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Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as beliefs in human potential. The basic ideas of NLP were developed around 1973 by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson.

NLP is based on the idea that our mind, body and language interact as one to govern our perception and behavior; and hence our perception and behavior can be developed by applying practical and simple techniques to our mind, body and language. NLP teaches that a person's language and behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are highly structured, and that this structure can be 'modeled' or copied into a reproducible form. NLP teaches that a person can 'model' the more successful parts of their own behavior in order to reproduce it in areas where they are less successful. Also 'modeling' another person can effect belief and behavior changes to improve functioning. NLP teaches that if someone excels in some activity, it can be learned how specifically they do it by observing certain important details of their behaviour. NLP embodies several techniques which users claim can effect changes in the way people think, learn and communicate.

Despite its popularity, NLP continues to be controversial, particularly for use in therapy, and after three decades of existence remains scientifically unvalidated.

History and development

Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field, and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. The early focus of NLP was the study of the language patterns and techniques of noted and successful therapists in a variety of disciplines. NLP continues to be used as an adjunct by some therapists in other therapeutic disciplines. It also developed as a therapy in its own right. Subsequently techniques have been applied to a variety of fields. NLP practitioners deal with personal issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to dealing with stage fright and simple phobias, to self-help, depression, or addiction. More generally they deal with peak performance assistance in business or sports and communications and motivation. NLP and its techniques have been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult learning, and management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology and other applications outside of mainstream.

1970s: Founding and early development

It was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s and 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Alfred Korzybski had influenced Gregory Bateson and several schools of thought, including those at Esalen Institute in California. Most notably, the idea that 'the map is not the territory' and ideas about human modeling were adopted by Bandler and Grinder. From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

1980s: New developers, new styles, and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. During the 1980s John Grinder and Judith Delozier collaborated to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP. Richard Bandler also published new processes with submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis as in Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, began mass marketing products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP. Michael Hall offered NLP with Neurosemantics and Tad James offered NLP with Time Line Therapy. New and influential developers Judith DeLozier, and Connirae and Steve Andreas also emerged during this time. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment. Thereafter, except for sporadic articles on NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark. NLP critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation.". Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally whether this was a generic term rather than intellectual property. The UK High Court found in favor of Clarkson, and that NLP was deemed to be a generic term. Partly due to the legally-driven fragmentation of NLP practice, and partly due to lack of a defining and regulating structure to oversee the rapidly growing field, it seemed for a time that NLP could be (and was) promoted as the "latest thing", a panacea, or universal miracle solution. Dubious models and practices burgeoned, in parallel with bona fide. For a number of these new practices, profit, marketability or New Age appeal proved a stronger motive than realism or ethics.

2000s: Legal settlement, government regulation, and new fields

Although the NLP community became splintered, most NLP material acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s. Around 2001, the law suits were finally settled with Bandler and Grinder formally agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Following attempts in the 1990s to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in countries such as the UK, some governments began certifying NLP course providers and their course, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP":, the training standards and quality differ greatly. Since 1978, NLP practitioner certification had been set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The length of training varies from a short hobby course, to a 20 day course, to longer courses for trainers and professionals. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days, for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over at least nine months to achieve a professional level of competence.

Concepts and methods

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is based on the idea that with our senses we are only able to perceive a small part of the world. Our view of the world is filtered by our experience, beliefs, values and assumptions. We act and feel based on our perception of the world rather than the real world.

Internal 'maps' of the world

NLP calls each individuals perception of the world their 'map'. NLP teaches that our mind-body (neuro) and what we say (language) all interact together to form our perceptions of the world, or maps (programming). Specifically, our maps of the world determine our feelings and our behavior. Therefore, impoverished - and unrealistic - maps can restrict our choices and result in problems. As an approach to therapy it involves recognizing unhelpful or destructive patterns of thinking based on people's impoverished maps of the world, then modifying or replacing these patterns with more useful or helpful ones. There is also an emphasis on ways to change internal representations or maps of the world in order to increase behavioral flexibility.

