This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 99.97.20.173 (talk) at 23:41, 17 October 2024 (Too much). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.
Revision as of 23:41, 17 October 2024 by 99.97.20.173 (talk) (Too much)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) Energy collected from renewable resources For the journal, see Renewable Energy (journal).
Renewable energy (or green energy) is energy from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale. The most widely used renewable energy types are solar energy, wind power, and hydropower. Bioenergy and geothermal power are also significant in some countries. Some also consider nuclear power a renewable power source, although this is controversial. Renewable energy installations can be large or small and are suited for both urban and rural areas. Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification. This has several benefits: electricity can move heat and vehicles efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption. Variable renewable energy sources are those that have a fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. In contrast, controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity, bioenergy, or geothermal power.
Renewable energy systems have rapidly become more efficient and cheaper over the past 30 years. A large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity is now renewable. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, have seen significant cost reductions over the past decade, making them more competitive with traditional fossil fuels. In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity. From 2011 to 2021, renewable energy grew from 20% to 28% of global electricity supply. Power from the sun and wind accounted for most of this increase, growing from a combined 2% to 10%. Use of fossil energy shrank from 68% to 62%. In 2022, renewables accounted for 30% of global electricity generation and are projected to reach over 42% by 2028. Many countries already have renewables contributing more than 20% of their total energy supply, with some generating over half or even all their electricity from renewable sources.
The main motivation to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy sources is to slow and eventually stop climate change, which is widely agreed to be caused mostly by greenhouse gas emissions. In general, renewable energy sources cause much lower emissions than fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency estimates that to achieve net zero emissions by 2050, 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources. Renewables also cause much less air pollution than fossil fuels, improving public health, and are less noisy.
The deployment of renewable energy still faces obstacles, especially fossil fuel subsidies, lobbying by incumbent power providers, and local opposition to the use of land for renewable installations. Like all mining, the extraction of minerals required for many renewable energy technologies also results in environmental damage. In addition, although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not.
Overview
See also: Lists of renewable energy topicsDefinition
Renewable energy is usually understood as energy harnessed from continuously occurring natural phenomena. The International Energy Agency defines it as "energy derived from natural processes that are replenished at a faster rate than they are consumed". Solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity, geothermal energy, and biomass are widely agreed to be the main types of renewable energy. Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.
Although almost all forms of renewable energy cause much fewer carbon emissions than fossil fuels, the term is not synonymous with low-carbon energy. Some non-renewable sources of energy, such as nuclear power,generate almost no emissions, while some renewable energy sources can be very carbon-intensive, such as the burning of biomass if it is not offset by planting new plants. Renewable energy is also distinct from sustainable energy, a more abstract concept that seeks to group energy sources based on their overall permanent impact on future generations of humans. For example, biomass is often associated with unsustainable deforestation.
Emerging technologies
There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development, including enhanced geothermal systems, concentrated solar power, cellulosic ethanol, and marine energy. These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Some may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on further breakthroughs from research, development and engineering.
Enhanced geothermal systems
Main article: Enhanced geothermal systemsEnhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are a new type of geothermal power which does not require natural hot water reservoirs or steam to generate power. Most of the underground heat within drilling reach is trapped in solid rocks, not in water. EGS technologies use hydraulic fracturing to break apart these rocks and release the heat they contain, which is then harvested by pumping water into the ground. The process is sometimes known as "hot dry rock" (HDR). Unlike conventional geothermal energy extraction, EGS may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the cost of drilling. EGS projects have so far primarily been limited to demonstration plants, as the technology is capital-intensive due to the high cost of drilling.
Earth infrared thermal radiation
Earth emits roughly 10 W of infrared thermal radiation that flows toward the cold outer space. Solar energy hits the surface and atmosphere of the earth and produces heat. Using various theorized devices like emissive energy harvester (EEH) or thermoradiative diode, this energy flow can be converted into electricity. In theory, this technology can be used during nighttime.
Others
Algae fuels
Main article: Algae fuelsProducing liquid fuels from oil-rich (fat-rich) varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic. Various microalgae grown in open or closed systems are being tried including some systems that can be set up in brownfield and desert lands.
Space-based solar power
Main article: space-based solar powerThere have been numerous proposals for space-based solar power, in which very large satellites with photovoltaic panels would be equipped with microwave transmitters to beam power back to terrestrial receivers. A 2024 study by the NASA Office of Science and Technology Policy examined the concept and concluded that with current and near-future technologies it would be economically uncompetitive.
Water vapor
Collection of static electricity charges from water droplets on metal surfaces is an experimental technology that would be especially useful in low-income countries with relative air humidity over 60%.
Nuclear energy
Breeder reactors could, in principle, depending on the fuel cycle employed, extract almost all of the energy contained in uranium or thorium, decreasing fuel requirements by a factor of 100 compared to widely used once-through light water reactors, which extract less than 1% of the energy in the actinide metal (uranium or thorium) mined from the earth. The high fuel-efficiency of breeder reactors could greatly reduce concerns about fuel supply, energy used in mining, and storage of radioactive waste. With seawater uranium extraction (currently too expensive to be economical), there is enough fuel for breeder reactors to satisfy the world's energy needs for 5 billion years at 1983's total energy consumption rate, thus making nuclear energy effectively a renewable energy. In addition to seawater the average crustal granite rocks contain significant quantities of uranium and thorium with which breeder reactors can supply abundant energy for the remaining lifespan of the sun on the main sequence of stellar evolution.
Artificial photosynthesis
Main article: Artificial photosynthesisArtificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol. Researchers in this field strived to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that use a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic systems made from abundant, inexpensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non-toxic, stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and sustaining living cells). However, prominent research faces hurdles, Sun Catalytix a MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel-cell in 2012 because it offers few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight.
