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An '''Azali''' ({{lang-fa|ازلی}})<ref name = "Bábism" >Browne (1889) </ref><ref name = Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Azali |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |volume=2006 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9356264/Azali | access-date = 2006-12-26}}</ref><ref name="Eoi">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia of Islam |year=1999 |article=Sub-i Azal |first=Dennis |last=MacEoin}}</ref><ref name="amanat">{{cite book |first=Abbas |last=Amanat |title=Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/resurrectionrene00aman | url-access = registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1989 |pages=, 414}}</ref> or '''Azali Bábí'''<ref name = "Barrett">Barrett (2001) p. 246</ref><ref name="iranica">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |year=1989 |article=Azali Babism |first=Dennis |last=MacEoin |url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v3f2/v3f2a070.html}}</ref> is a follower of the ] ] of ] and the ]. Early followers of the Báb were known as ]; however, in the 1860s a split occurred after which the vast majority of Bábís followed Mirza Husayn ʻAli, known as ], and became known as ]s, while the minority who followed Subh-i-Azal came to be called as Azalis.<ref>"But the upshot of the whole matter is, that out of every hundred Bábís probably not more than three or four are Ezelís <nowiki></nowiki>, all the rest accepting Behá'u'lláh <nowiki></nowiki> as the final and most perfect manifestation of the Truth." (Browne (1889) )</ref> An '''Azali''' ({{lang-fa|ازلی}}){{sfn|Browne|1890|pp=351-352}}{{sfn|Britannica|2011}}{{sfn|MacEoin|2012}}{{sfn|Amanat|1989|p=384, 414}} or '''Azali Bábí'''{{sfn|Barrett|2001|p=246}}{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}} is a follower of the ] ] of ] and the ]. Early followers of the Báb were known as ]; however, in the 1860s a split occurred after which the vast majority of Bábís followed Mirza Husayn ʻAli, known as ], and became known as ]s, while the minority who followed Subh-i-Azal came to be called as Azalis.{{sfn|Britannica|2011}}


Current estimates are that there are no more than a few thousand.{{sfn|Barrett|2001}}{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}} Azalis are considerably outnumbered by Baháʼís.{{efn|Browne wrote in 1890: "But the upshot of the whole matter is, that out of every hundred Bábís probably not more than three or four are Ezelís <nowiki></nowiki>, all the rest accepting Behá'u'lláh <nowiki></nowiki> as the final and most perfect manifestation of the Truth."{{sfn|Browne|1890|p=351]}}{{sfn|Britannica|2011}}
Current estimates are that there are no more than a few thousand.<ref name = Britannica/><ref name = "Barrett"/><ref name = "iranica"/>


==Distinguishing characteristics== ==Distinguishing characteristics==
{{Babism}} {{Babism}}
{{main|Baháʼí/Bábí split}} {{main|Baháʼí/Bábí split}}
Azalis do not accept any of those who have advanced claims to be the Báb's promised one (known as "]"). The most bitterly contested claim is that of Baháʼu'lláh in 1863. Azalis rejected his claim of divinity as premature, arguing that the world must first accept the laws of the Báb before "He Whom God Shall Make Manifest" can appear.<ref name = "Britannica: Azali">{{cite web |title=Azali |website=] |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011527/Azali | access-date = 2006-10-17}}</ref> Azalis do not accept any of those who have advanced claims to be the Báb's promised one (known as "]"). The most bitterly contested claim is that of Baháʼu'lláh in 1863. Azalis rejected his claim of divinity as premature, arguing that the world must first accept the laws of the Báb before "He Whom God Shall Make Manifest" can appear.{{sfn|Britannica|2011}}


=== Writings of the Báb === === Writings of the Báb ===
The Azalis in Tehran have printed several volumes of works of the Báb, while the Bahá’ís in Iran have published a mere three volumes exclusively devoted to writings of the Báb. Azalí-produced manuscripts exist in large numbers in Paris, London, and Cambridge.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacEoin |first=Denis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqV9-zmMxsUC&newbks=0 |title=The Sources for Early Bābī Doctrine and History: A Survey |date=1992 |publisher=BRILL |year= |isbn=978-90-04-09462-8 |location= |pages=2 |language=en}}</ref> The Azalis in Tehran have printed several volumes of works of the Báb, while the Bahá’ís in Iran have published a mere three volumes exclusively devoted to writings of the Báb. Azalí-produced manuscripts exist in large numbers in Paris, London, and Cambridge.{{sfn|MacEoin|1992|p=2}}