Modeling

"Modeling" in NLP is the process of adopting the behaviors, language, strategies and beliefs of another. The founders, Bandler and Grindler started by analysing in detail and then searching for what made successful psychotherapists different to their peers. The patterns discovered were adapted for general communication and effecting change. As an approach to learning it can involve modeling exceptional people, or understanding the pattern of one's own behaviors in order to model oneself. NLP modeling methods are designed to unconsciously assimilate the tacit knowledge to learn what the master is doing of which the master is not aware. As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful." Einspruch & Forman 1985 state that "when modeling another person the modeler suspends his or her own beliefs and adopts the structure of the physiology, language, strategies, and beliefs of the person being modeled. After the modeler is capable of behaviorally reproducing the patterns (of behavior, communication, and behavioral outcomes) of the one being modeled, a process occurs in which the modeler modifies and readopts his or her own belief system while also integrating the beliefs of the one who was modeled."

Meta model

In NLP the Meta-model is a set of specifying questions or language patterns designed to challenge and expand the limits to a person's model or 'map' of the world. When a person speaks about a problem or situation their choice of words will distort, generalize, and delete portions of their experience. By listening to and responding to these language patterns the practitioner seeks to help the client to recover the information that is under the surface of the words. In business or therapy, this might be used to help a client elaborate the details of problems, proposals and objectives by asking about the important information that has been left out. For example, a person states that "we need to make a decision", a response could be to ask who will be actually be doing the deciding and how exactly the process of deciding (from decision) would take place. The word we does not specify who is doing the action. Also, the word 'decision' is a process which had been turned into a abstract noun. In that statement there was also an implied necessity (from need) which could also be challenged to find out if it really is a necessity.

Milton model

The milton model is based on the language patterns for hypnotic communication of Milton Erickson, a noted hypnotherapist. The milton model has three primary uses: Firstly, to assist in building and maintaining rapport with the client. Secondly, to allow for interpretation in the words offered to the client. Thirdly, to overload and distract the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be cultivated.

1. Rapport

The first aspect, building rapport, is done by 'pacing' (pacing the clients beliefs) and leading. Used in isolation the meta model can be confronting so the milton model is used to soften it. It also includes non-verbal rapport which is achieved through matching body posture, breathing or other automatic behaviors.

2. Indirect communication

The second aspect of the milton model is that it is purposely vague and metaphoric and is used to soften the meta model and make indirect suggestions. A direct suggestion merely states what is wanted, for example, "when you are in front of the audience you will not feel nervous". In contrast an indirect suggestion is less authoritative and leaves an opportunity for interpretation, for example, "When you are in front of the audience, you might find yourself feeling ever more confident". This example follows the indirect method leaving both the specific time and level of self-confidence unspecified. It might be made even more indirect by saying, "when you come to a decision to speak in public, you may find it appealing how your feelings have changed." The choice of speaking in front of the audience, the exact time and the likely responses to the whole process are framed but the imprecise language gives the client the opportunity to fill in the finer details.

3. Overloading conscious attention

The third aspect of the milton model is that it uses ambiguity in language and non-verbal communication. This might also be combined with vagueness, which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct. The use of ambiguity and vagueness increases the workload on the conscious mind and gives the unconscious mind the opportunity to prosper.

Representational systems

In NLP, representational systems are seen as our ways of perceiving the world through our senses and our ways of storing the information in our minds. When people are involved in tasks, such as making conversation, describing a problem in therapy, kicking a ball or riding a horse, their representational systems, consisting of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are being activated at the same time. Many NLP techniques rely on ascertaining and manipulating the sequences of representational systems. NLP teaches that problems can occur when people get "stuck" in a preferred representational system (PRS) but others prefer to learn primarily in one system. For example when someone says, "I can't see a future for myself" then an NLP practitioner might respond using visual predicates to assist the speaker to build more positive visual representations. NLP teaches that the direction of eye movements, changes in posture, breathing and use of sensory-based predicates in language all indicate internal process.

Submodalities

Submodalities are the details of representational systems, such as size, brightness, volume, taste, proximity, intensity and other sensations. There is a variety of techniques for changing submodalities and the associated emotional state (or 'anchor'). For example someone may see their future as 'dark and cloudy' with associated emotions, but would seek through NLP to perceive, and feel it, as 'light and clear'.