Market and industry trends
Main article: Renewable energy commercializationMost new renewables are solar, followed by wind then hydro then bioenergy. Investment in renewables, especially solar, tends to be more effective in creating jobs than coal, gas or oil. Worldwide, renewables employ about 12 million people as of 2020, with solar PV being the technology employing the most at almost 4 million. However, as of February 2024, the world's supply of workforce for solar energy is lagging greatly behind demand as universities worldwide still produce more workforce for fossil fuels than for renewable energy industries.
In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the global increase in renewable electricity.
There are 3,146 gigawatts installed in 135 countries, while 156 countries have laws regulating the renewable energy sector.
Globally in 2020 there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. The clean energy sectors added about 4.7 million jobs globally between 2019 and 2022, totaling 35 million jobs by 2022.
Usage by sector or application
Some studies say that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and industry – is feasible and economically viable.
One of the efforts to decarbonize transportation is the increased use of electric vehicles (EVs). Despite that and the use of biofuels, such as biojet, less than 4% of transport energy is from renewables. Occasionally hydrogen fuel cells are used for heavy transport. Meanwhile, in the future electrofuels may also play a greater role in decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors like aviation and maritime shipping.
Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households.
Heat pumps provide both heating and cooling, and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing priority. Renewable thermal energy is also growing rapidly. About 10% of heating and cooling energy is from renewables.
Cost comparison
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) stated that ~86% (187 GW) of renewable capacity added in 2022 had lower costs than electricity generated from fossil fuels. IRENA also stated that capacity added since 2000 reduced electricity bills in 2022 by at least $520 billion, and that in non-OECD countries, the lifetime savings of 2022 capacity additions will reduce costs by up to $580 billion.
Installed TWp |
Growth TW/yr |
Production per installed capacity |
Energy TWh/yr |
Growth TWh/yr |
Levelized cost US¢/kWh |
Av. auction prices US¢/kWh |
Cost development 2010–2019 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solar PV | 0.580 | 0.098 | 13% | 549 | 123 | 6.8 | 3.9 | −82% |
Solar CSP | 0.006 | 0.0006 | 13% | 6.3 | 0.5 | 18.2 | 7.5 | −47% |
Wind Offshore | 0.028 | 0.0045 | 33% | 68 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 8.2 | −30% |
Wind Onshore | 0.594 | 0.05 | 25% | 1194 | 118 | 5.3 | 4.3 | −38% |
Hydro | 1.310 | 0.013 | 38% | 4267 | 90 | 4.7 | +27% | |
Bioenergy | 0.12 | 0.006 | 51% | 522 | 27 | 6.6 | −13% | |
Geothermal | 0.014 | 0.00007 | 74% | 13.9 | 0.7 | 7.3 | +49% |
= 2018. All other values for 2019.
Growth of renewables
Investment and sourcesInvestment: Companies, governments and households have committed increasing amounts to decarbonization, including renewable energy (solar, wind), electric vehicles and associated charging infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen.Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a portion of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential. CostsLevelized cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.Past costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly, with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option."Learning curves": Trend of costs and deployment over time, with steeper lines showing greater cost reductions as deployment progresses. With increased deployment, renewables benefit from learning curves and economies of scale.
The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.
In the decade of 2010–2019, worldwide investment in renewable energy capacity excluding large hydropower amounted to US$2.7 trillion, of which the top countries China contributed US$818 billion, the United States contributed US$392.3 billion, Japan contributed US$210.9 billion, Germany contributed US$183.4 billion, and the United Kingdom contributed US$126.5 billion. This was an increase of over three and possibly four times the equivalent amount invested in the decade of 2000–2009 (no data is available for 2000–2003).
As of 2022, an estimated 28% of the world's electricity was generated by renewables. This is up from 19% in 1990.
Future projections
See also: Energy transitionA December 2022 report by the IEA forecasts that over 2022-2027, renewables are seen growing by almost 2 400 GW in its main forecast, equal to the entire installed power capacity of China in 2021. This is an 85% acceleration from the previous five years, and almost 30% higher than what the IEA forecast in its 2021 report, making its largest ever upward revision. Renewables are set to account for over 90% of global electricity capacity expansion over the forecast period. To achieve net zero emissions by 2050, IEA believes that 90% of global electricity generation will need to be produced from renewable sources.
In June 2022 IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol said that countries should invest more in renewables to "ease the pressure on consumers from high fossil fuel prices, make our energy systems more secure, and get the world on track to reach our climate goals."
China's five year plan to 2025 includes increasing direct heating by renewables such as geothermal and solar thermal.
REPowerEU, the EU plan to escape dependence on fossil Russian gas, is expected to call for much more green hydrogen.
After a transitional period, renewable energy production is expected to make up most of the world's energy production. In 2018, the risk management firm, DNV GL, forecasts that the world's primary energy mix will be split equally between fossil and non-fossil sources by 2050.
Middle eastern nations are also planning on reducing their reliance fossil fuel. Many planned green projects will contribute in 26% of energy supply for the region by 2050 achieving emission reductions equal to 1.1 Gt CO2/year.
Massive Renewable Energy Projects in the Middle East:
- Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park in Duba, UAE
- Shuaibah Two (2) Solar Facility in Mecca Province, Saudi Arabia
- NEOM Green Hydrogen Project in NEOM, Saudi Arabia
- Gulf of Suez Wind Power Project in Suez, Egypt
- Al-Ajban Solar Park in Abu Dhabi, UAE
Demand
In July 2014, WWF and the World Resources Institute convened a discussion among a number of major US companies who had declared their intention to increase their use of renewable energy. These discussions identified a number of "principles" which companies seeking greater access to renewable energy considered important market deliverables. These principles included choice (between suppliers and between products), cost competitiveness, longer term fixed price supplies, access to third-party financing vehicles, and collaboration.