Former-Baha'i and scholar of the Bábi faith, ] says:
Former-Baha'i and scholar of the Bábi faith, ] says:<blockquote>On the whole, the texts published by the Azalís are of much greater value than the Bahá’í productions, in that they represent complete works rather than selections made to present the Báb’s teachings from a partisan viewpoint.<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacEoin |first=Denis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqV9-zmMxsUC&newbks=0 |title=The Sources for Early Bābī Doctrine and History: A Survey |date=1992 |publisher=BRILL |year= |isbn=978-90-04-09462-8 |location= |pages=3 |language=en}}</ref></blockquote> {{quote|text=On the whole, the texts published by the Azalís are of much greater value than the Bahá’í productions, in that they represent complete works rather than selections made to present the Báb’s teachings from a partisan viewpoint.{{sfn|MacEoin|1992|p=3}} }}


===Involvement in Persian secular and constitutional reform=== ===Involvement in Persian secular and constitutional reform===
With respect to the direction that Azali Bábism took immediately after the split, MacEoin said: With respect to the direction that Azali Bábism took immediately after the split, MacEoin said:


{{quote|Azali Babism represents the conservative core of the original Babi movement, opposed to innovation and preaching a religion for a non-clerical gnostic elite rather than the masses. It also retains the original Babi antagonism to the Qajar state and a commitment to political activism, in distinction to the quietist stance of Baháism . Paradoxically, Azali conservatism in religious matters seems to have provided a matrix within which radical social and political ideas could be propounded.|<ref name = "iranica"/>}} {{quote|text=Azali Babism represents the conservative core of the original Babi movement, opposed to innovation and preaching a religion for a non-clerical gnostic elite rather than the masses. It also retains the original Babi antagonism to the Qajar state and a commitment to political activism, in distinction to the quietist stance of Baháism . Paradoxically, Azali conservatism in religious matters seems to have provided a matrix within which radical social and political ideas could be propounded.{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}} }}


After the split with the Baháʼís, some Azalis were very active in secular reform movements and the ] (1905&ndash;1907), including ] and ]. However, the community was still suppressed as a ], and the accusation of being an Azali was often enough for most to believe it to be true. Coupled with the Azali practice of ''taqiyya'' (dissimulation), determining whether or not a particular figure in Persian politics was an Azali is difficult.<ref name = "iranica"/> After the split with the Baháʼís, some Azalis were very active in secular reform movements and the ] (1905&ndash;1907), including ] and ]. However, the community was still suppressed as a ], and the accusation of being an Azali was often enough for most to believe it to be true. Coupled with the Azali practice of ''taqiyya'' (dissimulation), determining whether or not a particular figure in Persian politics was an Azali is difficult.{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}}


===Taqiyya=== ===Taqiyya===
] ("dissimulation") was practiced by some Bábís. It was justified by some as a response to the often violent oppression the community faced. However, prominent Bábí leaders never encouraged individuals to practice it; and some who had practiced ''taqiyya'' later abandoned it, declared themselves openly, and were put to death.<ref name="Manuchehri (1999)">{{Harvnb|Manuchehri|1999}}</ref> ] ("dissimulation") was practiced by some Bábís. It was justified by some as a response to the often violent oppression the community faced. However, prominent Bábí leaders never encouraged individuals to practice it; and some who had practiced ''taqiyya'' later abandoned it, declared themselves openly, and were put to death.{{sfn|Manuchehri|1999}}


Among Azalis, however, the practice became ingrained and widespread. One historian has noted: Among Azalis, however, the practice became ingrained and widespread. One historian has noted:


{{quote|The Azali Babis and in particular Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani and Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi showed little hesitation in alteration and falsification of Babi teachings and history in their works. Azali Babis regarded taqiyyah as an imperative requirement. {{quote|text=The Azali Babis and in particular Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani and Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi showed little hesitation in alteration and falsification of Babi teachings and history in their works. Azali Babis regarded taqiyyah as an imperative requirement.<br />In contrast the Azali Babis glorified taqiyyah in their literature. Taqiyyah was considered a virtue and classified into various levels of concealment. Prominent Azali leaders openly recanted their faith and even abused Bab and Azal in the process.{{sfn|Manuchehri|1999}} }}

In contrast the Azali Babis glorified taqiyyah in their literature. Taqiyyah was considered a virtue and classified into various levels of concealment. Prominent Azali leaders openly recanted their faith and even abused Bab and Azal in the process.|<ref name="Manuchehri (1999)"/>}}


