val|0.1|u="}} to around {{val|0.3|u="}}.<ref name=WDS/><ref name="burnham1900"/> In 2009, ] showed the two almost identical components separated by {{val|0.124|u="}},<ref name=mason/> with visual magnitudes of 7.5 and 7.6, respectively.<ref name=WDS/> Their estimated orbital period is 63&nbsp;years.<ref name=msc/> Burnham listed the Rigel multiple system as β&nbsp;555 in his ]<ref name="burnham1900"/> or BU&nbsp;555 in modern use.<ref name=WDS/>

Component B is a double-lined ] system, which shows two sets of ]s combined within its single ]. Periodic changes observed in relative positions of these lines indicate an orbital period of 9.86&nbsp;days. The two spectroscopic components Rigel Ba and Rigel Bb cannot be resolved in optical telescopes but are known to both be hot stars of spectral type around B9. This spectroscopic binary, together with the close visual component Rigel C, is likely a physical triple-star system,<ref name=sb9/> although Rigel C cannot be detected in the spectrum, which is inconsistent with its observed brightness.<ref name=sanford/>

In 1878, Burnham found another possibly associated star of approximately 13th magnitude. He listed it as component D of β&nbsp;555,<ref name="burnham1900"/> although it is unclear whether it is physically related or a coincidental alignment. Its 2017 separation from Rigel was {{val|44.5|ul="}}, almost due north at a position angle of 1°.<ref name=WDS/> Gaia DR2 finds it to be a 12th magnitude sunlike star<!-- Does "orange dwarf" count as "sunlike"? --> at approximately the same distance as Rigel.<ref name=dr2d/> Likely a ], this star would have an orbital period of around 250,000 years, if it is part of the Rigel system.<ref name="kalerrigel"/> A spectroscopic companion to Rigel was reported on the basis of radial velocity variations, and its orbit was even calculated, but subsequent work suggests that the star does not exist and that observed pulsations are intrinsic to Rigel itself.<ref name=sb9/>

== Physical characteristics ==
]]]
Rigel is a ] that has exhausted the hydrogen fuel in its core, expanded and cooled as it moved away from the ] across the upper part of the ].<ref name=guinan/><ref name=seeds/> When it was on the main sequence, its ] would have been around {{val|30,000|fmt=commas|ul=K}}.<ref name=saio/> Rigel's complex variability at ] is caused by ] similar to those of ]. Further observations of radial velocity variations indicate that it simultaneously oscillates in at least 19 non-radial modes with periods ranging from about 1.2 to 74 days.<ref name=apj2012_747_108/>

Estimation of many physical characteristics of blue supergiant stars, including Rigel, is challenging due to their rarity and uncertainty about how far they are from the Sun. As such, their characteristics are mainly estimated from theoretical ].<ref name=demarque2008/> Its effective temperature can be estimated from the spectral type and color to be around {{val|12,100|fmt=commas|ul=K}}.<ref name=przybilla/> A mass of {{val|21|3|u=solar mass}} at an age of {{val|8|1}} million years has been estimated by comparing evolutionary tracks, while atmospheric modeling from the spectrum gives a mass of {{solar mass|{{val|24|8}}}}.<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/>

Although Rigel is often considered the most luminous star within 1,000 light-years of the Sun,<ref name="schaaf" /><ref name=burnham/> its energy output is poorly known. Using the Hipparcos distance of {{convert|264|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}}, the estimated relative luminosity for Rigel is about 120,000 times that of the Sun ({{solar luminosity|link=y}}),<ref name=apj2012_747_108/> but another recently published distance of {{convert|360|±|40|pc|ly|abbr=off|order=flip}} suggests an even higher luminosity of {{solar luminosity|219,000}}.<ref name=aaa445_3_1099/> Other calculations based on theoretical stellar evolutionary models of Rigel's atmosphere give luminosities anywhere between {{solar luminosity|83,000}} and {{solar luminosity|363,000}},<ref name=markova/> while summing the ] from historical photometry with the Hipparcos distance suggests a luminosity as low as {{val|61515|11486|u={{solar luminosity}}|fmt=commas}}.<ref name=baines/> A 2018 study using the ] measured the ] as {{val|2.526|u=mas}}. After correcting for ], the angular diameter is found to be {{val|2.606|0.009|u=mas}}, yielding a radius of {{solar radius|{{val|74.1|+6.1|-7.3}}|link=y}}.<ref name=baines/> An older measurement of the angular diameter gives {{val|2.75|0.01|u=mas}},<ref name=auf/> equivalent to a radius of {{solar radius|78.9}} at {{val|264|u=pc}}.<ref name=apj2012_747_108/> These radii are calculated assuming the Hipparcos distance of {{val|264|u=pc}}; adopting a distance of {{val|360|u=pc}} leads to a significantly larger size.<ref name=chesneau2014/>

Due to their closeness to each other and ambiguity of the spectrum, little is known about the intrinsic properties of the members of the Rigel BC triple system. All three stars seem to be near equally hot ]s that are 3 to 4 times as massive as the Sun.<ref name=msc/>