UK statistics released in September 2020 noted that "the proportion of demand met from renewables varies from a low of 3.4 per cent (for transport, mainly from biofuels) to highs of over 20 per cent for 'other final users', which is largely the service and commercial sectors that consume relatively large quantities of electricity, and industry".
In some locations, individual households can opt to purchase renewable energy through a consumer green energy program.
Developing countries
This section is an excerpt from Renewable energy in developing countries.Renewable energy in developing countries is an increasingly used alternative to fossil fuel energy, as these countries scale up their energy supplies and address energy poverty. Renewable energy technology was once seen as unaffordable for developing countries. However, since 2015, investment in non-hydro renewable energy has been higher in developing countries than in developed countries, and comprised 54% of global renewable energy investment in 2019. The International Energy Agency forecasts that renewable energy will provide the majority of energy supply growth through 2030 in Africa and Central and South America, and 42% of supply growth in China.
Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources, including solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, and biomass, as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.In Kenya, the Olkaria V Geothermal Power Station is one of the largest in the world. The Grand Ethiopia Renaissance Dam project incorporates wind turbines. Once completed, Morocco's Ouarzazate Solar Power Station is projected to provide power to over a million people.
Policy
Policies to support renewable energy have been vital in their expansion. Where Europe dominated in establishing energy policy in the early 2000s, most countries around the world now have some form of energy policy.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed in 2009, with 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA. As of April 2019, IRENA has 160 member states. The then United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy can lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity, and in September 2011 he launched the UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative to improve energy access, efficiency and the deployment of renewable energy.
The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change motivated many countries to develop or improve renewable energy policies. In 2017, a total of 121 countries adopted some form of renewable energy policy. National targets that year existed in 176 countries. In addition, there is also a wide range of policies at the state/provincial, and local levels. Some public utilities help plan or install residential energy upgrades.
Many national, state and local governments have created green banks. A green bank is a quasi-public financial institution that uses public capital to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies. Green banks use a variety of financial tools to bridge market gaps that hinder the deployment of clean energy.
Global and national policies related to renewable energy can be divided based on sectors, such as agriculture, transport, buildings, industry:
Climate neutrality (net zero emissions) by the year 2050 is the main goal of the European Green Deal. For the European Union to reach their target of climate neutrality, one goal is to decarbonise its energy system by aiming to achieve "net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050."
Finance
The International Renewable Energy Agency's (IRENA) 2023 report on renewable energy finance highlights steady investment growth since 2018: USD 348 billion in 2020 (a 5.6% increase from 2019), USD 430 billion in 2021 (24% up from 2020), and USD 499 billion in 2022 (16% higher). This trend is driven by increasing recognition of renewable energy's role in mitigating climate change and enhancing energy security, along with investor interest in alternatives to fossil fuels. Policies such as feed-in tariffs in China and Vietnam have significantly increased renewable adoption. Furthermore, from 2013 to 2022, installation costs for solar photovoltaic (PV), onshore wind, and offshore wind fell by 69%, 33%, and 45%, respectively, making renewables more cost-effective.
Between 2013 and 2022, the renewable energy sector underwent a significant realignment of investment priorities. Investment in solar and wind energy technologies markedly increased. In contrast, other renewable technologies such as hydropower (including pumped storage hydropower), biomass, biofuels, geothermal, and marine energy experienced a substantial decrease in financial investment. Notably, from 2017 to 2022, investment in these alternative renewable technologies declined by 45%, falling from USD 35 billion to USD 17 billion.
In 2023, the renewable energy sector experienced a significant surge in investments, particularly in solar and wind technologies, totaling approximately USD 200 billion—a 75% increase from the previous year. The increased investments in 2023 contributed between 1% and 4% to the GDP in key regions including the United States, China, the European Union, and India.
The energy sector receives investments of approximately USD 3 trillion each year, with USD 1.9 trillion directed towards clean energy technologies and infrastructure. To meet the targets set in the Net Zero Emissions (NZE) Scenario by 2035, this investment must increase to USD 5.3 trillion per year.
Debates
Main articles: Renewable energy debate, Green job, and Intermittent power source Further information: Climate change mitigation § Overviews, strategies and comparisons of measuresNuclear power proposed as renewable energy
This section is an excerpt from Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy.Whether nuclear power should be considered a form of renewable energy is an ongoing subject of debate. Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies, with the notable exception of the state of Utah. Dictionary-sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention of nuclear energy sources, with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth.
The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations, uranium-235 is "non-renewable" according to the Energy Information Administration, the organization however is silent on the recycled MOX fuel. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its "energy basics" definition.
In 1987, the Brundtland Commission (WCED) classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume (breeder reactors, and if developed, fusion power) among conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar power and hydropower. The monitoring and storage of radioactive waste products is also required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal energy.Geopolitics
See also: Russia in the European energy sectorThe geopolitical impact of the growing use of renewable energy is a subject of ongoing debate and research. Many fossil-fuel producing countries, such as Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia and Norway, are currently able to exert diplomatic or geopolitical influence as a result of their oil wealth. Most of these countries are expected to be among the geopolitical "losers" of the energy transition, although some, like Norway, are also significant producers and exporters of renewable energy. Fossil fuels and the infrastructure to extract them may, in the long term, become stranded assets. It has been speculated that countries dependent on fossil fuel revenue may one day find it in their interests to quickly sell off their remaining fossil fuels.
Conversely, nations abundant in renewable resources, and the minerals required for renewables technology, are expected to gain influence. In particular, China has become the world's dominant manufacturer of the technology needed to produce or store renewable energy, especially solar panels, wind turbines, and lithium-ion batteries. Nations rich in solar and wind energy could become major energy exporters. Some may produce and export green hydrogen, although electricity is projected to be the dominant energy carrier in 2050, accounting for almost 50% of total energy consumption (up from 22% in 2015). Countries with large uninhabited areas such as Australia, China, and many African and Middle Eastern countries have a potential for huge installations of renewable energy. The production of renewable energy technologies requires rare-earth elements with new supply chains.
