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Theological views

The Qur'an, the Islamic holy book, does not explicitly prohibit the depiction of human figures; it merely condemns idolatry (ex.: 5:92, 21:52). Interdictions of figurative representation are present in the Hadith, among a dozen of the hadith recorded during the latter part of the period when they were being written down. Because these hadith are tied to particular events in the life of the Prophet Muhammad, they need to be interpreted in order to be applied in any general manner. Sunni exegetes, from the 9th century onward, increasingly saw in them categorical prohibitions against producing and using any representation of living beings. There are variations between religious schools and marked differences between different branches of Islam. Aniconism is common among fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis (which are also often iconoclastic), and less prevalent among liberal movements in Islam. Shi'a and mystical orders also have less stringent views on aniconism. On the individual level, whether or not specific Muslims believe in aniconism may depend on how much credence is given to hadith (e.g. Submitters do not believe in any hadith), and how liberal or strict they are in personal practice.

Aniconism in Islam not only deals with the material image, but touches upon mental representations as well. It is a thorny question, discussed by early theologians, as to how to describe God, Muhammad and other prophets, and, indeed, if it is permissible at all to do so. God is usually represented by immaterial attributes, such as "holy" or "merciful", commonly known from His "Ninety-nine beautiful names". Muhammad's physical appearance, however, is amply described, particularly in the traditions on his life and deeds Sira al-Nabi. Of no less interest is the validity of sightings of holy personages made during dreams.

While talking about Islam, Titus Burckhardt sums up the role of aniconism in a way that might hold true for cases throughout a variety of cultures:

"Islam is centred on Unity, and Unity is not expressible in terms of any image. Thus, Islamic art as a whole aims to create an ambiance which helps man to realise his primordial dignity; it therefore avoids everything that could be an 'idol' even in a relative and provisional manner - nothing must stand between man and the invisible presence of God - thus eliminating all the turmoil and passionate suggestions of the world and in their stead creating an order that expresses equilibrium, serenity and peace."

Hadith and exegesis examples

During its early days, aniconism in Islam was intended as a measure against idolatry, particularly against the statues worshipped by pagans. The following hadith presents the Prophet condemning pictures:

Narrated Aisha: (the wife of the Prophet) I bought a cushion having on it pictures (of animals). When Allah's Apostle saw it, he stood at the door and did not enter. I noticed the sign of disapproval on his face and said, "O Allah's Apostle! I repent to Allah and His Apostle. What sin have I committed?' Allah's Apostle said. "What is this cushion?" I said, "I have bought it for you so that you may sit on it and recline on it." Allah's Apostle said, "The makers of these pictures will be punished on the Day of Resurrection, and it will be said to them, 'Give life to what you have created (i.e., these pictures).' "The Prophet added, "The Angels of (Mercy) do not enter a house in which there are pictures (of animals)."

To show the superiority of the monotheist faith, Muhammad smashed the idols at the Ka'ba. He also removed paintings that were blasphemous to Islam, while protecting others (the images of Mary and Jesus) inside the building ). The hadith below emphasizes that aniconism depends not only on what, but also on how things are depicted.

Narrated Ibn Abbas: "When the Prophet saw pictures in the Ka'ba, he did not enter it till he ordered them to be erased. When he saw (the pictures of Abraham and Ishmael carrying the arrows of divination, he said, '"May Allah curse them (i.e. the Quraish)! By Allah, neither Abraham nor Ishmael practiced divination by arrows.'"

It is interesting to note that pagans in Muhammad's times were also worshipping trees and stones. The Prophet, however, opposed only images of animated beings — humans and animals —, as reported by the Hadith. Subsequently, geometrical ornamentation became a sophisticated art form in Islam.

Narrated Said bin Abu Al-Hasan: While I was with Ibn 'Abbas a man came and said, "O father of 'Abbas! My sustenance is from my manual profession and I make these pictures." Ibn 'Abbas said, "I will tell you only what I heard from Allah's Apostle. I heard him saying, 'Whoever makes a picture will be punished by Allah till he puts life in it, and he will never be able to put life in it.' " Hearing this, that man heaved a sigh and his face turned pale. Ibn 'Abbas said to him, "What a pity! If you insist on making pictures I advise you to make pictures of trees and any other inanimate objects."