Aphorisms

• The map is not the territory
• Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes
• Behind every behavior is a positive intention
• Rapport is necessary for effective communication
• There is no failure, only feedback
• Choice is better than no choice (and flexibility is the way one gets choice)
• The meaning of the communication is in the response
• People already have all the resources they need to succeed
• Multiple descriptions are better than one

Techniques

Anchoring

NLP teaches that we constantly make anchors (associations) between what we see, hear and feel and our emotional states. While in an emotional state if a person is exposed to a unique stimulus (sight, sound or touch) then a connection is made between the emotion and the unique stimulus. If the unique stimus occurs again, the emotional state will then be triggered. NLP teaches that anchors (such as a particular touch associated with a memory or state) can be deliberately created and triggered to help people access 'resourceful' or other target states. .

Swish

The standard swish pattern involves visualization of an unwanted behavior as small and dark and then switching the image with a larger, brighter version of more desirable behavior. For example switching a small dark, overflowing and disorganised in-tray for a large bright, completed, up-to-date in-tray.

Reframing

Another technique, reframing functions through "changing the way you perceive an event and so changing the meaning. When the meaning changes, responses and behaviours will also change. Reframing with language allows you to see the world in a different way and this changes the meaning. Reframing is the basis of jokes, myths, legends, fairy tales and most creative ways of thinking." There are examples in children's literature. Pollyanna would play The Glad Game whenever she felt down about life, to remind herself of the things that she could do, and not worry about the things she couldn't. Alice Mills also says that this occurs in Hans Christian Andersen's story where to the surprise of the ugly duckling, the beautiful creatures welcome and accept him; gazing at his reflection, he sees that he too is a swan.

Six step reframe

An example of reframing is found in the six-step reframe which involves distinguishing between an underlying intention and the consequent behaviors for the purpose of achieving the intention by different and more successful behaviours. It is based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses this staged process, to identify the intention and create alternative choices to satisfy that intention.

Parts integration

Parts Integration is based on the idea that different aspects of ourselves are in conflict due to different perceptions and beliefs. 'Parts integration' is the process of integrating the disparate aspects of the self by identifying and then negotiating with the separate parts to achieve resolution of internal conflict.

Classifying NLP

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Science and pseudoscience

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim NLP has scientific roots stating "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)" and go on to say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognise that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." and "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" and "In fact from the NLP standpoint, "science" is a function of systematically developing and applying a particular set of perceptual filters, criteria and cause-effect beliefs."

Grinder and Delozier (1984) argue that the epistemology of Gregory Bateson (and NLP) attempts to synthesize the overdrawn positions of empiricists (eg. David Hume and the logical positivists) and idealists (eg. Immanuel Kant and German Idealism). In Whispering in the Wind, Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it." They ask those interested to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields.

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states (as translated in Prometheus chained) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises." Levelt opined "NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming".

Drenth (1999) states "pseudo-scientists flirt with scientific terms and concepts, and suggest that they want to participate in the scientific debate, albeit in an anti-positivist manner." and Drenth (2003) uses the "movement known by the name NLP" to illustrate his descriptions of pseudoscience, stating "Unlike diagnosis, prediction of human performance or behavior, and assessment, therapy is not an (applied) scientific activity. Criteria for therapeutic activity is effectiveness, not verity;" ... "But what brings some of these therapeutic approaches into the category of pseudoscience is the claim that their presumptions are predicated on scientific understanding and scientific evidence."

Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis says that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".

In his book Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience which the Skeptical Inquirer reviewed as "failing" to contain "material that is both correct and objective", Dr. William F. Williams includes an entry on NLP wherein it is characterized by "reading" automatic changes in skin color, muscle tension, eye movements, moisture on the lips and eyes, as well as other physiological responses, the NLP practitioner uses these cues to supposedly guide the client through issues related to identity, personal beliefs, and life goals.

In their book "Introducing NLP" (2002), originally published in 1990 and endorsed by both Dilts and Grinder, O'Connor and Seymour state "NLP is the art and science of personal excellence. Art because everyone brings their unique personality and style to what they do, and this can never be captured in words or techniques. Science because there is a method and process for discovering the patterns used by outstanding individuals in any field to achieve outstanding results. This process is called modelling,...". According to them, the name 'neuro-linguistic programming' simple denotes 'neuro' as in the idea that all behaviors stem from neurological processes of the senses, 'linguistic' because we use language to order our thoughts and behaviour and to communicate and 'programming' because of the ways we choose to organise our ideas and actions..

Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and scientific approaches to the mind. It views the usage of quantitative research methods ('conclusive') in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided and advises qualitative research methods ('exploratory'). It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting qualitative research methods.