Countries with already weak governments that rely on fossil fuel revenue may face even higher political instability or popular unrest. Analysts consider Nigeria, Angola, Chad, Gabon, and Sudan, all countries with a history of military coups, to be at risk of instability due to dwindling oil income.
A study found that transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy systems reduces risks from mining, trade and political dependence because renewable energy systems don't need fuel – they depend on trade only for the acquisition of materials and components during construction.
In October 2021, European Commissioner for Climate Action Frans Timmermans suggested "the best answer" to the 2021 global energy crisis is "to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels." He said those blaming the European Green Deal were doing so "for perhaps ideological reasons or sometimes economic reasons in protecting their vested interests." Some critics blamed the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and closure of nuclear plants for contributing to the energy crisis. European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said that Europe is "too reliant" on natural gas and too dependent on natural gas imports. According to Von der Leyen, "The answer has to do with diversifying our suppliers ... and, crucially, with speeding up the transition to clean energy."
Metal and mineral extraction
See also: Environmental footprint of electric cars and Rare-earth element § Environmental considerationsThe transition to renewable energy requires increased extraction of certain metals and minerals. Like all mining, this impacts the environment and can lead to environmental conflict. Wind power requires large amounts of copper and zinc, as well as smaller amounts of the rarer metal neodymium. Solar power is less resource-intensive, but still requires significant amounts of aluminum. The expansion of electrical grids requires both copper and aluminum. Batteries, which are critical to enable storage of renewable energy, use large quantities of copper, nickel, aluminum and graphite. Demand for lithium is expected to grow 42-fold from 2020 to 2040. Demand for nickel, cobalt and graphite is expected to grow by a factor of about 20–25. For each of the most relevant minerals and metals, its mining is dominated by a single country: copper in Chile, nickel in Indonesia, rare earths in China, cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and lithium in Australia. China dominates processing of all of these.
Recycling these metals after the devices they are embedded in are spent is essential to create a circular economy and ensure renewable energy is sustainable. By 2040, recycled copper, lithium, cobalt, and nickel from spent batteries could reduce combined primary supply requirements for these minerals by around 10%.
A controversial approach is deep sea mining. Minerals can be collected from new sources like polymetallic nodules lying on the seabed. This would damage local biodiversity, but proponents point out that biomass on resource-rich seabeds is much scarcer than in the mining regions on land, which are often found in vulnerable habitats like rainforests.
Due to co-occurrence of rare-earth and radioactive elements (thorium, uranium and radium), rare-earth mining results in production of low-level radioactive waste. In several African countries, the green energy transition has created a mining boom, causing deforestation, and threatening already endangered species.
Conservation areas
Installations used to produce wind, solar and hydropower are an increasing threat to key conservation areas, with facilities built in areas set aside for nature conservation and other environmentally sensitive areas. They are often much larger than fossil fuel power plants, needing areas of land up to 10 times greater than coal or gas to produce equivalent energy amounts. More than 2000 renewable energy facilities are built, and more are under construction, in areas of environmental importance and threaten the habitats of plant and animal species across the globe. The authors' team emphasized that their work should not be interpreted as anti-renewables because renewable energy is crucial for reducing carbon emissions. The key is ensuring that renewable energy facilities are built in places where they do not damage biodiversity.
In 2020 scientists published a world map of areas that contain renewable energy materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with "Key Biodiversity Areas", "Remaining Wilderness" and "Protected Areas". The authors assessed that careful strategic planning is needed.
Recycling of solar panels
Solar panels are recycled to reduce electronic waste and create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined, but such business is still small and work is ongoing to improve and scale-up the process.
Society and culture
Public support
Most respondents to a climate survey conducted in 2021-2022 by the European Investment Bank say countries should back renewable energy to fight climate change.The same survey a year later shows that renewable energy is considered an investment priority in the European Union, China and the United StatesSolar power plants may compete with arable land, while on-shore wind farms often face opposition due to aesthetic concerns and noise. Such opponents are often described as NIMBYs ("not in my back yard"). Some environmentalists are concerned about fatal collisions of birds and bats with wind turbines. Although protests against new wind farms occasionally occur around the world, regional and national surveys generally find broad support for both solar and wind power.
Community-owned wind energy is sometimes proposed as a way to increase local support for wind farms. A 2011 UK Government document stated that "projects are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad public support and the consent of local communities. This means giving communities both a say and a stake." In the 2000s and early 2010s, many renewable projects in Germany, Sweden and Denmark were owned by local communities, particularly through cooperative structures. In the years since, more installations in Germany have been undertaken by large companies, but community ownership remains strong in Denmark.
History
See also: History of climate change policy and politicsPrior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. The oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from more than a million years ago. The use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later. Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships in the Persian Gulf and on the Nile. From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times. Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a traditional biomass.
In 1885, Werner Siemens, commenting on the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in the solid state, wrote:
In conclusion, I would say that however great the scientific importance of this discovery may be, its practical value will be no less obvious when we reflect that the supply of solar energy is both without limit and without cost, and that it will continue to pour down upon us for countless ages after all the coal deposits of the earth have been exhausted and forgotten.
Max Weber mentioned the end of fossil fuel in the concluding paragraphs of his Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism), published in 1905. Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant future, natural fuels having been exhausted will remain as the only means of existence of the human race".
The theory of peak oil was published in 1956. In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as well as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity-generating wind turbines appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms until 1980.
New government spending, regulation and policies helped the renewables industry weather the 2009 global financial crisis better than many other sectors. In 2022, renewables accounted for 30% of global electricity generation, up from 21% in 1985.
