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Terri Schiavo case

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Terri Schiavo case

Theresa Marie "Terri" Schiavo (December 3, 1963 – March 31, 2005), from St. Petersburg, Florida was a brain damaged patient with a feeding tube. She collapsed in her home on February 25, 1990 and experienced respiratory and cardiac arrest, leading to 15 years of institutionalization and a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state (PVS). In 1998, Michael Schiavo, her husband and guardian, petitioned the Pinellas County Circuit Court to remove her feeding tube; Robert and Mary Schindler, her parents, opposed this, arguing she was aware. Court battles stretched on for seven years and included involvement by politicians and advocacy groups. As her surrogate decision-maker, a trial court determined that Terri would not wish to continue life-prolonging measures. Before that court's decision was carried out, on March 18, 2005, the state and national legislatures had intervened against it with laws that were signed by the executive branch, but overturned by the courts. These events resulted in extensive national and international media coverage.

By March 2005, the legal history around the Schiavo case included fourteen appeals and numerous motions, petitions, and hearings in the Florida courts; five suits in Federal District Court; Florida legislation struck down by the Supreme Court of Florida; a subpoena by a congressional committee to qualify Schiavo for witness protection; federal legislation (Palm Sunday Compromise); and four denials of certiorari from the Supreme Court of the United States.

Her feeding tube was removed a third and final time on March 18, 2005. She died thirteen days later of dehydration at a Pinellas Park hospice on March 31, 2005, at the age of 41.

Early life

Theresa Marie Schindler grew up in the Huntingdon Valley area of Lower Moreland Township, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, as the eldest of three children of Robert and Mary Schindler. Her father was of German descent. Her younger siblings were Robert Jr. (Bobby) and Suzanne (now Suzanne Vitadamo). By her senior year in high school, Schiavo was overweight, with a height of 5 feet, 3 inches (160 cm) and a weight of around 200 pounds (90 kg). She may have developed an eating disorder around this time. In 1981, she graduated from Archbishop Wood Catholic High School. After her graduation, Dr. Ickler, the family physician, suggested the Nutra-System diet and she lost about 55 pounds (25 kg).

Schiavo met her husband in 1982 in a sociology class at Bucks County Community College. He was her first boyfriend. After dating for five months, the couple became engaged. When they were married on November 10, 1984, at Our Lady of Good Counsel Church in Southampton, Pennsylvania, Schiavo weighed 270 pounds (64 kg). They moved to St. Petersburg, Florida, in April 1986. Schiavo's parents also moved to St. Petersburg three months later. In Florida, she worked as an insurance claims clerk for the Prudential insurance company, and Michael was a restaurant manager.

In 1989, Terri's weight had dropped to 120 pounds (55 kg), and she was not menstruating. Lack of menstruation, or amenorrhea is sometimes associated with excessive weight loss. The Schiavos began visiting Dr Stephen Igel , an ob-gyn, receiving fertility services and counseling in the hopes of having a child.

Initial medical crisis

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On the morning of February 25, 1990, at approximately 5:30 a.m. EST, Schiavo collapsed in a hallway of their St. Petersburg apartment. Firefighters and paramedics arriving in response to Michael's 9-1-1 call found her face-down and unconscious. She was not breathing and had no pulse. They attempted to resuscitate her, she was defibrillated several times, and transported to the Humana Northside Hospital. There she was intubated, ventilated, and eventually given a tracheotomy. The long period without oxygen led to profound brain injury ("anoxic-ischemic encephalopathy" noted at autopsy), severely damaging those parts of the brain concerned with cognition, perception, and awareness.

The cause of her cardiac arrest has never been determined. For a time, it was believed that her cardiac arrest had been caused by an imbalance of electrolytes in her blood. On admission to hospital, her serum potassium level was noted to be very low, at 2.0 mEq/L; the normal range for adults is 3.5–5.0 mEq/L. It was speculated that her low potassium level had in turn been caused by an eating disorder, as shown by the fact that her medical chart contained a note that "she apparently has been trying to keep her weight down with dieting by herself, drinking liquids most of the time during the day and drinking about 10–15 glasses of iced tea." However the low potassium could have been a spurious result caused by the intravascular administration of fluids during the attempt to resuscitate her. It is unclear if an eating disorder was related to her potassium deficiency or to her cardiac arrest.

Schiavo's husband later filed and won a malpractice suit against her obstetrician on the basis that the physician failed to recognize and diagnose bulimia in her. In May 1992, while on appeal, the case was settled for $1 million.

Schiavo remained comatose for two and a half months. When she emerged from the coma, Schiavo regained a sleep-wake cycle, but did not exhibit repeatable and consistent awareness of herself or environment. While initially fed by means of a nasogastric feeding tube, she eventually received a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) feeding tube—inserted through the abdominal wall. The parents consistently pressed for rehabilitation both before and after the malpractice settlement but were excluded from medical information and decisions.

Dr. Garcia J. DeSousa, a board-certified neurologist in St. Petersburg, Florida, cared for Schiavo during her initial admission to Humana; both he and Dr. Victor Gambone, an internist and Schiavo family physician, independently made the PVS diagnosis within approximately one year after Schiavo's cardiac arrest. Other neurologists—Drs. Jeffery M. Karp, James H. Barnhill, and Thomas H. Harrison—also examined Schiavo over the years and made the same diagnosis; they also shared a very poor opinion about her chances for recovery. Dr. Cranford testified in 2005 that nothing in the medical records suggested disagreement among Terri’s physicians about the underlying diagnosis. The legal record, however, shows Michael's claim that Terri felt pain. p.88

Rehabilitation efforts

Schiavo's parents contended that her behavior in this image from one of the videos released by her parents showed that she was aware of the people around her. Most neurologists who examined Schiavo disagreed, saying that her behavior represented reflex or instinctive actions.