Jaap Hollander (1999) in making a number of recommendations for the field of NLP to develop better relationships with science, states that "qualitative scientific inquiry bears a striking resemblance with the process of modelling in NLP. So, NLP, after all, may not be as unscientific as it is often made out to be. Modelling, like qualitative research, uses data from naturalistic settings. Modeling also uses inductive analysis of the data. Rather than testing for the presence of predetermined patterns, the modeller looks for patterns in the observations of the expert, patterns that he or she had not consciously formulated beforehand." The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson says that Bandler and Grinder "create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction." Bateson goes on to say that "The behavioral sciences, and especially psychiatry, have always avoided theory, and it is easy to make a list of the various maneuvers whereby theory could be avoided". Grinder and Bandler "have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy." ... "We already knew that most of the premises of individual psychology were useless, and we knew that we ought to classify modes of communicating." ... "Grinder and Bandler have succeeded in making explicit the syntax of how people avoid change and, therefore, how to assist them in changing. Here they focus on verbal communication" ... and "develop a general model of communication and change involving the other modes of communication which human beings use to represent and communicate their experience."

Technology

Labouchere (2004) states that there are multiple definitons of NLP. Bandler defines NLP as "an attitude and a methodology which leaves behind a trail of techniques" whereas Grinder defines NLP as "the study of excellence and how to reproduce it" Labouchere states that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler & Grinder, 1990). While it draws on and shares common ground with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, from its inception in the 1970s it has continued to develop, refine, and apply its own unique range of concepts, models and techniques."

Sharpley (1987) states that a number of NLP techniques are worthwhile or beneficial in counselling, citing predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but that none of these techniques originated within NLP, saying "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory".

NLP teaches that each learner is a unique individual with unique needs and backgrounds and encourages students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.. According to Craft, "Neuro-linguistic Programming is best understood as a strategy which at first sight appears to draw on constructivist theories of learning. However, I have raised some problems in both the strategy itself (first), the lack of awareness of learning and performance styles, in that although it comes from the perspective that individuals respond uniquely to the world, it nevertheless offers an experiential approach to learning"

In response to Craft, NLP academics Tosey and Mathison (2003) expressed NLP in terms of the cybernetic epistemology of Gregory Bateson stating, "Early statements from the originators of NLP dismissed interest in articulating or acquiring theory, for example; `We have no idea about the "real" nature of things, and we're not particularly interested in what's "true". The function of modeling is to arrive at descriptions which are useful.' (Bandler and Grinder 1979 p.7). Bandler and Grinder's intent, perhaps, was to stay close to experience and avoid abstract discussion about truths of human experience. It seems that this stance has persisted, even if it is not shared by all leading NLP practitioners. We suggest that NLP may be regarded as a transdisciplinary (Gibbons et al 1994), in the sense that it draws on sources from academe and from elsewhere, and has been generated through application more than being deduced from axioms." They go on to state "It seems unarguable that to become regarded as academically credible there is a need for NLP to be more thoroughly theorised, particularly to consider how it relates to and differs from existing theoretical perspectives such as semiotics, phenomenology, discourse analysis, and more." Paul Tosey, University of Surrey, is the director of research project into the theory and application of NLP in teaching theory. Furthermore Mathison and Tosey (2002) add that this approach to learning and development appears similar in theory to Lev Vygotsky and constructivist learning theory and unrelated to computer programming or neuroscience.

Religiosity and spirituality

Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen J Hunt states that NLP "is a technique rather than an organised religion and is used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an "implied religiosity".(p.195). Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development citing the USNRC study which found no hard empirical evidence for its efficacy. Regarding spiritual practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don Juan in developing the double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions and rechanneling of attention and energy to more appropriate contexts. At the same time Grinder contends that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation.

David V. Barrett (2001) in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions, describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process, and notes it is sometimes used by some religious sects. He states that while "the brief biographies of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under... could be seen as similar to new eastern origin religions tracing themselves back through a progression of gurus", and that NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are sometimes found in some religions, "overall the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion."

Reception

This section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

This article is missing information about The positive reception of NLP by the public, by publishers, by clinicians, and corporations. A reception section should detail the history of how NLP has been received everywhere, not just by psychologists and scientific reviewers.. Please expand the article by making an edit requestto include this information . Further details may exist on the talk page.