==Succession and aftermath== ==Succession and aftermath==
There was some dispute on the question over who was Subh-i-Azal's appointed successor.<ref>Browne (1918) </ref> MacEoin states that Subh-i-Azal appointed Yahya Dawlatábádí as his successor in turn after the death of his (Yahya's) father, Mirza Hadi Dawlatábádí.<ref name = "iranica"/> However, this was disputed by Subh-i-Azal's grandson, ] , indicating that this question was not entirely resolved.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Momen, M. |title=The Cyprus Exiles |journal=Baháʼí Studies Bulletin |year=1991 |page=106 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_cyprus_exiles}}</ref> There was some dispute on the question over who was Subh-i-Azal's appointed successor.{{sfn|Browne|1918|pp=312-314}} MacEoin states that Subh-i-Azal appointed Yahya Dawlatábádí as his successor in turn after the death of his (Yahya's) father, Mirza Hadi Dawlatábádí.{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}} However, this was disputed by Subh-i-Azal's grandson, Jalal Azal, indicating that this question was not entirely resolved.{{sfn|Momen|1991|p=106}}

MacEoin notes that, in any event, neither he (Yahya Dawlatábádí) nor anyone else arose to organize the affairs of the community, or produce significant writing to develop the religion. He goes on to say (writing in 1999): MacEoin notes that, in any event, neither he (Yahya Dawlatábádí) nor anyone else arose to organize the affairs of the community, or produce significant writing to develop the religion. He goes on to say (writing in 1999):


{{quote|With the deaths of those Azalis who were active in the Constitutional period, Azali Babism entered a phase of stagnation from which it has never recovered. There is now no acknowledged leader nor, to the knowledge of the present writer, any central organization. Members tend to be secretive about their affiliation, converts are rare, and association appears to run along family lines. It is difficult to estimate current numbers, but these are unlikely to exceed one or two thousand, almost all of whom reside in Iran.|<ref name = "iranica"/>}} {{quote|text=With the deaths of those Azalis who were active in the Constitutional period, Azali Babism entered a phase of stagnation from which it has never recovered. There is now no acknowledged leader nor, to the knowledge of the present writer, any central organization. Members tend to be secretive about their affiliation, converts are rare, and association appears to run along family lines. It is difficult to estimate current numbers, but these are unlikely to exceed one or two thousand, almost all of whom reside in Iran.{{sfn|MacEoin|1987}} }}


== Prominent Azalis == == Prominent Azalis ==
Despite their small numbers the Azalis have included several prominent Iranian political and literary figures, notably Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi and ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhy9DwAAQBAJ&newbks=0 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baha'i Faith |date=2013-10-01 |publisher=Oneworld, Oxford |isbn=978-1-78074-480-3 |pages=54 |language=en}}</ref> Despite their small numbers the Azalis have included several prominent Iranian political and literary figures, notably Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi and ].{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=54}}


==See also== ==See also==
Line 48: Line 47:


==Notes== ==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist}} {{reflist}}


==References== ==References==
*{{cite book |author=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |author-link=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |others=Browne, E.G. (trans.) |year=1891 |title=A Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab |publisher=Kalimát Press |location=Los Angeles, US |edition=2004 reprint, with translator's notes |isbn=1-890688-37-1 |url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/abdul-baha/travelers-narrative/ |access-date=2020-12-26}}
⚫ *{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=David |title=The New Believers |publisher=Cassell & Co |year=2001 |location=London, UK |isbn=0-304-35592-5|url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newbelieverssurv00barr}}

*{{Cite web |last=ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|author-link = ʻAbdu'l-Bahá |last2=Browne, E.G.|author-link2 = E.G. Browne |year=1886 |title=A Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab |url=http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/hometn.htm}}
*{{cite book |last=Amanat |first=Abbas |author-link=Abbas Amanat |year=1989 |title=Resurrection and Renewal: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran |url=https://archive.org/details/resurrectionrene00aman |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca}}
*{{Cite web |last=Azal|author-link = Wahid Azal |last2=Azal, Wahid|author-link2 = Wahid Azal |year=2018 |title=The Organizational Hierarchy of the Bābīs during the period of Ṣubḥ-i-Azal's residency in Baghdad (1852 – 1863) |url=https://www.academia.edu/36200255/The_Organizational_Hierarchy_of_the_B%C4%81b%C4%ABs_during_the_period_of_%E1%B9%A2ub%E1%B8%A5-i-Azals_residency_in_Baghdad_1852_1863_}}

⚫ *{{Cite book |last=Browne |first=E.G. |contribution=Bábism |year=1889 |title=Religious Systems of the World: A Contribution to the Study of Comparative Religion |location=London |publisher=Swann Sonnenschein |url=http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/articles/A-E/browne/brbabism.htm}}
⚫ *{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=David |author-link=David V. Barrett |year=2001 |title=The New Believers |publisher=Cassell & Co |location=London, UK |isbn=0-304-35592-5|url-access = registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newbelieverssurv00barr}}
⚫ *{{cite book |editor=Browne, E.G. |year=1918 |title=Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/material/msbrtoc.htm}}