See also
- Distributed generation – Decentralised electricity generation
- Efficient energy use – Methods for higher energy efficiency
- Fossil fuel phase-out – Gradual reduction of the use and production of fossil fuels
- Thermal energy storage – Technologies to store thermal energy
- List of countries by renewable electricity production
- List of renewable energy topics by country and territory
- Renewable heat – Application of renewable energy
References
- Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". Energy and Environmental Science. 4 (9): 3193–3222. doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e. ISSN 1754-5692.
- Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2016). "Solar Electricity and Solar Fuels: Status and Perspectives in the Context of the Energy Transition". Chemistry – A European Journal. 22 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1002/chem.201503580. PMID 26584653.
- "Global renewable energy trends". Deloitte Insights. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
- "Renewable Energy Now Accounts for a Third of Global Power Capacity". irena.org. 2 April 2019. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
- "2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+". www.lazard.com. Retrieved 10 June 2024.
- IEA (2020). Renewables 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025 (Report). p. 12. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
- ^ "Renewables 2022". Global Status Report (renewable energies): 44. 14 June 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
- ^ "Share of electricity production from renewables". Our World in Data. 2023. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
- "Renewables - Energy System". IEA. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
- Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (January 2024). "Renewable Energy". Our World in Data.
- Sensiba, Jennifer (28 October 2021). "Some Good News: 10 Countries Generate Almost 100% Renewable Electricity". CleanTechnica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
- ^ Ehrlich, Robert; Geller, Harold A.; Geller, Harold (2018). Renewable energy: a first course (2nd ed.). Boca Raton London New York: Taylor & Francis, CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-138-29738-8.
- "Rapid rollout of clean technologies makes energy cheaper, not more costly". International Energy Agency. 30 May 2024. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021). "Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill". Nature. 598 (7881): 403–405. Bibcode:2021Natur.598..403T. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-02847-2. PMID 34671143. S2CID 239052649.
- Lockwood, Matthew; Mitchell, Catherine; Hoggett, Richard (May 2020). "Incumbent lobbying as a barrier to forward-looking regulation: The case of demand-side response in the GB capacity market for electricity". Energy Policy. 140: 111426. Bibcode:2020EnPol.14011426L. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111426.
- Susskind, Lawrence; Chun, Jungwoo; Gant, Alexander; Hodgkins, Chelsea; Cohen, Jessica; Lohmar, Sarah (June 2022). "Sources of opposition to renewable energy projects in the United States". Energy Policy. 165: 112922. Bibcode:2022EnPol.16512922S. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112922.
- ^ "Net Zero by 2050 – Analysis". IEA. 18 May 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- Isaacs-Thomas, Bella (1 December 2023). "Mining is necessary for the green transition. Here's why experts say we need to do it better". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- Harjanne, Atte; Korhonen, Janne M. (April 2019). "Abandoning the concept of renewable energy". Energy Policy. 127: 330–340. Bibcode:2019EnPol.127..330H. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.12.029.
- REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2010.
- Kutscher, Charles F.; Milford, Jana B.; Kreith, Frank (2019). Principles of sustainable energy systems. Mechanical and aerospace engineering (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-4987-8892-2.
- Hussain, Akhtar; Arif, Syed Muhammad; Aslam, Muhammad (2017). "Emerging renewable and sustainable energy technologies: State of the art". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 71: 12–28. Bibcode:2017RSERv..71...12H. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.033.
- ^ International Energy Agency (2007). Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet (PDF), OECD, p. 3. Archived 12 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- Duchane, Dave; Brown, Don (December 2002). "Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Geothermal Energy Research and Development at Fenton Hill, New Mexico" (PDF). Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin. Vol. 23, no. 4. Klamath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology. pp. 13–19. ISSN 0276-1084. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
- Stober, Ingrid; Bucher, Kurt (2021), "Enhanced-Geothermal-Systems (EGS), Hot-Dry-Rock Systems (HDR), Deep-Heat-Mining (DHM)", Geothermal Energy, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 205–225, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71685-1_9, ISBN 978-3-030-71684-4
- "Australia's Renewable Energy Future inc Cooper Basin & geothermal map of Australia Retrieved 15 August 2015" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2015.
- Archer, Rosalind (2020), "Geothermal Energy", Future Energy, Elsevier, pp. 431–445, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-102886-5.00020-7, ISBN 978-0-08-102886-5, retrieved 9 May 2024
- "Major infrared breakthrough could lead to solar power at night". 17 May 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2022.
- Byrnes, Steven; Blanchard, Romain; Capasso, Federico (2014). "Harvesting renewable energy from Earth's mid-infrared emissions". PNAS. 111 (11): 3927–3932. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.3927B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1402036111. PMC 3964088. PMID 24591604.
- "In bloom: growing algae for biofuel". 9 October 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
- Rodgers, Erica; Gertsen, Ellen; Sotudeh, Jordan; Mullins, Carie; Hernandez, Amanda; Le, Hanh Nguyen; Smith, Phil; Joseph, Nikoli (11 January 2024). Space-Based Solar Power (PDF). Office of Technology, Policy and Strategy. Washington, DC: NASA.
- "Water vapor in the atmosphere may be prime renewable energy source". techxplore.com. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
- "Pyroprocessing Technologies: Recycling Used Nuclear Fuel For A Sustainable Energy Future" (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2013.
- Cohen, Bernard L. "Breeder reactors: A renewable energy source" (PDF). Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- Weinberg, A. M., and R. P. Hammond (1970). "Limits to the use of energy," Am. Sci. 58, 412.
- "There's Atomic Energy in Granite". 8 February 2013.
- Collings AF and Critchley C (eds). Artificial Photosynthesis – From Basic Biology to Industrial Application (Wiley-VCH Weinheim 2005) p ix.