Mental health practice

NLP has been coordinated within some industry associations, psychotherapy associations, and has been used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies. Labouchere et al (2002) incorporated a number of NLP behaviour change techniques (anchoring, isomorphic metaphor, goal setting) into a program for learning about and preventing the spread of AIDS. They recommended that these tools be promoted and adopted internationally. In an empirical study using a heuristic qualitative methodology the submodality change process was tested for treating grief and mourning. The study suggested that manipulating certain submodalities can help the subject shift into more resourceful state and speed the healing process.

NLP has remained an eclectic field with no inherent controls over training or a professional code of ethics. According to Eisner, NLP is based on some of Freud's most flawed thinking, and continues "There was great initial enthusiasm, but as time passed, it appears the so-called effective results have diminished or disappeared" Clinical psychologists have identified characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. Opining that proof of the validity of new practices falls on the proponents of these practices, evidence-based psychologist Lilienfield expresses concern that largely untested treatments, amongst which he includes NLP, comprise a major proportion of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals. He raises concerns about the public's overconfidence in mental health professions and the lack of scientific foundation for these professions. Evidence-based psychologist Beyerstein has expressed concern about the spread of misconceptions about how the mind works. Elich et al (1985) tested the model that proposed a relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery, and found no support for this model. He added "NLP has achieved something akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a psychological fad" (p625)". Windy Dryden and Albert Ellis (2001) exponents of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy include NLP as an example behavior change technique of "dubious validity". . Others raise concerned about the use of scientific-sounding language, exaggerated claims, a lack of peer-reviewed literature and an over-reliance on anecdotal evidence. Psychologist Margaret Singer states that "the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results, discard it and try something else". She criticizes NLP for appealing to science to raise its profile, stating that "none of the NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct"(p.172).

Research reviews

Main articles: NLP and science, List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Peer-reviewed psychological and experimental literature in NLP has been sporadic.

Sharpley (1987), coming from the positivist psychological tradition, stated that the techniques and underlying theory of NLP, as a counseling tool, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported. A literature review by Sharpley (1984) found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems (PRS) and predicate matching. Sharpley (1987) states "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data".

Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley but disputed the conclusions identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They stated "NLP is far more complex than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true evaluations of NLP" adding that NLP is difficult to test under the traditional counseling framework. Moreover the research lacked a necessary understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training and furthermore, that there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology.

Sharpley (1987) responded with more studies on the basic tenets of NLP stating "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." and also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Druckman and Swets (1988) (USNRC) found that "studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique". They also concluded matching representational systems to gain rapport was ineffective, however the idea of modeling of expert performance "merits further consideration" . In a follow up study on modeling (amongst other matters) by Swets and Bjork (1991) NLP was not included except by way of acknowledgment for the idea.

Michael Heap (1988), a researcher in hypnosis, asserted that "the effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated." and further that "there is not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their choice of predicates and from their eye movements."

Efran and Lukens (1990) stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".

Barry Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude analogies." With reference to all the 'neuromythologies' covered in his article, including NLP, he states "In the long run perhaps the heaviest cost extracted by neuromythologists is the one common to all pseudosciences—deterioration in the already low levels of scientific literacy and critical thinking in society. "

Von Bergen et al (1997) state NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. They stated that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to scientific scrutiny" .

Carbonell and Figley at Florida State University, Traumatology have published an exploratory study on V/KD, a component of NLP, and three other novel treatments for trauma (Thought Field Therapy, Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing and Traumatic Incident Reduction). The active ingredient for V/KD, was in deliberately creating a temporary state of dissociation from the traumatic event. However, this study was not designed as an outcome study, thus no conclusions can be drawn about the efficacy of these techniques from that study. With reference to this exploratory study (including NLP) John Wilson states that while it is "adequately descriptive of the clinical procedures, there is little, if any, empirically validated dated outcome studies to substantiate a theory driven and research informed brief treatment (p. 173–207)."

Donald Eisner (2000) in The Death of Psychotherapy, states that "There is only one problem with the claims made by NLP and the IDEA Seminars: not one iota of clinical research supports any of the claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed research has been published for over a decade. Moreover, there has been virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's effectiveness. Word of mouth, reputation, charisma and neatly packaged seminars seem to constitute proof of NLP's favorable outcome. If such incredible results had truly been achieved, why haven't they been documented and presented to the scientific community and the general public".