Schiavo came home to her family in September; however, after becoming overwhelmed with her needs, the family sent her back to the College Park facility. In November, Michael took her to the University of California, San Francisco for an experimental procedure involving the placement of a thalamic stimulator implant in her brain. The experimental treatment took several months but was unsuccessful. Michael returned to Florida with her in January 1991 and admitted her as an inpatient to the Mediplex Rehabilitation Center in Bradenton, Florida. While there, he later said that he often took "her to parks and public places in hopes of sparking some recovery". On July 19 1991, Schiavo was transferred to the Sable Palms Skilled Care Facility, where she received neurological testing and regular speech and occupational therapy until 1994.

Schiavo's husband trained and became a respiratory therapist and emergency room nurse and continued to personally provide her with some of his care.

"Do-not-resuscitate" order

In March 1994, after more than three years of trying various therapies, Michael came to terms with his doctors' diagnosis of an irreversible persistent vegetative state, and transferred his wife to Palm Guardens Nursing Home in Largo, Florida. In early 1994, she contracted a urinary tract infection and Michael halted most therapy for his wife and entered a "Do Not Resuscitate" (DNR) order. Dr. Jay Wolfson, who was both a doctor and a lawyer, later wrote in his report that Michael's decision had been based on consultation with his wife's physician and was "predicated on his reasoned belief that there was no longer any hope for Theresa's recovery." He later rescinded this after the Schindlers and the nursing home protested.

Five years of family conflict

From 1998 to the end of 2002, the families were locked into a struggle in the courts, first to decide if Schiavo should be removed from life support and then the appeals by her parents to block this determination. This legal struggle received no publicity of note. This phase started with Michael's initial petition to have the feeding tube removed and involved four legal decisions of note. In many ways, the legal status at the end of these five years was the same as immediately after Michael had first filed, but up until the end of this time, the story had received little coverage in the media, and thus it was still a family affair.

One objection the parent had was to Schiavo dying by dehydration. The Paul Brophy case had outlined some of the distressing details involved with this type of death.

Schiavo's husband insisted that she had expressed her wishes not to be kept on life support with no hope for improvement. During a trial in 2000, testimony was heard from witnesses on both sides to establish Schiavo's wishes regarding life support. The court determined that she had made "credible and reliable" statements that she wouldn't want to be "kept alive on a machine," based on expert testimony, finding that Americans don't want to live "with no hope of improvement," and that her condition in a persistent vegetative state had "long since satisfied" the requirement that there be no hope of improvement.

Petition to remove feeding tube

In May 1998, Michael filed a petition to remove Schiavo's feeding tube, which her parents opposed. Richard Pearse was appointed by the court as a second guardian ad litem (GAL), and on December 29, 1998, reported "Dr. Karp's opinion of the ward's condition and prognosis is substantially shared among those physicians who have recently been involved in her treatment". Pearse concluded from Karp's and Dr. Vincent Gambone's diagnosis of PVS that Schiavo was legally in a persistent vegetative state as defined by Florida Statutes, Title XLIV, Chapter 765, §101(12). This includes the "absence of voluntary action" and an "inability to communicate or interact purposefully."

Pearse found that there was no possibility of improvement but that Michael's decisions might have been influenced by the potential to inherit what remained of Terri Schiavo's estate. Due to a lack of a living will and questions regarding Michael's credibility, Pearse recommended denying his petition to remove her feeding tube. The issue of conflict of interest raised by guardian ad litem Pearse attached to the Schindlers as well, he reported, since, had they prevailed in the various litigation over guardianship, they as the presumed heirs-at-law would have inherited the remainder of Mrs. Schiavo's estate upon her death.

Schiavo's end-of-life wishes – Schiavo I

Given the lack of a living will, a trial was held during the week of January 24, 2000, to determine what Schiavo's wishes would have been regarding life-prolonging procedures. Testimony from eighteen witnesses regarding her medical condition and her end-of-life wishes were heard. Michael claimed that Schiavo would not want to be kept on a machine with no hope for recovery. Her parents claimed that Schiavo was a devout Roman Catholic who would not wish to violate the Church's teachings on euthanasia by refusing nutrition and hydration. Judge George Greer issued his order granting Michael’s petition for authorization to discontinue artificial life support for his wife in February 2000. In this decision, the court found that Schiavo was in a persistent vegetative state and that she had made reliable oral declarations that she would have wanted the feeding tube removed. This decision was upheld by the Florida Second District Court of Appeal (or "2nd DCA") and came to be known by the court as Schiavo I in its later rulings.

Oral feeding and the Second Guardianship Challenge

In March of 2000, the Schindlers filed a motion to permit oral feeding of Schiavo, which is not considered a life-prolonging procedure under Florida law. Since clinical records indicated that Schiavo was not responsive to swallowing tests and required a feeding tube, Judge Greer ruled that Schiavo was not capable of orally ingesting sufficient nutrition and hydration to sustain life, and denied the request. The Medical Examiner in his report was more definitive and concluded that Schiavo could not have swallowed and thus could not have received sufficient nutrition or hydration by mouth to sustain life.

In 2000, the Schindlers again challenged Michael's guardianship. Their new evidence cited that he had relationships with other women and that he had failed to provide appropriate palliative care and treatment for Theresa. The Schindlers further suggested that he was wasting the assets within the guardianship account by transferring Schiavo to Pinellas Park, Florida hospice "after it was clear that she was not 'terminal' within Medicare guidelines" for hospices. By this time, while still legally married to Terri Schiavo, Michael was in a relationship with Yoda Centonze, and had fathered their first child. Michael denied wrongdoing, stating that the Schindlers had actively encouraged him to "get on with his life" and date since 1991. Michael said he chose not to divorce his wife and relinquish guardianship because he wanted to ensure her final wishes (to not be kept alive in a PVS) were carried out. The court denied the motion to remove the guardian, allowing that the evidence was not sufficient and in some instances, not relevant. It set April 24, 2001 as the date on which the tube was to be removed.