== Evolution ==
] models suggest that the pulsations of Rigel are powered by nuclear reactions in a hydrogen-burning shell that is at least partially non-convective. These pulsations are stronger and more numerous in stars that have evolved through a ] phase and then increased in temperature to again become a blue supergiant. This is due to the decreased mass and increased levels of fusion products at the surface of the star.<ref name=saio/>

Rigel is likely to be ] in its core.<ref name=apj2012_749_74 /> Due to strong convection of helium produced in the core while Rigel was on the main sequence and in the hydrogen-burning shell since it became a supergiant, the fraction of helium at the surface has increased from 26.6% when the star formed to 32% now. The surface abundances of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen seen in the spectrum are compatible with a post-red supergiant star only if its internal convection zones are modeled using non-homogeneous chemical conditions known as the ].<ref name=saio/>

Rigel is expected to eventually end its stellar life as a type II ].<ref name=apj2012_749_74/> It is one of the closest known potential supernova progenitors to Earth,<ref name=apj2012_747_108/> and would be expected to have a maximum apparent magnitude of around {{val|-11}} (about the same brightness as a quarter Moon or around 300 times brighter than Venus ever gets.)<ref name=guinan/>

==Etymology and cultural significance==
]'s '']''. The foot on the left is annotated ''rijl al-jauza al-yusra'', the Arabic name from which ''Rigel'' is derived.{{efn|1=Al-Sufi's book was translated into Latin and other European languages. Al-Sufi himself planned the figures, two for each constellation: one shows how they appear to an observer looking up toward the heavens; the other how they appear to the observer looking down upon a celestial globe.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Casagrande-Kim|editor-first1=Roberta|editor-last2=Thrope|editor-first2=Samuel|editor-last3=Ukeles|editor-first3=Raquel|title=Romance and Reason: Islamic Transformations of the Classical Past|chapter=Mathematics, Astronomy, and Astrology|last1=Langermann|first1=Y. Tzvi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5fJIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|year=2018|publisher=Princeton University Press| location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-691-18184-4|pages=92–93}}</ref> }} |alt=A sheet of discolored parchment on which is depected a human figure overlaid on a pattern of stars with accompanying Arabic script]]
The earliest known recording of the name ''Rigel'' is in the '']'' of 1521. It is derived from the ] name ''{{transl|ar|Rijl Jauzah al Yusrā}}'', "the left leg (foot) of Jauzah" (i.e. ''rijl'' meaning "leg, foot"),<ref name=allen/> which can be traced to the 10th century.<ref name="KUNITZSCH1959"/> "Jauzah" was a proper name for Orion; an alternative Arabic name was {{lang|ar|رجل الجبار}} ''{{transl|ar|rijl al-jabbār}}'', "the foot of the great one", from which stems the rarely used variant names ''Algebar'' or ''Elgebar''. The ''Alphonsine tables'' saw its name split into "Rigel" and "Algebar", with the note, ''et dicitur Algebar. Nominatur etiam Rigel.'' {{efn|1=lit."...and it is called Algebar. It is also named Rigel"}}.<ref name=Kunitzsch86/> Alternate spellings from the 17th century include ''Regel'' by Italian astronomer ], ''Riglon'' by German astronomer ], and ''Rigel Algeuze'' or ''Algibbar'' by English scholar ].<ref name="allen"/>

With the constellation representing the mythological Greek huntsman ], Rigel is his knee or (as its name suggests) foot; with the nearby star ] marking Orion's footstool.<ref name="schaaf"/> Rigel is presumably the star known as "]'s toe" in ].<ref name=cleasby/> In the Caribbean, Rigel represented the severed leg of the folkloric figure ''Trois Rois'', himself represented by the three stars of Orion's Belt. The leg had been severed with a cutlass by the maiden ''Bįhi'' (Sirius).<ref name=taylor/> The ] of southern ] knew it as ''tunsel'' ("little woodpecker").<ref name=milbraith/>

Rigel was known as ''Yerrerdet-kurrk'' to the ] ] of southeastern Australia, and held to be the mother-in-law of ''Totyerguil'' (]). The distance between them signified the taboo preventing a man from approaching his mother-in-law.<ref name=mudrooroo/> The indigenous ] people of northwestern Victoria named Rigel as ''Collowgullouric Warepil''.<ref name=hamacher/> The ] of northern Australia know Rigel as the Red ] Leader ''Unumburrgu'' and chief conductor of ceremonies in a songline when Orion is high in the sky. ], the river, marks a line of stars in the sky leading to it, and the other stars of Orion are his ceremonial tools and entourage. Betelgeuse is ''Ya-jungin'' "Owl Eyes Flicking", watching the ceremonies.<ref name=harney/>

The ] of New Zealand named Rigel as '']'', said to be a daughter of ''Rehua'' (]), the chief of all-stars.<ref name=parker/> Its ] presages the appearance of '']'' (the ]) in the dawn sky, marking the Māori New Year in late May or early June. The ] of the ], as well as some Maori groups in New Zealand, mark the start of their New Year with Rigel rather than the Pleiades.<ref name="kelley"/> ''Puaka'' is a ] used in the South Island.<ref name="Best22"/>