Lilienfield et al (2002), Evidence-based psychologists, describe NLP as "a scientifically unsubstantiated therapeutic method that purports to "program" brain functioning through a variety of techniques, including mirroring the postures and nonverbal behaviors of clients" and include it in their description "(Quick Fix + Pseudoscientific Gloss) x Credulous Public = High Income"..

Grant Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Human resources

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NLP has influenced some corporate executive coaches, who provide one-on-one training and collaborative relationships to executive interested in developement skills in career or business and may help resolve related personal issues.

Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.

Human resource professional Von Bergen considers NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training .

Popular culture and media

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In 2003 English psychological illusionist Derren Brown performed a stunt on national TV where he played Russian Roulette with 5 other players. Some suggested the stunt's success was due to Brown using NLP techniques in order manipulate the outcome. Derren Brown (2000) says "Having trained with the highly likeable founder of NLP, I find it a mixture of sensible and appealing methods for dealing with low-level pathologies such as phobias and fears on the one hand, and sheer daft nonsense and massive rhetoric on the other... There is no doubt that, to a point, much of this is well observed... But the idea triggered in me an interest in exploring these kinds of signals, and now I am pushing my performance closer into these areas."

In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul McKenna was shown applying neuro-linguistic programming and other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose weight.

Journalist Satham Sanghera wrote in a 2005 in a Financial Times news column that while some "believe that the continuing popularity of NLP... is an indication of its effectiveness" and ability to help in a wide spectrum of areas, he noted others think the success of NLP is "an example of mumbo jumbo triumphing over science" and that "critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions"

Commercialization, manipulation and persuasion

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Described by Singer as a purely commercial enterprise. Pieter Drenth (1999) having put NLP in the category of pseudo science states "Partly it is a shrewd commercial formula, and the marketing. Just take the name. Why not PQR or BYG (believe in your own goal) or something like that?" and goes on to say "but even for new theories and hypothetical frameworks, the requirement still holds that they should be scrutinized and tested on logical grounds and, in the case of empirical or experimental science, on the basis of empirical or experimental evidence".

In his book 'Recovery from Cults' Michael Langone states "We know that NLP is also used by some very aggressive cults because the NLP method can be used by such groups to instill a reliance upon the cult, and provides a conditioning method to further induce compliance." He describes NLP as "a tool for generating change for changes sake" .

Freelance writer Steve Salerno states that Anthony Robbins "made NLP his own, refining it and personalizing it into what he christened "neuroassociative conditioning" (NAC). Salerno goes on to claim of Robbins (and other lifestyle trainers or systems) that he "actually fans the fires of discontent, making people feel impaired or somehow deficient as a prelude to (supposedly) curing them.". O'Connor and Seymour in "Introducing NLP" state NAC is "...not strictly NLP."..