Three appeals – Schiavo II

In April 2001, the Schindlers filed a motion for relief from judgment citing new evidence of Schiavo's wishes. Judge Greer denied the motion as untimely under Rule 1.540(b)(5) of the Florida Rules of Civil Procedure. The 2nd DCA upheld Greer's decision but remanded the issue in order to give the Schindlers an opportunity to file a new motion. On April 24, Schiavo's feeding tube was removed for the first time. The Schindlers filed a civil suit against Michael alleging perjury, which was assigned to another court. The judge, Frank Quesada, issued an injunction against removal of feeding tube until this was settled. The feeding tube was reinserted on April 26. On appeal by Michael, the 2nd DCA reversed Judge Quesada's order. In the same time frame, Michael filed a motion to enforce mandate of the guardianship court (that the feeding tube be removed). The 2nd DCA denied the motion. (These three decisions, all published in a single order by Florida's Second District Court of Appeal, came to be known by the court as Schiavo II in its later rulings.)

Challenging the PVS diagnosis – Schiavo III

After the failure of challenges to Michael's guardianship and to the ruling on Schiavo's end-of-life wishes, the Schindlers adopted the position that Schiavo was not in a PVS and began to challenge that diagnosis in court. Schiavo's parents claim that their daughter did not meet the definition of a persistent vegetative state, and was in a "minimally conscious state" instead. Her parents argued that at times her actions indicated responses to external stimuli, not instinctive or reflex behavior. For example, the Schindlers claimed that their daughter smiled, laughed, cried, moved, made childlike attempts at speech, and attempted to say "Mom" or "Dad"; or "yeah" when they asked her a question. They claimed that when they kissed her, she looked at them and sometimes puckered her lips.

On August 10, 2001, on remand from the 2nd DCA, Judge Greer heard a motion from the Schindlers claiming that new medical treatment could restore sufficient cognitive ability that Schiavo herself would decide to continue life-prolonging measures. The court also heard motions from the Schindlers to remove the guardian (Michael) and to require Judge Greer to recuse himself. Judge Greer denied the motions and the Schindlers appealed to the 2nd DCA.

On October 17, the Court of Appeal affirmed the denials of the motions to remove and recuse. The Court of Appeals acknowledged that their opinion misled the trial court, and they remanded the question of Schiavo's wishes back to the trial court and required an evidentiary hearing to be held. The court specified that five board certified neurologists were to testify. The Schindlers were allowed to choose two doctors to present findings at an evidentiary hearing while Michael could introduce two rebuttal experts. Finally, the trial court itself would appoint a new independent physician to examine and evaluate Schiavo's condition. (These decisions, all published in a single order by the Florida Second District Court of Appeal, came to be known by the court as Schiavo III in its later rulings.)

PVS diagnosis ruling – Schiavo IV

Left: Scan of normal 25-year-old's brain; Right: Schiavo's 2002 CT scan at age 38 showing the massive loss of brain tissue. The bright dot is an electrode that was implanted as experimental treatment in 1990.

In October 2002, on remand by the Second District Court of Appeal, an evidentiary hearing was held in Judge Greer's court to determine whether new therapy treatments could help Schiavo restore any cognitive function. In preparation for the trial, a new computed axial tomography scan (CAT scan) was performed, which showed severe cerebral atrophy. An EEG showed no measurable brain activity. The court viewed a six-hour tape of Schiavo and concluded that her vegetative condition was factual and not subject to legal dispute.

In accordance with the 2nd DCA's instructions, five doctors were selected to provide their expert testimony to the trial: two by Schiavo's parents, two by Michael, and one to have been selected by mutual agreement of the parties:

  • The Schindler family selected Dr. William Maxfield (a radiologist) and Dr. William Hammesfahr (a neurologist).
  • Michael Schiavo selected Dr. Ronald Cranford and Dr. Melvin Greer (both neurologists).
  • The parties having failed to agree, the court selected Dr. Peter Bambakidis (a neurologist).

These five doctors examined Schiavo's medical records, brain scans, the videos, and Schiavo herself. Drs. Cranford, Greer, and Bambakidis testified that Schiavo was in a persistent vegetative state. Drs. Maxfield and Hammesfahr testified that she was in a minimally conscious state.

As part of the court-ordered medical exam, six hours of video of Schiavo were taped and filed at the Pinellas County courthouse. The tape included Schiavo with her mother and neurologist William Hammesfahr. The entire tape was viewed by Judge Greer, who wrote, Schiavo "clearly does not consistently respond to her mother". From that six hours of video, the Schindlers and their supporters produced six clips totaling almost six minutes and released those clips to public websites.

Judge Greer ruled that Schiavo was in a PVS, and was beyond hope of significant improvement. The trial court order was particularly critical of Hammesfahr's testimony, which claimed positive results in similar cases by use of vasodilation therapy, the success of which is unsupported in the medical literature. This ruling was later affirmed by Florida's 2nd District Court of Appeal, which stated that "this court has closely examined all of the evidence in the record," and "we have... carefully observ the video tapes in their entirety." The court concluded that "...if we were called upon to review the guardianship court's decision de novo, we would still affirm it." (This decision by the 2nd DCA came to be known as Schiavo IV in later rulings.)

2003 petition

At about the start of 2003, the Schindlers began to create more publicity and to lobby for their case to keep their daughter alive. They selected pro-life activist Randall Terry as their spokesman but continued to pursue their available legal options.


On September 11, 2003, the Schindlers petitioned the court to forestall removal of the feeding tube to provide for "eight weeks' therapy". Accompanying the petition were four affidavits from members of the Schindler family and one from Dr. Alexander T. Gimon. At the hearing, the Schindlers' counsel read into the record additional affidavits from three speech professionals and two nurses.

On September 17, Judge George Greer denied the petition, and wrote that "the Petition is an attempt by Mr. and Mrs. Schindler to re-litigate the entire case. It is not even a veiled or disguised attempt. The exhibits relied upon by them clearly demonstrate this to be true." Regarding Iyer's statements, Greer wrote that they were "incredible to say the least" and that "Ms. Iyer details what amounts to a 15-month cover-up which include the staff of Palm Garden of Largo Convalescent Center, the Guardian of the Person, the guardian ad litem, the medical professionals, the police and, believe it or not, Mr. and Mrs. Schindler... It is impossible to believe that Mr. and Mrs. Schindler would not have subpoenaed Ms. Iyer for the January 2000 evidentiary hearing had Iyer contacted them as her affidavit alleges."