Aniconism in practice

Religious core

In practice, the core of normative religion in Islam is consistently aniconic. Its embodiment are spaces such as the mosque and objects like the Qur'an or the white dress of pilgrims entering Mecca, deprived of figurative images. Other spheres of religion — schisms, mysticism, popular piety, private level — exhibit in this regard significant variability. Profane aniconism is even more fluctuating. Generally speaking aniconism in Islamic societies is restricted in modern times to specific religious contexts, while its prevalence in the past wasn't enforced in numerous areas and during extended periods.

Present

Depending on which segment of Islamic societies are referred to, the application of aniconism is characterized with noteworthy differences. Factors are the epoch considered, the country, the religious orientation, the political intent, the popular beliefs, the private benefit or the dichotomy between reality and discourse. Today, the concept of an aniconic Islam coexists with a daily life for Muslims awash with images. TV stations and newspapers (which do present still and moving representations of living beings) have an exceptional impact on public opinion, sometimes, as in the case of Al-Jazira, with a global reach, beyond the Arabic speaking and Muslim audience. Portraits of secular and religious leaders are omnipresent on banknotes and coins, in streets and offices (e.g.: presidents like Nasser and Mubarak, Arafat, Al-Asad or Hezbollah's Nasrallah and ayatollah Khomeini). Anthropomorphic statues in public places are to be found in most Muslim countries (Saddam Hussain's are infamous ), as well as Arts schools training sculptors and painters. In the Egyptian countryside, it is fashionable to celebrate and advertise the returning of pilgrims from Mecca on the walls of their houses. Sometimes those who profess aniconism will practice figurative representation (cf. portraits of Talibans from the Kandahar photographic studios during their imposed ban on photography). For Shi'a communities, portraits of the major figures of Shi'ite history are important elements of religious devotion. Portraits of 'Ali — with veiled and unveiled face alike — can be bought in Iran around shrines and in the streets, to be hung in homes or carried with oneself, while in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh they notoriously ornate trucks, buses and rickshaws. Contrary to the Sunni tradition, a photographic picture of the deceased can be placed on the Shi'ite tombs. A curiosity in Iran is a Orientalist photography supposed to represent Prophet Muhammad as a young boy. The Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Najaf in Iraq has given a fatwa declaring the depiction of Muhammad, the Prophets and other holy characters, permissible if it is made with the utmost respect.

Past

Neither is the representation of living beings in Islamic countries a modern phenomenon or due to current technology, westernization or the cult of the personality. Statues of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Ummayad era, while frescoes were common under the Ummayads, and later in many countries of Dar al-Islam, notably under the Safavids and various Central Asian dynasties. Figurative miniatures from Medieval Arabic countries, India, Persia and Turkey are one of the fleuron of Islamic Arts and a good deal of its attraction power for non-Muslim societies. Potent rulers like Shah Tahmasp in Persia and Akbar in India, patrons of some of the most beautiful figurative miniatures in arts from Islamic countries, migrated during their life between an extravagant 'figurative' and an extremist 'aniconic' period. During the 15th and 17th century representations of Muhammad (veiled, unveiled) and other prophets or Biblical characters, like Adam, Abraham or Jesus and Salomon and Alexander the Great, became common in painted manuscripts from Persia, India and Turkey. Extreme rarities are an illustrated Qur'an depicting Muhammad and, in a Spanish-Muslim manuscript datable from the 16th century, five Ummayad and Abbasid caliphs. Iblis too is present in various illustrated manuscripts. There aren't, however, known figurative depictions of God.

Circumvention methods

Medieval Muslim artists found various ways not to infringe any prohibition of the image, while still representing living beings. It can be argued that since God is absolute, the act of depiction is his own and not that of a human; and miniatures are obviously very crude representations of the reality, so the two can't be mistaken. At the material level, prophets in manuscripts can have their face covered by a veil or all humans have a stroke drawn over their neck, a symbolical cut defending them to be alive. Calligraphy, the most Islamic of arts in the Muslim world, has also its figurative side due to anthropo- and zoomorphic calligrams.

Causes

It is equally important to stress that, wherever it surfaced, Islamic aniconism is partially due to the special historical relationship between images and Muslim identity. In the early days of Islam, for example, it was critical to distinguish the customs of the nascent Ummah from those of Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians and pagans. Therefore, emphasizing calligraphy and abstract decoration over figurative painting and sculpture set the Qur'an apart from the Bible, the mosque from the church and — after a certain period of using Byzantine and Sassanid coins — the Muslim dinar from the Christian solidus. After the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, there where lively debates in Persia about the merits of (Islamic) calligraphy and (Chinese influenced) painting. In modern times, the image-producing technologies of print, photography, movie, television and, more recently, the Internet, were all imports from a world outside the Muslim community, and thus easily perceived as threats to its integrity. These changes also came through difficult contexts for the Islamic world: colonization, modernization, authoritarian regimes, economic difficulties, and wars. Quite naturally, a paradoxical mix ensued, of an aniconist Islamic discourse propagated through representational mass medias.