*{{cite journal |last=Frigerio |first=Fabrizio |title=Un prisonnier d'État à Chypre sous la domination ottomane : Soubh-i-Ezèl à Famagouste |url=https://www.academia.edu/8926137/Un_prisonnier_d'État_à_Chypre_sous_la_domination_ottomane_Soubh-i-Ezèl_à_Famagouste |journal=Πρακτικά του Γ Διεθνούς Κυπρολογικού Συνέδριου (Proceedings of the III International Cyprological Congress) |location=Nicosia, Cyprus |year=2001 |volume=3 |pages=629–646}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |author=Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica |date=2011-09-28 |title=Azalī |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Azali |access-date=2021-01-03 |ref={{sfnref|Britannica|2011}} }}
⚫ *{{cite journal |last=Manuchehri |first=Sepehr |title=The Practice of Taqiyyah (Dissimulation) in the Babi and Bahai Religions |journal=Research Notes in Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies |year=1999 |volume=3 |issue=3 |url=http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/notes/vol3/taqiya.htm|access-date = 2006-12-29| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061202141214/http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/notes/vol3/taqiya.htm| archive-date= 2 December 2006 | url-status= live}}

⚫ *{{cite journal |author=Momen, M. |title=The Cyprus Exiles |journal=Baháʼí Studies Bulletin |year=1991 |pages=81–113 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_cyprus_exiles}}
⚫ *{{Cite book |last=Browne |first=E.G. |author-link=Edward Granville Browne |year=1890 |orig-year=Republished in 1901 |chapter=Bábism |title=Religious Systems of the World: A Contribution to the Study of Comparative Religion |publisher=Swann Sonnenschein |location=London |url=https://bahai-library.com/browne_babism |pages=333-53}}

⚫ *{{cite book |editor-last=Browne |editor-first=E.G. |editor-link=Edward Granville Browne |year=1918 |title=Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |url=https://bahai-library.com/browne_materials_study_babi}}

*{{cite encyclopedia |last=MacEoin |first=Denis M. |author-link=Denis MacEoin |year=1987-12-15 |orig-year=Updated 18 August 2011 |title=AZALI BABISM |encyclopedia=] |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azali-babism |access-date=2021-01-03}}

*{{cite encyclopedia |last=MacEoin |first=Denis |author-link=Denis MacEoin |year=2012 |title=Ṣubḥ-i Azal |encyclopedia=] |edition=Second |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7112 |access-date=2021-01-04}}

⚫ *{{cite journal |last=Manuchehri |first=Sepehr |year=1999 |title=The Practice of Taqiyyah (Dissimulation) in the Babi and Bahai Religions |journal=Research Notes in Shaykhi, Babi and Baha'i Studies |volume=3 |issue=3 |url=http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/notes/vol3/taqiya.htm|access-date = 2006-12-29| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061202141214/http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/notes/vol3/taqiya.htm| archive-date= 2 December 2006 | url-status= live}}

⚫ *{{cite journal |last=Momen |first=Moojan |author-link=Moojan Momen |year=1991 |title=The Cyprus Exiles |journal=Baháʼí Studies Bulletin |pages=81–113 |url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_cyprus_exiles}}

*{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |date=2000 |title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfrAQAAQBAJ |publisher=] |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=1-85168-184-1}}


==External links==
{{Commons}} {{Commons}}
* A website of the "Bayani" community.
{{Religion topics}} {{Religion topics}}
{{New Religious Movements}} {{New Religious Movements}}


]
]
] ]
] ]

Revision as of 02:32, 4 January 2021

For the Blue Scholars album, see Bayani (album). For the 2018 film, see Azali (film). For the tribe, see Azali (tribe).
The Azali Community in Isfahan early 20th century

An Azali (Template:Lang-fa) or Azali Bábí is a follower of the monotheistic religion of Subh-i-Azal and the Báb. Early followers of the Báb were known as Bábís; however, in the 1860s a split occurred after which the vast majority of Bábís followed Mirza Husayn ʻAli, known as Baháʼu'lláh, and became known as Baháʼís, while the minority who followed Subh-i-Azal came to be called as Azalis.

Current estimates are that there are no more than a few thousand. Azalis are considerably outnumbered by Baháʼís.{{efn|Browne wrote in 1890: "But the upshot of the whole matter is, that out of every hundred Bábís probably not more than three or four are Ezelís , all the rest accepting Behá'u'lláh as the final and most perfect manifestation of the Truth."