State involvement: Terri's Law

Main article: Government involvement in the Terri Schiavo case

On October 15, 2003, Schiavo's feeding tube was removed. Within a week, when the Schindlers' final appeal was exhausted, the Florida Legislature hastily passed "Terri's Law," giving Governor Jeb Bush the authority to intervene in the case. Bush immediately ordered the feeding tube reinserted. Bush sent the Florida Department of Law Enforcement to remove Schiavo from the hospice. She was taken to Morton Plant Rehabilitation Hospital in Clearwater, where her feeding tube was surgically reinserted. She was then returned to the hospice. Part of the legislation required the appointment of a guardian ad litem (GAL), Dr. Jay Wolfson, to "deduce and represent the best wishes and best interests" of Schiavo, and report them to Governor Bush. Wolfson's report did not change Michael's role as her legal guardian and did not otherwise obstruct him legally.

Michael Schiavo opposed the Governor's intervention in Schiavo's case, and was represented, in part, by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). At the same time, Robert and Mary Schindler, her parents, attempted to intervene and participate in the "Terri's Law" case but were denied by Judge W. Douglas Baird, a Circuit Judge in the Florida 6th Circuit, the same circuit as for Judge George W. Greer. They appealed, and, on February 13, the Florida Second District Court of Appeal (2nd DCA) reversed Baird's ruling, allowing them to participate. On March 17, Baird denied the Schindlers the right to intervene a 2nd time, and the Schindlers, represented by the conservative American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ), appealed the right to participate in the "Terri's Law" case, with the court scheduling an oral argument date for June 14. The Schindlers' other attorney, Pat Anderson, was concurrently challenging Michael Schiavo's right to be her guardian, and, on June 16, she made a petition for writ of Quo Warranto, a pleading that asks "by what right" someone acts in an official capacity.

On May 5 2004, Baird found "Terri's Law" unconstitutional, and struck it down. Bush appealed this order to the 2nd DCA, but, on May 12, they issued an "Order Relinquishing Case for Entry of Final Judgment and Order to Show Cause Why this Proceeding Should Not be Certified to the Supreme Court As Requiring Immediate Resolution." The 2nd DCA, in sending it directly to the Florida's Supreme Court, invoked "pass through" jurisdiction.

The Florida Supreme Court then overturned the law as unconstitutional.

Wolfson's investigation and report

Wolfson visited Schiavo at least daily over the course of a month. In December, 2003, he submitted his report, referring to himself in the third person as "the GAL". His central finding was: "The GAL was not able to independently determine that there were consistent, repetitive, intentional, reproducible interactive and aware activities." He notes further, that when joined by her parents no success was gained in eliciting a repetitive or consistent response from Schiavo.

In examining medical records and consultations surrounding the case, Wolfson concluded: "(that there is) well documented information that she is in a persistent vegetative state with no likelihood of improvement, and that the neurological and speech pathology evidence in the file support the contention that she cannot take oral nutrition or hydration and cannot consciously interact with her environment." He observed further that while there appeared to be agreement about Schiavo and PVS: "the Schindlers have adopted what appears to be a position that Theresa is not in a persistent vegetative state, and/or that they do not support the fact that such a medical state exists at all."

Wolfson addressed two criticisms that media attention had affixed to the Schindlers and Michael Schiavo, respectively. That the Schindlers would keep their daughter alive to the point of her "limbs being amputated," was not accurate according to Wolfson. Of suggestions that Michael Schiavo refused to relinquish his guardianship because of financial interests or to cover up previous abuse, Wolfson reported that "there is no evidence in the record to substantiate any of these perceptions or allegations."

Wolfson reported to Governor Jeb Bush that "the evidence that served as the basis for the decisions regarding Theresa Schiavo were firmly grounded within Florida statutory and case law, which clearly and unequivocally provide for the removal of artificial nutrition in cases of persistent vegetative states," and that the evidence regarding Schiavo's medical condition and intentions had been "deemed, by the trier of fact to be clear and convincing." and "The reasonable degree of medical certainty associated with her diagnosis and prognosis is very high."

Final motions

From about the start of 2005, publicity for this case again began to grow and climaxed in the last half of March with Schiavo's last days, dominating the national news through most of that month.

The Schindlers filed two motions in an effort to forestall the removal of Schiavo's feeding tube. No stay was granted by the appellate courts, and on March 18, 2005, her feeding tube was removed for a third time.

Motion details

On February 23, 2005, the Schindlers filed a motion for relief from judgment pending medical evaluations. The Schindlers wanted Schiavo to be tested with an fMRI and given a swallowing therapy called VitalStim. The motion was accompanied by thirty-three affidavits from doctors in several specialties, speech-language pathologists and therapists, and a few neuropsychologists, all urging that new tests be undertaken. Patricia Fields Anderson, the Schindler family attorney, still held out hope "that Terri might be able to take nourishment orally, despite past findings that she is incapable." Judge Greer formally denied the motion and ordered the "removal of nutrition and hydration from the ward" . Anderson argued that Greer did not specify "artificial nutrition and hydration" versus "oral nutrition and hydration" and stated that "the withholding of food and water...was not ordered by the Court but by Michael Schiavo." In his order, Greer also set a time and date for the removal of the feeding tube: "1:00 p.m. on Friday, March 18, 2005."

On February 28, the Schindlers filed a motion, asking for permission to attempt to provide Schiavo with "Food and Water by Natural Means." This second motion asked for permission to "attempt to feed" Schiavo by mouth. Judge Greer denied the second motion on March 8, saying "it has become clear that the motion is part and parcel of motion on medical evaluations. The same declarations are being used for both motions and the motion appears to be an alternative pleading to the motion. Both are asking for an experimental procedure." The following day, Greer denied the first motion as well, citing that an affiant doctor for Michael cautioned that fMRI was an experimental procedure that should be conducted in an academic setting, because Schiavo had already undergone swallowing tests and failed, and because VitalStim had only been performed on patients who were not in a PVS. Greer noted that "ost of the doctor affidavits submitted are based on their understanding of Schiavo's condition from news reports or video clips they have seen. Many are obviously not aware of the medical exams undertaken for the 2002 trial..."