Notes and references

1. ^ Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 149(pp.15, 24, 30, 45, 52). 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Bandler & Grinder 1979" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
2. ^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
3. ^ Dilts, R.B., Grinder, J., Bandler, R., DeLozier, J.A. (1980). Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Volume I - The Study of the Structure of Subjective Experience. Meta Publications. pp. 284(pp.3-4, 6, 14, 17). ISBN 0916990079.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
4. ^ Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser, Financial Times (London, first edition p.9), Sanghera, Satham. Cite error: The named reference "Sanghera 2005" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
5. ^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
6. ^ Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National Academy Press.
7. Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
8. Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
9. ^ Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Text "p.169" ignored (help) Cite error: The named reference "Singer & Lalich 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
10. Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
11. ^ Platt, G. "NLP - No Longer Plausible?". Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) Cite error: The named reference "Platt 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
12. Guidance Counselor's handbook, section 1.4.5: http://www.ncge.ie/resources_handbooks_guidance.htm section 1.4.5 (DOC)
13. Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming
14. Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
15. ^ Peter Schütz (Accessed 24th December 2006) A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
16. Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1983). Reframing: Neurolinguistic programming and the transformation of meaning. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. appendix II, p.171.
17. Jacobson, S. (1994) Info-line: practical guidelines for training and development professionals, American Society For Training and Development Alexandria, VA Adapted version available online
18. ^ Einspruch, Eric L., Forman, Bruce D. (1985). "Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 32(4): pp. 589-596. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
19. Norma Barretta (2004) Review of Hypnotic Language: Its Structure and Use. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Bloomingdale: Jan 2004. Vol.46, Iss. 3; pg. 261, 2 pgs
20. Pruett, Julie Annette Sikes (2002) The application of the neuro-linguistic programming model to vocal performance training D.M.A., The University of Texas at Austin, 151 pages; AAT 3108499
21. Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1976). Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D. Volume 1. Cupertino, CA :Meta Publications. ISBN 0-916990-01-X.
22. Rothlyn P Zahourek. (2002) Utilizing Ericksonian hypnosis in psychiatric-mental health nursing practice Perspectives in Psychiatric Care. Philadelphia: Jan-Mar 2002. Vol.38, Iss. 1; pg. 15, 8 pgs
23. ^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online): Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and teaching in formal education
24. Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp. 526-530.
25. Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991) "The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991, 79-90. "
26. Joseph O'Connor NLP: A Practical Guide to Achieving the Results You Want: Workbook Harper Collins 2001
27. Alice Mills (1999) Pollyanna and the not so glad game. Children's Literature. Storrs: 1999. Vol.27 pg. 87, 18 pgs
28. ^ Dilts, Robert B (2000). Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0970154003. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Dilts & Delozier 2000" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
29. Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
30. ^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. ISBN 0-9717223-0-7. Cite error: The named reference "Grinder & Bostic St Clair 2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
31. ^ Drenth, P. (1999) Prometheus chained: Social and ethical constraints on psychology. Vol. 4.4 pp.233-239 European psychologist
32. Willem Levelt (1996) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch Programmeren! Skepter Vol.9(3)
33. Pieter J.D. Drenth (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science in ALLEA Annual Report pp.60-72'
34. Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41
35. David Bloomberg, "Faults and Paranormal Favoritism in Flawed Encyclopedia" (Nov 2000) Skeptical Inquirer
36. Williams, W F. general editor. (2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience: From alien abductions to Zone Therapy, Publisher: Facts On File, New York.
37. ^ Joseph O'Connor, John Seymour (2002 (first published 1990)). Introducing NLP. London: HarperCollins. 1855383446. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
38. Hollander, J. Ph.D. (1999, November) NLP and Science-Six recommendations for a better relationship Part 1, Part 2, first published in NLP journal/magazine: "NLP World" Nov. 1999 Vol 6(3)
39. Peter Labouchere (2004) Using participatory story telling, forum theatre and NLP (Neuro Linguistic Programming) concepts and techniques to create powerful learning experiences around issues of HIV prevention, support and positive living paper presented at at EE4 - Fourth International Entertainment Education Conference
40. ^ Craft A. (March 2001). "Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory". The Curriculum Journal, Routledge. Volume 12, Number 1: 125-136(12). {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
41. Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
42. ^ Beyerstein. B.L (1990). "Brainscams: Neuromythologies of the New Age" (PDF). International Journal of Mental Health. 19(3): 27–36, 27.
43. ^ David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from Google Books. pp.434,26
44. NLP is used or suggested as an approach by some mental health bodies:
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain
    • National Phobics Society of Great Britain: List of treatments and help
    • Mental Health Promotions: How to Assert Yourself
    • USU The Student Health and Wellness Center: What are Eating Disorders?
    • Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism
    • Advocates of Child Abuse Survivors: Counselling and therapy
45. Labouchere P, Tweedie I, Fiagbey E, Ocquaye M. (2002) Narrow Bridges to your Future: Creating a metaphorical experience of staying safe from HIV and realising the future you want presented at the International AIDS Conference 2002 Jul 7-12; 14 pages
46. Miller, F. Clayton. (Nov 1997) The NLP loss pattern: Imagery and experience in grief and mourning. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. Vol 58(5-B) pp. 2691.
47. Schütz, P. "A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training". . Retrieved December 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
48. ^ Eisner, D. (2000) The Death of Psychotherapy: From Freud to Alien Abductions
49. ^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raisson D'etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1(1): 20.
50. Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L. (1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625. note: "psychological fad"p.625
51. Windy Dryden and Albert Ellis (2001) Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy in Dobson, Keith (Ed.) The Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies, Second Edition p.331
52. Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
53. John E Thompson, Lisa Courtney, D Dickson. (2002) The effect of neurolinguistic programming on organizational and individual performance: A case study Journal of European Industrial Training. Bradford. Vol. 26, Iss. 6/7; p. 292 (7 pages)
54. Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
55. Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
56. John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork (1991) Enhancing human performance: An Evaluation of "New Age" Techniques Considered by the U.S
57. Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices (PDF). London: Croom Helm.
58. Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by W.W. Norton, New York. p.122
59. ^ Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal, Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 8(4): 281–294.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Von Bergen et al 1997" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
60. Charles Figley (December 1997). The active ingredients of the Power Therapies. Conference for the Integrative and Innovative Use of EMDR, TFT, EFT, Advanced NLP, and TIR, Lakewood, CO.
61. Bertoli (2003) The Use of Neuro-linguistic Programming and Emotionally focused therapy with Divorcing Couples in Crisis in Charles R. Figley (Ed) Brief Treatments for the Traumatized: A Project of the Green Cross Foundation
62. Joyce L. Carbonell, Charles Figley (1999). "Promising PTSD treatment approaches: Systematic Clinical Demonstration of Promising PTSD Treatment Approaches". TRAUMATOLOGYe. 5:1, Article 4: -.
63. Wilson, John P. (August 2004) Review of Brief Treatments for Trauma and PTSD. PsycCRITIQUES. 49(4):472-474
64. Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, Jeffrey M. Lohr (eds) (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology
65. Grant J. Devilly (2005) Power Therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry Vol.39 p.437
66. Peter Bluckert (2004) The state of play in corporate coaching: current and future trends. Industrial and Commercial Training. Guilsborough Vol.36(2) p.53
67. Skinner, H. and Stephens, P. (2003). "Speaking the Same Language: Exploring the relevance of Neuro-Linguistic Programming to Marketing Communications". Journal of Marketing Communications. Volume 9, Number 3 / September: 177–192. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
68. Also appearing in the issue: Karen E Watkins (1997) Invited reaction: Selected alternative training techniques in HRD Human Resource Development Quarterly. vol. 8(4)
69. Was Derren Brown really playing Russian roulette - or was it just a trick? by Alok Jha, October 9, 2003, The Guardian
70. Brown, Derren (2000). Pure Effect: Direct Mindreading and Magical Artistry. H&R Magic Books. pp. 107, 110.
71. Michael D Langone (Ed). Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. New York, NY: W W Norton & Company.
72. Steve Salerno (2005) Sham: How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless, ISBN 1-4000-5409-5

