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Pollen, sometimes incorrectly called flower sperm, is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes (pollen grains), which produce the male gametes (sperm cells) of seed plants. Each pollen grain contains vegetative cells (only one in most flowering plants but several in other seed plants) and a generative cell containing a tube nucleus (that produces the pollen tube) and a generative nucleus (that divides to form the two sperm cells). The group of cells is surrounded by a cellulose cell wall and a thick, tough outer wall made of sporopollenin.
Pollen is produced in the microsporangium (contained in the anther of an angiosperm flower, male cone of a coniferous plant, or male cone of other seed plants). Pollen grains come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and surface markings characteristic of the species (see photomicrograph at right). Most, but certainly not all, are spherical. Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are winged. The smallest pollen grain, that of the Forget-me-not plant (Myosotis sp.), is around 6 µm (0.006 mm) in diameter. The study of pollen is called palynology and is highly useful in paleontology, archeology, and forensics.
Except in the case of some submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen-grain has a double wall, a thin delicate wall of unaltered cellulose (the endospore or intine) and a tough outer cuticularized exospore or exine. The exine often bears spines or warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings is often of value for identifying genus, species, or even cultivar or individual. In some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain often begins before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells.
The transfer of pollen grains to the female reproductive structure (pistil in angiosperms) is called pollination. This transfer can be mediated by the wind, in which case the plant is described as anemophilous (literally wind-loving). Anemophilous plants typically produce great quantities of very lightweight pollen grains, sometimes with air-sacs. Non-flowering seed plants (e.g., pine trees) are characteristically anemophilous. Anemophilous flowering plants generally have inconspicuous flowers. Entomophilous (literally insect-loving) plants produce pollen that is relatively heavy, sticky and protein-rich, for dispersal by insect pollinators attracted to their flowers. Many insects and some mites are specialized to feed on pollen, and are called palynivores.
In non-flowering seed plants, pollen germinates in the pollen chamber, located beneath and inside the micropyle. A pollen tube is produced, which grows into the nucellus to provide nutrients for the developing sperm cells. Sperm cells of Pinophyta and Gnetophyta are without flagella, and are carried by the pollen tube, while those of Cycadophyta and Ginkgophyta have many flagella.
When placed on the stigma of a flowering plant, under favorable circumstances, a pollen grain puts forth a pollen tube which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs, to the micropyle of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube cell has meanwhile passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which divides (if it hasn't already) to form two sperm cells. The sperm cells are carried to their destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.
Pollen as a carrier of ecological information in plants
The quantity of pollen getting on a pistillate flower serves as a transmitter of the ecological information and a regulator of evolutionary plasticity at cross-pollinating plants. A plenty of pollen corresponds to optimum conditions of environment (the center of an area, surplus of the male's plants, and favorable weather conditions), and small pollen quantity means extreme conditions (borders of an area, deficiency of male's plants, and adverse weather conditions). The quantity of pollen getting on a pistillate flower, defines sex ratio, dispersion and sexual dimorphism for posterity. High pollen quantity leads to a reduction of these characteristics and stabilization of a population. Small quantity leads to their increase and destabilization of a population.
Hay fever
Main article: Hay feverAllergy to pollen is called hay fever. Generally pollens that cause allergies are those of anemophilous, because the lightweight pollen grains are produced in great quantities for wind dispersal. Breathing air containing these pollen grains brings them into contact with the nasal passages.
In the US, people often falsely blame the conspicuous entomophilous goldenrod flower for allergies. Since this pollen does not become airborne, the only way to get goldenrod pollen on the nasal passages would be to stick the flower up one's nose. The late summer and fall pollen allergies are usually caused by ragweed, a widespread anemophilous plant. Arizona was once regarded as a haven for people with pollen allergies, since few ragweed species grow in the desert. However, as suburbs grew and people began establishing irrigated lawns and gardens, ragweed gained a foothold and Arizona lost its claim of freedom from hay fever.
Anemophilous spring blooming plants such as oak, birch, hickory, pecan, and early summer grasses may also induce pollen allergies. Cultivated flowers are most often entomophilous and do not cause allergies.
References
- Geodakyan V. A. (1977). The Amount of Pollen as a Regulator of Evolutionary Plasticity of Cross-Pollinating Plants. “Doklady Biological Sciences” 234 N 1-6, 193–196.
See also
External links
- Daily Pollen Count
- Pollen and Spore Identification Literature
- Paleobotany and Palynology at the Florida Museum of Natural History
- Palynology at the University of Arizona
- Palynology at French Institute of Pondicherry
- Palynology at the University of Sheffield
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
- Palynology in Utrecht, the Netherlands
- The flight of the pollen cloud Outcrossing from transgenic maize and quantifying outcrossing rates
- The Evolutionary Theory of Sex: Mechanisms of Regulation of the Population Parameters