Federal involvement

Main article: Government involvement in the Terri Schiavo case

Following Greer's order on March 18 2005 to remove the feeding tube, Republicans in the United States Congress subpoenaed both Michael and Terri Schiavo to testify at a congressional hearing. It is contempt of Congress to prevent or discourage congressional witnesses from testifying. The purpose of the subpoenas was thus to postpone the feeding tube removal.

Greer told congressional attorneys, "I have had no cogent reason why the (congressional) committee should intervene." He also stated that last-minute action by Congress does not invalidate years of court rulings. Although Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist, Senator Rick Santorum, and House Majority Leader Tom DeLay, brought the possibility of sanctioning Greer on charges of contempt of Congress, Congress did not attempt to enforce the subpoenas or take any action against Greer.

Palm Sunday Compromise

Main article: Palm Sunday Compromise

Governor Bush and Congressional Republicans anticipated Greer's adverse ruling well before it was delivered and worked on a daily basis to find an alternative means of overturning the legal process by utilizing the authority of the United States Congress. On March 20, 2005, the Senate, by unanimous consent, passed their version of the resolution, followed by the House of Representatives, a private bill which came to be called the "Palm Sunday Compromise" (S-686), transferring jurisdiction of the Schiavo case to the federal courts. The bill passed the House on March 21 at 12:41 a.m. EST. President Bush flew to Washington D.C. from his vacation in Texas in order to sign the bill into law at 1:11 a.m. EST. As in the state courts, all of the Schindlers' federal petitions and appeals were denied, and the U.S. Supreme Court declined to grant certiorari, effectively ending the Schindlers' legal options.

At the same time, the so-called Schiavo memo surfaced, causing a political firestorm. The memo was written by Brian Darling, the legal counsel to Florida Republican senator Mel Martinez. It suggested the Schiavo case offered "a great political issue" that would appeal to the party's base (core supporters) and could be used against Senator Bill Nelson, a Democrat from Florida who won reelection in 2006, because he had refused to co-sponsor the bill.

On March 24 2005, Greer denied a petition for intervention by the Department of Children & Families (DCF) and signed an order forbidding the department from "taking possession of Theresa Marie Schiavo or removing her" from the hospice and directed "each and every and singular sheriff of the state of Florida" to enforce his order. The order was appealed to the 2nd DCA the following day, which resulted in an automatic stay under state law. While the stay was in effect, Florida Department of Law Enforcement personnel prepared to take custody of Terri and transfer her to a local hospital for reinsertion of the feeding tube. Once Greer was made aware of the stay, he ordered it lifted and all parties stood down. Governor Bush decided to obey the court order despite enormous pressure from the political right. If Bush (or the Florida Legislature) had ignored Greer's order by attempting to remove her from the hospice, a confrontation between the Pinellas Park Police Department and the FDLE agents could have ensued. In jest, one official said local police discussed "...whether we had enough officers to hold off the National Guard."

Death

On March 26, 2005, Bob and Mary Schindler announced that their legal options had been exhausted. The next day, Schiavo was given the Anointing of the Sick ("Last Rites"). In accordance with the Catholic ritual of Viaticum, she received the Eucharist for the last time; it had been administered to her once through her feeding tube just before it was removed. The Eucharist, according to the teaching of the Catholic Church, can be received under the consecrated species of either bread (referred to as the host) or wine. As her tongue was too dry to receive a small piece of the host, she received under the species of wine, one drop placed on her tongue.

On the day of her death, Terri Schiavo's brother Bobby Schindler and sister Suzanne Vitadamo had been in the room visiting their sibling for about an hour and 45 minutes when a hospice administrator notified Michael Schiavo that his wife was in her final stages. At Michael Schiavo's request, hospice staff instructed Terri Schiavo's siblings to leave the room.

Terri Schiavo died at 9:05 a.m. EST on Thursday, March 31, 2005, with her husband Michael at her side. According to their spokesman, Schiavo's parents had not been allowed into her room during her last hours. When notified that their daughter had died, the couple hurriedly came to the hospice. The Schindler family was not allowed into the room while Michael Schiavo was there, but was admitted once he had left.

Autopsy

After her death, Schiavo's body was taken to the office of the medical examiner for Pinellas and Pasco counties. The autopsy occurred on April 1 2005. It revealed extensive brain damage. The manner of death was certified as "undetermined".

Autopsy details

The autopsy was led by Dr. Jon Thogmartin. Thogmartin also arranged for specialized cardiac and genetic examinations to be made. The official autopsy report was released on June 15, 2005. In addition to studying Ms. Schiavo's remains, Thogmartin scoured court, medical and other records and interviewed her family members, doctors and other relevant parties.

Examination of Schiavo’s nervous system revealed extensive injury. The brain itself weighed 615 g, only half the weight expected for a female of her age, height, and weight, an effect caused by the loss of a massive amount of neurons. Microscopic examination revealed extensive damage to nearly all brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, the thalami, the basal ganglia, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the midbrain. The neuropathologic changes in her brain were precisely of the type seen in patients who enter a PVS following cardiac arrest. Throughout the cerebral cortex, the large pyramidal neurons that comprise some 70 percent of cortical cells—critical to the functioning of the cortex—were completely lost. The pattern of damage to the cortex, with injury tending to worsen from the front of the cortex to the back, is also typical. There was marked damage to important relay circuits deep in the brain (the thalami)—another common pathologic finding in cases of PVS. The damage was, in the words of Thogmartin, "irreversible, and no amount of therapy or treatment would have regenerated the massive loss of neurons." Dr. Stephen J. Nelson, P.A., cautioned that "europathologic examination alone of the decedent’s brain – or any brain for that matter – cannot prove or disprove a diagnosis of persistent vegetative state or minimally conscious state." The vegetative state is a behaviorally defined syndrome of complete unawareness, to self and to environment, that occurs in a person who nevertheless experiences wakefulness. As the condition is defined in clinical terms, it can therefore only be diagnosed in persons who, at some point, are shown to meet those clinical terms. Ancillary investigations, such as CT scans, MRI, EEGs, and lately fMRI and PET scanning, may only provide support for the clinical impression—as might the pathologic findings, after death. In the case of Terri Schiavo, seven of the eight neurologists who examined her in her final years stated that she met the clinical criteria for PVS; the serial CT scans, EEGs, the one MRI, and finally, the pathologic findings, were consistent with that diagnosis.