In ], the Minamoto or ] chose Rigel and its white color as its symbol, calling the star ''Genji-boshi'' ({{lang|ja|源氏星}}), while the Taira or ] adopted Betelgeuse and its red color. The two powerful families fought the ]; the stars were seen as facing off against each other and only kept apart by the three stars of ].<ref name="RENSHAW1"/><ref name=daijirin/><ref name=hojiri/>

==In modern culture==
{{see also|Rigel in fiction}}
The ] was originally a Norwegian ship, built in Copenhagen in 1924. It was requisitioned by the Germans during ] and sunk in 1944 while being used to transport prisoners of war.<ref name=minnehallen/> Two US Navy ships have borne the name ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Silverstone |first=Paul H. |authorlink = |title =U.S. Warships of World War II |publisher =Doubleday & Company |date =1968 |location =Garden City, New York |page =283 |isbn =}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/our-collections/photography/numerical-list-of-images/nhhc-series/nh-series/NH-01000/NH-1874.html |title=NH 1874 USS RIGEL (AD-13), 1922-46 |publisher=
Naval History and Heritage Command |accessdate=2020-06-14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/our-collections/photography/numerical-list-of-images/nara-series/80-g/80-G-1010000/80-g-1017252-uss-rigel--af-58-.html |title=80-G-1017252 USS Rigel (AF-58) |publisher=
Naval History and Heritage Command |accessdate=2020-06-14 }}</ref> The ] was a ] program for the ] that was cancelled in 1953 before reaching deployment.<ref name=yenne/>

The ] are a chain of small islands in ], renamed after originally being called Utskjera. They were given their current name as Rigel was used as an ].<ref name=skerries/> ], elevation {{convert|1910|m|ft|abbr=on}}, is in Antarctica.<ref name=mountrigel/>
{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

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<ref name=vartanyan>{{cite journal|bibcode=2018MNRAS.477.3091V|title=Revival of the Fittest: Exploding Core-Collapse Supernovae|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=477 |number=3|pages=3091–3108|last1=Vartanyan|first1=David|last2=Burrows|first2=Adam|first3=David |last3=Radice |first4=M Aaron |last4=Skinner |first5=Joshua |last5=Dolence|year=2018|doi=10.1093/mnras/sty809|arxiv=1801.08148}}</ref>
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}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Rigel}}
* {{APOD |date=2018 January 15 |title=Rigel and the Witch Head Nebula}}
* {{APOD |date=2015 November 16 |title=A Blazing Fireball between the Orion Nebula and Rigel }}
* Astronomical Society of Southern Africa
* AAVSO

{{Stars of Orion}}
{{Sky|05|14|32.272|-|08|12|05.91|800}}

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Revision as of 10:43, 11 October 2020

Arthur Schopenhauer (/ˈʃoʊpənhaʊ.ər/; German: [ˈaʁtʊʁ ˈʃoːpn̩haʊ̯ɐ] ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the product of a blind and insatiable metaphysical will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. He was among the first thinkers in Western philosophy to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as asceticism, denial of the self, and the notion of the world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism.

  1. Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180
  2. Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. Penguin Classics. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4.
  3. The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. 'Schopenhauer': Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 1298. ISBN 978-0-19-861248-3.
  4. The World as Will and Representation, vol. 3, Ch. 50.
  5. Dale Jacquette, ed. (2007). Schopenhauer, Philosophy and the Arts. Cambridge University Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-521-04406-6. For Kant, the mathematical sublime, as seen for example in the starry heavens, suggests to imagination the infinite, which in turn leads by subtle turns of contemplation to the concept of God. Schopenhauer's atheism will have none of this, and he rightly observes that despite adopting Kant's distinction between the dynamical and mathematical sublime, his theory of the sublime, making reference to the struggles and sufferings of struggles and sufferings of Will, is unlike Kant's.
  6. See the book-length study about oriental influences on the genesis of Schopenhauer's philosophy by Urs App: Schopenhauer's Compass. An Introduction to Schopenhauer's Philosophy and its Origins. Wil: UniversityMedia, 2014 (ISBN 978-3-906000-03-9)
  7. Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology (6th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-495-50621-8. Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, he realized that his philosophy of denial had been part of several great religions; for example, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
  8. Arthur Schopenhauer (2004). Essays and Aphorisms. Penguin Classics. pp. 22–36. ISBN 978-0-14-044227-4. …but there has been none who tried with so great a show of learning to demonstrate that the pessimistic outlook is justified, that life itself is really bad. It is to this end that Schopenhauer's metaphysic of will and idea exists.
  9. Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox.
  10. David A. Leeming; Kathryn Madden; Stanton Marlan, eds. (2009). Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, Volume 2. Springer. p. 824. ISBN 978-0-387-71801-9. A more accurate statement might be that for a German—rather than a French or British writer of that time—Schopenhauer was an honest and open atheist.