- Faunce, Thomas A.; Lubitz, Wolfgang; Rutherford, A. W. (Bill); MacFarlane, Douglas; Moore, Gary F.; Yang, Peidong; Nocera, Daniel G.; Moore, Tom A.; Gregory, Duncan H.; Fukuzumi, Shunichi; Yoon, Kyung Byung; Armstrong, Fraser A.; Wasielewski, Michael R.; Styring, Stenbjorn (2013). "Energy and environment policy case for a global project on artificial photosynthesis". Energy & Environmental Science. 6 (3). RSC Publishing: 695. doi:10.1039/C3EE00063J.
- jobs (23 May 2012). "'Artificial leaf' faces economic hurdle: Nature News & Comment". Nature News. Nature.com. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.10703. S2CID 211729746. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- "Renewable Energy Market Update - May 2022 – Analysis". IEA. 11 May 2022. p. 5. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- Gunter, Linda Pentz (5 February 2017). "Trump Is Foolish to Ignore the Flourishing Renewable Energy Sector". Truthout. Archived from the original on 6 February 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
- Jaeger, Joel; Walls, Ginette; Clarke, Ella; Altamirano, Juan-Carlos; Harsono, Arya; Mountford, Helen; Burrow, Sharan; Smith, Samantha; Tate, Alison (18 October 2021). The Green Jobs Advantage: How Climate-friendly Investments Are Better Job Creators (Report).
- "Renewable Energy Employment by Country". /Statistics/View-Data-by-Topic/Benefits/Renewable-Energy-Employment-by-Country. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
- Vakulchuk, Roman; Overland, Indra (1 April 2024). "The failure to decarbonize the global energy education system: Carbon lock-in and stranded skill sets". Energy Research & Social Science. 110: 103446. Bibcode:2024ERSS..11003446V. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103446. hdl:11250/3128127. ISSN 2214-6296.
- "Renewables – Global Energy Review 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
- REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2021.
- "Renewable Energy and Jobs – Annual Review 2020". irena.org. 29 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
- IEA, International Energy Agency (November 2023). "World Energy Employment 2023" (PDF). www.iea.org. p. 5. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
- Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Gulagi, Ashish; Fasihi, Mahdi; Breyer, Christian (1 February 2021). "Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination". Applied Energy. 283: 116273. Bibcode:2021ApEn..28316273B. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273. ISSN 0306-2619.
- Teske, Sven, ed. (2019). Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05842-5. S2CID 198078901.
- Jacobson, Mark Z.; von Krauland, Anna-Katharina; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Dukas, Emily; Nelson, Alexander J. H.; Palmer, Frances C.; Rasmussen, Kylie R. (2022). "Low-cost solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy insecurity for 145 countries". Energy & Environmental Science. 15 (8): 3343–3359. doi:10.1039/D2EE00722C. ISSN 1754-5692. S2CID 250126767.
- "Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change". IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
- "Renewables 2022 Global Status Report". www.ren21.net. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
- Mishra, Twesh. "India to develop and build first indigenous Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vessel". The Economic Times. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
- Trakimavicius, Lukas (December 2023). "Mission Net-Zero: Charting the Path for E-fuels in the Military". NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence.
- "IEA SHC || Solar Heat Worldwide". www.iea-shc.org. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- "Geothermal Heat Pumps - Department of Energy". energy.gov. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
- "Fast Growth for Copper-Based Geothermal Heating & Cooling". Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
- "Renewables 2021 Global Status Report". www.ren21.net. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
- ^ "Global power sector saved fuel costs of USD 520 billion last year thanks to renewables, says new IRENA report". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 29 August 2023. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023.
- ^ IRENA RE Capacity 2020
- ^ IRENA RE Statistics 2020 PROD(GWh)/(CAP(GW)*8760h)
- ^ IRENA RE Costs 2020, p. 13
- IRENA RE Costs 2020, p. 14
- "Energy Transition Investment Hit $500 Billion in 2020 – For First Time". BloombergNEF. (Bloomberg New Energy Finance). 19 January 2021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021.
- Catsaros, Oktavia (26 January 2023). "Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $1 Trillion for the First Time". Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). p. Figure 1. Archived from the original on 22 May 2023.
Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels
- "Global Clean Energy Investment Jumps 17%, Hits $1.8 Trillion in 2023, According to BloombergNEF Report". BNEF.com. Bloomberg NEF. 30 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024.
Start years differ by sector but all sectors are present from 2020 onwards.
- "World Energy Investment 2023 / Overview and key findings". International Energy Agency (IEA). 25 May 2023. Archived from the original on 31 May 2023.
Global energy investment in clean energy and in fossil fuels, 2015-2023 (chart)
— From pages 8 and 12 of World Energy Investment 2023 (archive). - Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate (3 November 2021). "Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020". OurWorldInData.org. Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021.
- Chrobak, Ula (28 January 2021). "Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more?". Popular Science. Infographics by Sara Chodosh. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Chodosh's graphic is derived from data in "Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14.0" (PDF). Lazard.com. Lazard. 19 October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2021.
- "Lazard LCOE Levelized Cost Of Energy+" (PDF). Lazard. June 2024. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2024.
- "Renewable Power Costs in 2022". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency. August 2023. Archived from the original on 29 August 2023.
- "Majority of New Renewables Undercut Cheapest Fossil Fuel on Cost". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. ● Infographic (with numerical data) and archive thereof
- Renewable Energy Generation Costs in 2022 (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2023. p. 57. ISBN 978-92-9260-544-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2023. Fig. 1.11
- "Why did renewables become so cheap so fast?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
- Heidari, Negin; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016). "A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Liabilities as the Value of Renewable Energy for Mitigating Lawsuits for Climate Change Related Damages". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 55C: 899–908. Bibcode:2016RSERv..55..899H. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.025. S2CID 111165822. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
- ^ "Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2020". Capacity4dev / European Commission. Frankfurt School-UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance; BloombergNEF. 2020. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
- Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (27 October 2022). "Energy". Our World in Data.