Aside from a localized, healed inflammation, the cardiac pathologist who studied Schiavo's heart found it and the coronary vessels to be healthy. Her initial collapse was not the result of myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack.

Although the basis of Michael Schiavo's $1 million medical malpractice settlement was his claim that Terri Schiavo suffered from an eating disorder (bulimia) that caused a serious electrolyte disturbance, stopping her heart, Thogmartin found that "there was no proof that Terri Schiavo ever had an eating disorder such as bulimia." The main piece of evidence cited for an eating disorder — the low levels of potassium in her blood in 1990 — could have been caused by the emergency treatment she received at the time, Thogmartin said. While she had lost more than 100 pounds since high school, Schiavo never confessed to an eating disorder, she did not take diet pills and no one had ever witnessed her purging food.

Regarding the possibility of strangulation or domestic violence as a cause of Schiavo's initial collapse, the report states: "No trauma was noted on any of the numerous physical exams or radiographs performed on Mrs. Schiavo on the day of, in the days after, or in the months after her initial collapse. Indeed, within an hour of her initial hospital admission, radiographic examination of her cervical spine was negative. Specifically, external signs of strangulation including cutaneous or deep neck injury, facial/conjunctival petechiae, and other blunt trauma were not observed or recorded during her initial hospital admission. Autopsy examination of her neck structures 15 years after her initial collapse did not detect any signs of remote trauma, but, with such a delay, the exam was unlikely to show any residual neck findings."

Regarding the cause and manner of Schiavo’s death, Thogmartin wrote, "Mrs. Schiavo suffered severe anoxic brain injury. The cause of which cannot be determined with reasonable medical certainty. The manner of death will therefore be certified as undetermined."

“We weren’t surprised the medical examiner said Terri’s brain was damaged,” said Bobby Schindler, Jr., her brother, in an interview hours after the autopsy report was released. “The fact that the medical examiner ruled out bulimia and ruled out a heart attack, without a doubt, adds more questions.”

Burial

Schiavo's gravemarker

Schiavo's body was cremated following the autopsy. Her parents offered a memorial Mass for her at the Holy Name of Jesus Catholic Church in Gulfport on April 5. Father Frank Pavone, an activist with Priests for Life, delivered the main homily (Audio: MP3 Format).

On May 7, Schiavo's parents made public a complaint that they hadn't been informed of when and where the ashes of their daughter had been (or were to be) buried by Michael Schiavo. He was under court order to provide this information to them.

On June 20, the cremated remains of Terri Schiavo were buried. The Schindlers' attorney stated that the family was notified by fax only after the memorial service; by then, the family had already started getting calls from reporters. The ashes were interred at Sylvan Abbey Memorial Park in Clearwater, Florida. The epitaph, shown at right, reads:

Schiavo / Theresa Marie / Beloved Wife
Born December 3, 1963
Departed this earth / February 25, 1990
At peace March 31, 2005
Peace symbol
I kept my promise

On January 23, 2006, Michael Schiavo married his long-term fiancée, Jodi Centonze, whom he met in a dentist's office in 1995.

Public opinion and activism

Main article: Public opinion and activism in the Terri Schiavo case

In 2004, Pope John Paul II stated that health care providers are morally bound to provide food and water to patients in persistent vegetative states. This led to a challenge in 2005 by Schiavo's parents, who requested a new trial about whether their daughter, as a devout Catholic, would wish to go against the Church's teaching. David Gibbs III, the lead lawyer for Terri Schiavo’s parents, supported Vatican statements which condemned her treatment as euthanasia. Judge Greer rejected their request.

The Terri Schiavo case held the attention of both American and international audiences and had major political ramifications. A number of opinion polls were carried out, particularly on the question of federal involvement in the Terri Schiavo case, with conflicting results. The case drew notable figures on both sides of the debate, as well as many pressure groups and public protesters. Although the vast majority of protests were nonviolent, two of the more extreme acts included death threats aimed towards Michael Schiavo.

On March 11, 2005, media tycoon Robert Herring (who believes that stem cell research could have cured Schiavo's condition) offered $1 million to Michael Schiavo if he agreed to cede his guardianship to his wife's parents. The offer was rejected; George Felos, attorney for Michael Schiavo, described it as offensive, adding that Michael had rejected other monetary offers, including one of $10 million.

During the final stages of the court battle in March 2005, around 30 individuals made a variety of complaints to the DCF, alleging various abuses. These included Terri Schiavo being in pain from recent dental work, her not having had any dental work for years prior to that, and sensory depravation. DCF investigators found the claims to be groundless, stating that there were "no indicators" of abuse in any of the cases and concluding that "he preponderance of the evidence shows that Michael Schiavo followed doctors' orders Ms. Schiavo's diagnosis of being in a persistent vegetative state and that he provided her with appropriate care."

Impact of the case

One effect that the Schiavo case has had on the public is to remind adults to consider drawing up a living will. Advocates indicate that the rate of living will creation has increased since Terri Schiavo died. Some caution that a living will provides a false sense of security, and recommend instead a durable power of attorney. Her extensively-documented case is also a current basis for the study and advancement of end-of-life medical ethics — see the external links section.

Paul Schenck's organization, NPLAC, has commissioned a sculpture to Terri Schiavo entitled Compassion.