Further reading

• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979) Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Real People Press. 149 pages. ISBN 0911226192
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1975) The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy Science and Behavior Books. 198 pages. ISBN 0831400447
• O'Connor, J., Seymour, J. Dilts, R. (foreword), Grinder, J. (preface) (1995) Introducing Neuro-linguistic Programming: The New Psychology of Personal Excellence Aquarian Press. 224 pages. ISBN 1852740736
• Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0911226257
• Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson
• Dilts, R. (1990) Changing belief systems with NLP Meta Publications. ISBN 0916990249
• Bandler, R., Andreas, S. (ed) and Andreas, C. (ed) (1985) Using Your Brain-for a Change
• Grinder, M. (1991) Righting the Educational Conveyor Belt
• Laborde, G. (1987) Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication and Negotiation
• Dilts, R., Hallbom, T., Smith, S. (1990) Beliefs: Pathways to Health & Well-being
• Satir, V., Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Changing with Families: A Book about Further Education for Being Human Science and Behavior Books. ISBN 083140051X

External links

Associations

• Neuro linguistic psychotherapy & counselling Association (NLPtCA) - Member of UKCP
• European Association for Neuro-Linguistic Psychotherapy (EANLPt) - European accrediting organisation for NLPt
• Professional Guild of NLP
• The Society of NLP
• Global Organisation of NLP
• List of German associations
• International Association for NLP (IANLP)

Research

• Studying the scientific validity of NLP
• Database and review of academic research
• NLP Glossary
• Lee Lady's comments about history and development of NLP

Skeptics

• Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary".

See also

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• Gestalt therapy
• Hypnotherapy
• Family systems therapy
• The map is not the territory
• Provocative therapy
• Cognitive science
• Persuasion
• Large Group Awareness Training
• Ross Jeffries

• Articles lacking reliable references from December 2006
• Human communication
• Mind-body interventions
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming concepts and methods
• Pseudoscience
• Psychotherapy