- Bond, Kingsmill; Butler-Sloss, Sam; Lovins, Amory; Speelman, Laurens; Topping, Nigel (13 June 2023). "Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption". Rocky Mountain Institute. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023.
- IEA (2022), Renewables 2022, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022, License: CC BY 4.0
- "Record clean energy spending is set to help global energy investment grow by 8% in 2022 - News". IEA. 22 June 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- "China's New Plan for Renewable Energy Development Focuses on Consumption". www.fitchratings.com. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- Claeys, Bram; Rosenow, Jan; Anderson, Megan (27 June 2022). "Is REPowerEU the right energy policy recipe to move away from Russian gas?". www.euractiv.com. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- Gan, Kai Ernn; Taikan, Oki; Gan, Thian Y; Weis, Tim; Yamazaki, D.; Schüttrumpf, Holger (4 July 2023). "Enhancing Renewable Energy Systems, Contributing to Sustainable Development Goals of United Nation and Building Resilience against Climate Change Impacts". Energy Technology. 11 (11). doi:10.1002/ente.202300275. ISSN 2194-4288. S2CID 259654837.
- "DNV GL's Energy Transition Outlook 2018". eto.dnvgl.com. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2018.
- ^ "Top 5 renewable energy projects in the Middle East".
- "Corporate Renewable Energy Buyers Principles" (PDF). WWF and World Resources Institute. July 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2021.
- This article incorporates text published under the British Open Government Licence: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, Aggregated energy balances showing proportion of renewables in supply and demand, published 24 September 2020, accessed 12 July 2021
- "Developing Countries Lack Means To Acquire More Efficient Technologies". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- Frankfurt School-UNEP Centre/BNEF. Global trends in renewable energy investment 2020, p. 42.
- "Changes in primary energy demand by fuel and region in the Stated Policies Scenario, 2019-2030 – Charts – Data & Statistics". IEA. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- Energy for Development: The Potential Role of Renewable Energy in Meeting the Millennium Development Goals pp. 7-9.
- Kabintie, Winnie (5 September 2023). "Africa Climate Summit - opportunities for harnessing renewable energy". The Kenya Forum. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
- "Ethiopia's GERD dam: A potential boon for all, experts say – DW – 04/08/2023". dw.com. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
- Wanjala, Peter (22 April 2022). "Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex in Morocco, World's Largest Concentrated Solar Power Plant". Constructionreview. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
- Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2021). "What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).
- ^ "Policies". www.iea.org. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
- "IRENA – International Renewable Energy Agency" (PDF). www.irena.org. 2 August 2023. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010.
- "IRENA Membership". /irenamembership. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
- Leone, Steve (25 August 2011). "U.N. Secretary-General: Renewables Can End Energy Poverty". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
- Tran, Mark (2 November 2011). "UN calls for universal access to renewable energy". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
- ^ REN21 Renewables Global Futures Report 2017.
- REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2011, pp. 13–14.
- Ken Berlin, Reed Hundt, Marko Muro, and Devashree Saha. "State Clean Energy Banks: New Investment Facilities for Clean Energy Deployment"
- "Putin promises gas to a Europe struggling with soaring prices". Politico. 13 October 2021. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- Simon, Frédéric (12 December 2019). "The EU releases its Green Deal. Here are the key points". Climate Home News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- "Global landscape of renewable energy finance 2023". www.irena.org. 22 February 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
- ^ "Global landscape of renewable energy finance 2023" (PDF). International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). February 2023. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2024. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
- "Clean energy is boosting economic growth – Analysis". IEA. 18 April 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
- International Energy Agency, IEA (May 2024). "Strategies for Affordable and Fair Clean Energy Transitions" (PDF). www.iea.org. Retrieved 30 May 2024.
- Utah House Bill 430, Session 198
- "Renewable energy: Definitions from Dictionary.com". Dictionary.com website. Lexico Publishing Group, LLC. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
- ^ "Renewable and Alternative Fuels Basics 101". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
- "Renewable Energy Basics". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
- Brundtland, Gro Harlem (20 March 1987). "Chapter 7: Energy: Choices for Environment and Development". Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. Oslo. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
Today's primary sources of energy are mainly non-renewable: natural gas, oil, coal, peat, and conventional nuclear power. There are also renewable sources, including wood, plants, dung, falling water, geothermal sources, solar, tidal, wind, and wave energy, as well as human and animal muscle-power. Nuclear reactors that produce their own fuel ('breeders') and eventually fusion reactors are also in this category
- http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/geothermal.html Geothermal Energy Production Waste.
- "The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
- Overland, Indra; Bazilian, Morgan; Ilimbek Uulu, Talgat; Vakulchuk, Roman; Westphal, Kirsten (2019). "The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition". Energy Strategy Reviews. 26: 100406. Bibcode:2019EneSR..2600406O. doi:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406. hdl:11250/2634876.
- Mercure, J.-F.; Salas, P.; Vercoulen, P.; Semieniuk, G.; Lam, A.; Pollitt, H.; Holden, P. B.; Vakilifard, N.; Chewpreecha, U.; Edwards, N. R.; Vinuales, J. E. (4 November 2021). "Reframing incentives for climate policy action". Nature Energy. 6 (12): 1133–1143. Bibcode:2021NatEn...6.1133M. doi:10.1038/s41560-021-00934-2. hdl:10871/127743. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 243792305.
- Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths". Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. Bibcode:2019ERSS...49...36O. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018. hdl:11250/2579292. ISSN 2214-6296.