See also


Medical ethics cases
Assisted
suicide
Euthanasia/
Withholding
treatment
Medical opinion against
parent/patient/guardian
Informed consent
to treatment
Research

Notes

  1. Felos, George J., Esq. "RESPONDENT MICHAEL SCHIAVO'S OPPOSITION TO APPLICATION FOR INJUNCTION," Case No.: 04A-825, March 24 2005 link
  2. Nair, Sandya. "Terri Schiavo case reveals dangers of eating disorders," The Johns Hopkins Newsletter, March 24 2005 link
  3. Schindler, Mary and Robert, A Life That Matters, P27
  4. Campo-Flores, Arian. "The Legacy of Terri Schiavo," Newsweek, April 4 2005 link
  5. See brainmap
  6. J Law Med Ethics. 2005 Summer;33(2):363-71.
  7. Nonpublic copy of "Facts..." by Cranford at NCBI
  8. Deposition, Michael Schiavo, November 19, 1993
  9. Sabal Palms Health Care Center (Largo, FL) Detailed Hospital Profile
  10. ^ Wolfson, Jay, DrPH, JD. "A REPORT TO GOVERNOR JEB BUSH AND THE 6TH JUDICIAL CIRCUIT IN THE MATTER OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO," Abstract Appeal Legal Blog, December 1 2003 link
  11. ^ Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated," File No. 90-2908GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, February 11 2000 link
  12. ^ Pearse, Richard L., Jr., P.A., Guardian Ad Litem. "REPORT OF GUARDIAN AD LITEM," for "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA SCHIAVO, AN INCAPACITATED PERSON," Case No. 90-2908GD-003, Hospice Patients Alliance, December 29 1998 link
  13. State of Florida. FLORIDA STATUTES, Accessible State Law on the Official State of Florida Website link
  14. State of Florida. FLORIDA STATUTES, Citation of Law, §765.101(12), Florida Statutes link
  15. Altenbernd, Chris W., Judge (for The Court). "In re GUARDIANSHIP OF Theresa Marie SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. Robert Schindler and Mary Schindler, Appellants, v. Michael Schiavo, as Guardian of the person of Theresa Marie Schiavo, Appellee," Case Number: 2D00-1269, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, January 24, 2001 link
  16. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated," File No. 90-2908GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, March 7 2000 link
  17. ^ Thogmartin, Jon R., M.D. "REPORT OF AUTOPSY" for Theresa Schiavo, Case #5050439, June 13 2005 link
  18. Anderson, Patricia F., Esq. "SECOND AMENDED PETITION TO REMOVE GUARDIAN," Liberty To The Captives, 2003 link
  19. Anderson, Patricia F., Esq. "PETITION TO REMOVE GUARDIAN AND TO APPOINT SUCCESSOR GUARDIAN," University of Miami, November 15 2002 link
  20. State of Florida. FLORIDA RULES OF CIVIL PROCEDURE, 2005 Edition. The Florida Bar link (page 65)
  21. Altenbernd, Chris W., Judge (for The Court). "In re GUARDIANSHIP OF Theresa Marie SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. Robert Schindler and Mary Schindler, Appellants, v. Michael Schiavo, as Guardian of the person of Theresa Marie Schiavo, Appellee," and "Michael Schiavo, as Guardian of the person of Theresa Marie Schiavo, Appellant, v. Robert Schindler and Mary Schindler, Appellees," Case Numbers: 2D00-1269, 2D01-1836, and 2D01-1891, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, July 11 2001 link
  22. Altenbernd, Chris W., Judge (for The Court). "IN RE: GUARDIANSHIP OF: THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Appellants, v. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Appellee," Case Number: 2D01-3626, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, October 17 2001 link
  23. Smith, Brad. "Schiavo Videotapes Offer Powerful But Misleading Evidence," Tampa Tribune, March 20 2005 link
  24. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "In re: The GUARDIANSHIP OF Theresa Marie SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. Michael SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of Theresa Marie Schiavo, Petitioner, v. Robert SCHINDLER and Mary Schindler, Respondents," File No. 90-2908-GB-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, November 22 2002 link
  25. Altenbernd, Chris W., Judge (for The Court). "IN RE: GUARDIANSHIP OF: THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Appellants, v. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Appellee," Case Number: 2D02-5394, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, June 6 2003 link
  26. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Petitioner, v. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Respondents," File No. 90-2908GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, September 17 2003 link
  27. State of Florida. House Bill No. 35-E, which later was passed into Law as Florida Public Law, Chapter 2003-418, commonly known as "Terri's Law," link
  28. Bury, Chris. "Transcript: Michael Schiavo on 'Nightline': Husband at the Heart of the 'Right to Die' Case Speaks to Chris Bury," ABC News, March 15 2005 link
  29. David, Charles A., Jr., Judge (for The Court). "ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, parents of THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Appellants, v. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Appellee," Case Number: 2D03-5200, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, February 13 2004 link
  30. Reynolds, Dave, Inclusion Daily Express. "Judge Baird Again Denies Schindlers' Request To Intervene In "Terri's Law" Case," Fla. Minnesota Governor's Council on Developmental Disabilities, March 17 2004 link
  31. State of Florida. "Case Docket," Case Number: 2D04-1528, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, link
  32. Baird, W. Douglas, Circuit Judge. "Michael SCHIAVO, as Guardian of the person of Theresa Marie Schiavo, Petitioner, v. Jeb BUSH, Governor of the State of Florida, and Charlie Crist, Attorney General of the State of Florida, Respondents," Case No. 03-008212-CI-20, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, May 5 2005 link
  33. Birkhold, James, Clerk (for The Court). "Order Relinquishing Case for Entry of Final Judgment and Order to Show Cause Why this Proceeding Should Not be Certified to the Supreme Court As Requiring Immediate Resolution," Case Number: 2D04-2045, Florida Second District Court of Appeal, May 12 2004 (Pages 6 & 7 of the 7-page Brief at the link following) link
  34. Conigliaro, Matt, Esq. "Schiavo News," Abstract Appeal Legal Web Log, June 10 2004 link
  35. Pariente, Barbara, Chief Justice (for The Court). "JEB BUSH, Governor of Florida, et al., Appellants, vs. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, Guardian of Theresa Schiavo, Appellee," Case Number: SC04-925, Florida Supreme Court, September 23 2004 link
  36. Gibbs, David C., III, Esq. "RESPONDENTS' FLA.R.CIV.P.1.540(b)(5) MOTION FOR RELIEF FROM JUDGMENT PENDING CONTEMPORARY MEDICAL/PSYCHIATRIC/REHABILITATIVE EVALUATION OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO," File Number: 90-2908GD-003, February 23 2005 link
  37. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, Petitioner, vs. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Respondents," File No. 90-2908-GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, March 9 2005 link
  38. An Unsigned Editorial. "On Face the Nation, Family Research Council's Perkins misrepresented Schindler family's 33 affidavits calling for more medical treatment for Terri Schiavo," Media Matters for America, March 28 2005 link
  39. Troxler, Howard. "Too thin a line between life, death for Schiavo," Saint Petersburg Times, September 15 2003 link
  40. Ruby, Lisa. "Judge Greer and Michael Schiavo: Collusive Law Breaking in Attempts to End Terri's Life," Liberty To The Captives, October 31 2003 link
  41. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, Petitioner, vs. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Respondents," File No. 90-2908-GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, February 25 2005 link
  42. Gibbs, David C., III, Esq. "EMERGENCY EXPEDITED MOTION FOR PERMISSION TO PROVIDE THERESA SCHIAVO WITH FOOD AND WATER BY NATURAL MEANS," File Number: 90-2908GD-003, February 27 2005 link
  43. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, Petitioner, vs. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Respondents," File No. 90-2908-GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, March 8 2005 link
  44. Greer, George W., Circuit Judge. "IN RE: THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THERESA MARIE SCHIAVO, Incapacitated. MICHAEL SCHIAVO, Petitioner, vs. ROBERT SCHINDLER and MARY SCHINDLER, Respondents," File No. 90-2908-GD-003, Fla. 6th Judicial Circuit, March 9 2005 link
  45. Davis, Tom, Chairman, (for The Committee). "SUBPOENA," Committee on Government Reform, U.S. House of Representatives, March 18 2005 link
  46. An Unsigned News Story. "Docs Remove Terri Schiavo's Feeding Tube: Tube Was Scheduled To Be Removed Friday," CBS 2 Chicago, WBBM-TV, March 17 2005 link
  47. An Unsigned "AP" News Story. "Schiavo's feeding tube removed despite congressional intervention," USA Today, March 18 2005 link
  48. An Unsigned "AP" News Story. "Schiavo's Feeding Tube Removed," TBO.com News, March 18 2005 link
  49. Farrington, Brendan. "Lawyers for Bush, lawmakers worked at exhausting pace on Schiavo," The Associated Press, May 24 2005 link
  50. An Unsigned News Story. "GOP memo says issue offers political rewards," The Washington Post, April 4 2005 link
  51. An Unsigned "AP" News Story. "KCBS Report: State Tried Schiavo Grab," WCBS-TV, March 26 2005 (WCBS-TV New York, reprinting a KCBS-TV Los Angeles Story) link
  52. An Unsigned News Story. "Attorney: Terri's husband cradled her: 'It was a very emotional moment for many of us there'," CNN, April 1 2005 link
  53. Phillips, Rich, Producer. "Autopsy: No sign Schiavo was abused: Findings show woman's brain 'profoundly atrophied'," CNN, June 17 2005 link
  54. Terri Schiavo autopsy reports 'undetermined' cause of death; indicates no eating disorder, heart attack or trauma in 1990 June 15, 2005
  55. Pavone, Frank A. "Father Frank A. Pavone - Biography," Priests for Life, link
  56. By Times Staff. "Schiavo's parents planning a funeral Mass for today," Saint Petersburg Times, April 5 2005 link
  57. Stacy, Mitch. "Schiavo's Remains Buried Amid Acrimony: Acrimony Between Terri Schiavo's Parents and Husband Continues As Her Remains Buried in Florida," Associated Press, June 21 2005 link
  58. Moore, Waveney Ann. "The Terri Schiavo Case: Vatican official enters Schiavo feeding tube fray," Saint Petersburg Times, February 26 2005 link
  59. Allred, Gloria, Esq. "Statement from Gloria Allred, Attorney-at-Law, Representing Robert Herring, Sr.:," Christian Wire Service, March 10 2005 link
  60. DCF's Schiavo Petition Unsealed March 4, 2005
  61. Tisch, Chris and Krueger, Curtis. "Schiavo abuse claims were old," St. Petersburg Times, June 4 2005 link
  62. "Schiavo Case Prompts More Living Wills" by Mitch Stacy, Associated Press Writer Thu Mar 30, 2006
  63. Schiavo's condition difficult to evaluate March 23, 2005
  64. "Compassion" Terri Schindler Schiavo Memorial Sculpture