Notes

1. Islamic Art, Sala@m.com
2. Bukhari, Sahih, vol. 7, book 62, no. 110.
3. A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad (translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasulallah), page 552.
4. Bukhari, Sahih, vol. 4, book 55, no. 571.
5. Bukhari, Sahih, vol. 3, book 34, no. 428.
6. See 'Sura' and 'Taswir' in Encyclopædia of Islam
7. Petroleum-related banknotes: Saudi Arabia: Oil Refinery
8. Petroleum-related banknotes: Iran: Abadan Refinery, Iahanshahi-Amouzegar
9. Iran 10000 Rials (1992-)
11. David Zucchino "U.S. military, not Iraqis, behind toppling of statue" Honolulu Advertiser, July 5, 2004
12. J. L. Anderson, Thomas Dworzak, Taliban, London (UK), Trolley, 2003, ISBN 0-9542648-5-1.
13. Saudi Aramco World : Masterpieces to Go: The Trucks of Pakistan
14. The Rickshaw Arts of Bangladesh
15. Picture of Golestan e Shohoda cemetery Esfahan -Esfahan, Iran
16. Mashad Martyrs Cemetery at Best Iran Travel.com
17. Photography by Lehnert & Landrock, titled "Mohamed", Tunis, c. 1906. Nicole Canet, Lehnert & Landrock. Photographies orientatlistes 1905-1930. (Paris: Galerie Au Bonheur du Jour, 2004): cover, p. 9. . Historical context described in Template:Fr Patricia Briel, "Ces étranges portraits de Mahomet jeune", letemps.ch, 22/02/2006. , mirror: .
18. Grand Ayatollah Uzma Sistani, Fiqh & Beliefs: Istifa answers, personal website. (accessed 17 February 2006) Template:Ar icon Template:En icon
19. Allen, Terry, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Palm Tree Books
20. Educational Site: Archaeological Sites: Qusayr `Amra
21. Reza Abbasi Museum
22. "Portraits of the Sultans," Topkapi Palace Museum
23. Mughal Miniature Painting - An Alternative Source of History
24. Bibliotheque nationale de France - Torah, Bible, Coran
25. Bibliotheque nationale de France - Torah, Bible, Coran
26. "Angels Kneeling before Adam from Stories of the Prophets
28. Bibliotheque nationale de France - Torah, Bible, Coran
30. Bibliotheque nationale de France - Torah, Bible, Coran/
32. "The Book of Nativities(Kitâb al-Mawalid) by Abû Ma'shar," Antiquities of the Illuminati
34. Bibliotheque nationale de France - Torah, Bible, Coran
35. Calligraphy from the Islamic Tradition
36. "Umayyad Coins," The Maskukat Collection of Medieval & Islamic Coins

See also

• Iconoclasm
• Censorship, Censorship by organized religion
• The figurative representation in Islamic Arts Template:Fr icon
• Depictions of Muhammad, Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
• Aniconism in Islam

References

General

• Jack Goody, Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997. ISBN 0-631-20526-8.

Islam

• Oleg Grabar, "Postscriptum", The Formation of Islamic Art, Yale University, 1987 (p209). ISBN 0-300-03969-7
• Terry Allen, "Aniconism and Figural Representation in Islamic Art", Five Essays on Islamic Art, Occidental (CA), Solipsist, 1988. ISBN 0-944940-00-5
• Gilbert Beaugé & Jean-François Clément, L'image dans le monde arabe , Paris, CNRS Éditions, 1995, ISBN 2-271-05305-6 Template:Fr icon
• Rudi Paret, Das islamische Bilderverbot und die Schia , Erwin Gräf (ed.), Festschrift Werner Caskel, Leiden, 1968, 224-32. Template:De icon
• Almir Ibric, Das Bilderverbot im Islam. Eine Einführung, Marburg, 2004. Template:De icon
• Almir Ibric, Islamisches Bilderverbot vom Mittel- bis ins Digitalzeitalter, Münster, 2006. Template:De icon

• Aniconism
• Censorship in Islam
• Islamic art