Distinguishing characteristics

Part of a series on
Bábism
Founder
Prominent people
Key scripture
History
Resultant groups
Other topics
Main article: Baháʼí/Bábí split

Azalis do not accept any of those who have advanced claims to be the Báb's promised one (known as "He whom God shall make manifest"). The most bitterly contested claim is that of Baháʼu'lláh in 1863. Azalis rejected his claim of divinity as premature, arguing that the world must first accept the laws of the Báb before "He Whom God Shall Make Manifest" can appear.

Writings of the Báb

The Azalis in Tehran have printed several volumes of works of the Báb, while the Bahá’ís in Iran have published a mere three volumes exclusively devoted to writings of the Báb. Azalí-produced manuscripts exist in large numbers in Paris, London, and Cambridge.

Former-Baha'i and scholar of the Bábi faith, Denis MacEoin says:

On the whole, the texts published by the Azalís are of much greater value than the Bahá’í productions, in that they represent complete works rather than selections made to present the Báb’s teachings from a partisan viewpoint.

Involvement in Persian secular and constitutional reform

With respect to the direction that Azali Bábism took immediately after the split, MacEoin said:

Azali Babism represents the conservative core of the original Babi movement, opposed to innovation and preaching a religion for a non-clerical gnostic elite rather than the masses. It also retains the original Babi antagonism to the Qajar state and a commitment to political activism, in distinction to the quietist stance of Baháism . Paradoxically, Azali conservatism in religious matters seems to have provided a matrix within which radical social and political ideas could be propounded.

After the split with the Baháʼís, some Azalis were very active in secular reform movements and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1907), including Sheikh Ahmad Rouhi and Mirza Abd-al-Hosayn Kermani. However, the community was still suppressed as a heresy, and the accusation of being an Azali was often enough for most to believe it to be true. Coupled with the Azali practice of taqiyya (dissimulation), determining whether or not a particular figure in Persian politics was an Azali is difficult.

Taqiyya

Taqiya ("dissimulation") was practiced by some Bábís. It was justified by some as a response to the often violent oppression the community faced. However, prominent Bábí leaders never encouraged individuals to practice it; and some who had practiced taqiyya later abandoned it, declared themselves openly, and were put to death.

Among Azalis, however, the practice became ingrained and widespread. One historian has noted:

The Azali Babis and in particular Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani and Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi showed little hesitation in alteration and falsification of Babi teachings and history in their works. Azali Babis regarded taqiyyah as an imperative requirement.
In contrast the Azali Babis glorified taqiyyah in their literature. Taqiyyah was considered a virtue and classified into various levels of concealment. Prominent Azali leaders openly recanted their faith and even abused Bab and Azal in the process.

Succession and aftermath

There was some dispute on the question over who was Subh-i-Azal's appointed successor. MacEoin states that Subh-i-Azal appointed Yahya Dawlatábádí as his successor in turn after the death of his (Yahya's) father, Mirza Hadi Dawlatábádí. However, this was disputed by Subh-i-Azal's grandson, Jalal Azal, indicating that this question was not entirely resolved.

MacEoin notes that, in any event, neither he (Yahya Dawlatábádí) nor anyone else arose to organize the affairs of the community, or produce significant writing to develop the religion. He goes on to say (writing in 1999):

With the deaths of those Azalis who were active in the Constitutional period, Azali Babism entered a phase of stagnation from which it has never recovered. There is now no acknowledged leader nor, to the knowledge of the present writer, any central organization. Members tend to be secretive about their affiliation, converts are rare, and association appears to run along family lines. It is difficult to estimate current numbers, but these are unlikely to exceed one or two thousand, almost all of whom reside in Iran.

Prominent Azalis

Despite their small numbers the Azalis have included several prominent Iranian political and literary figures, notably Shaykh Ahmad Ruhi and Mirza Aqa Khan Kirmani.

See also

Notes

Citations

  1. Browne 1890, pp. 351–352.
  2. ^ Britannica 2011.
  3. MacEoin 2012.
  4. Amanat 1989, p. 384, 414.
  5. Barrett 2001, p. 246.
  6. ^ MacEoin 1987.
  7. Barrett 2001.
  8. Browne 1890, p. 351].
  9. MacEoin 1992, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacEoin1992 (help)
  10. MacEoin 1992, p. 3. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMacEoin1992 (help)
  11. ^ Manuchehri 1999.
  12. Browne 1918, pp. 312–314.
  13. Momen 1991, p. 106.
  14. Smith 2000, p. 54.

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