Further reading

  • Fighting for Dear Life: Inside the Terri Schiavo Story and What it Means for All of Us by David Gibbs and Bob DeMoss (2006) ISBN 0-7642-0243-X
  • The Right to Die: Terri Schiavo (2003) ISBN 0-7365-8883-3 (video)
  • Silent Witness: The Untold Story of Terri Schiavo's Death by Mark Fuhrman (2005) ISBN 0-06-085337-9
  • Using Terri: The Religious Right's Conspiracy to Take Away Our Rights by Jon B. Eisenberg (2005) ISBN 0-06-087732-4
  • A Life That Matters: The Legacy of Terri Schiavo—A Lesson For Us All by Mary and Robert Schindler (2005) ISBN 0-446-57987-4
  • Remembering Terri Schiavo: Reflections of a Health Care Warrior by Audrey Ignatoff (2005) ISBN 1-4116-3220-6
  • Terri's Story: The Court-Ordered Death of an American Woman by Diana Lynne (2005) ISBN 1-58182-488-2
  • The Case of Terri Schiavo: Ethics at the End of Life. Arthur Caplan, James J. McCartney, Dominic Sisti, editors (2006) ISBN 1-59102-398-X Book web site
  • Terri : The Truth by Michael Schiavo, Michael Hirsh (2006) ISBN 0-525-94946-1
  • "Terri Schiavo: When Does Personhood End?" The Elements of Bioethics, Gregory Pence, ISBN 978-0-07-313277-8
  • A reading list with Terri Schiavo citations

External links

Compilations

(legal documents relating to the Schiavo case)

Information sites

Articles, advocacy, and commentary

This information is available on the Public opinion and activism in the Terri Schiavo case article.

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