- "The transition to clean energy will mint new commodity superpowers". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
- Shepherd, Christian (29 March 2024). "China is all in on green tech. The U.S. and Europe fear unfair competition". The Washington Post. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- ^ "In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?". Carbon Brief. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
- Van de Graaf, Thijs; Overland, Indra; Scholten, Daniel; Westphal, Kirsten (1 December 2020). "The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen". Energy Research & Social Science. 70: 101667. Bibcode:2020ERSS...7001667V. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667. ISSN 2214-6296. PMC 7326412. PMID 32835007.
- World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. 2021. p. 24. ISBN 978-92-9260-334-2.
- "The Geopolitics Of Renewable Energy" (PDF). Center on Global Energy Policy Columbia University SIPA / Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Harvard Kennedy School. 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
- Ince, Matt; Sikorsky, Erin (13 December 2023). "The Uncomfortable Geopolitics of the Clean Energy Transition". Lawfare. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- Krane, Jim; Idel, Robert (1 December 2021). "More transitions, less risk: How renewable energy reduces risks from mining, trade and political dependence". Energy Research & Social Science. 82: 102311. Bibcode:2021ERSS...8202311K. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102311. ISSN 2214-6296. S2CID 244187364.
- ^ "EU countries look to Brussels for help with 'unprecedented' energy crisis". Politico. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- "European Energy Crisis Fuels Carbon Trading Expansion Concerns". Bloomberg. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- "The Green Brief: East-West EU split again over climate". Euractiv. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- "In Global Energy Crisis, Anti-Nuclear Chickens Come Home to Roost". Foreign Policy. 8 October 2021. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- "Europe's energy crisis: Continent 'too reliant on gas,' says von der Leyen". Euronews. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
- Thomas, Tobi (1 September 2020). "Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity'". Nature Communications. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
- Marín, Anabel; Goya, Daniel (1 December 2021). "Mining—The dark side of the energy transition". Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. Celebrating a decade of EIST: What's next for transition studies?. 41: 86–88. Bibcode:2021EIST...41...86M. doi:10.1016/j.eist.2021.09.011. ISSN 2210-4224. S2CID 239975201.
- ^ "The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions (presentation and full report)". IEA. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 14 November 2022.
- Ali, Saleem (2 June 2020). "Deep sea mining: the potential convergence of science, industry and sustainable development?". Springer Nature Sustainability Community. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
- "Deep Sea Mining May Start in 2023, but Environmental Questions Persist". The Maritime Executive. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
- "The world needs more battery metals. Time to mine the seabed". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- Law, Yao-Hua (1 April 2019). "Radioactive waste standoff could slash high tech's supply of rare earth elements". Science | AAAS. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
- Hemingway Jaynes, Cristen (4 April 2024). "Africa's 'Mining Boom' Threatens More Than a Third of Its Great Apes". the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv). Ecowatch. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
- McGrath, Matt (25 March 2020). "Climate change: Green energy plant threat to wilderness areas". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- "Habitats Under Threat From Renewable Energy Development". technologynetworks.com. 27 March 2020. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
- "Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity'". The Guardian. 1 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
- "Mining for renewable energy could be another threat to the environment". phys.org. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
- Sonter, Laura J.; Dade, Marie C.; Watson, James E. M.; Valenta, Rick K. (1 September 2020). "Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 4174. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.4174S. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7463236. PMID 32873789. S2CID 221467922. Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License "CC BY 4.0 Deed | Attribution 4.0 International | Creative Commons". Archived from the original on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). - "Solar Panel Recycling". www.epa.gov. 23 August 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2022.
- "Solar panels are a pain to recycle. These companies are trying to fix that". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
- Heath, Garvin A.; Silverman, Timothy J.; Kempe, Michael; Deceglie, Michael; Ravikumar, Dwarakanath; Remo, Timothy; Cui, Hao; Sinha, Parikhit; Libby, Cara; Shaw, Stephanie; Komoto, Keiichi; Wambach, Karsten; Butler, Evelyn; Barnes, Teresa; Wade, Andreas (July 2020). "Research and development priorities for silicon photovoltaic module recycling to support a circular economy". Nature Energy. 5 (7): 502–510. Bibcode:2020NatEn...5..502H. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-0645-2. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 220505135. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
- Domínguez, Adriana; Geyer, Roland (1 April 2019). "Photovoltaic waste assessment of major photovoltaic installations in the United States of America". Renewable Energy. 133: 1188–1200. Bibcode:2019REne..133.1188D. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.063. ISSN 0960-1481. S2CID 117685414.
- Bank, European Investment (20 April 2022). The EIB Climate Survey 2021-2022 - Citizens call for green recovery. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5223-8.
- Bank, European Investment (5 June 2023). The EIB Climate Survey: Government action, personal choices and the green transition. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5535-2.
- Chiu, Allyson; Guskin, Emily; Clement, Scott (3 October 2023). "Americans don't hate living near solar and wind farms as much as you might think". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023.
- van Zalk, John; Behrens, Paul (1 December 2018). "The spatial extent of renewable and non-renewable power generation: A review and meta-analysis of power densities and their application in the U.S." Energy Policy. 123: 83–91. Bibcode:2018EnPol.123...83V. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.023. hdl:1887/64883. ISSN 0301-4215.
- Leake, Jonathan. "UK's largest solar farm 'will destroy north Kent landscape'". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
- McGwin, Kevin (20 April 2018). "Sámi mount new challenge to legality of Norway's largest wind farm". ArcticToday. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
- "Why do so many people in France hate wind farms?". The Local. France. 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- "America needs a new environmentalism". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- Hogan, Brianne (3 March 2020). "Is it possible to build wildlife-friendly windfarms?". BBC.
- Spencer, Brian Kennedy and Alison (8 June 2021). "Most Americans support expanding solar and wind energy, but Republican support has dropped". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- Witkowska-Dabrowska, Mirosława; Świdyńska, Natalia; Napiórkowska-Baryła, Agnieszka (1 December 2021). "Attitudes of Communities in Rural Areas towards the Development of Wind Energy". Energies. 14 (23): 8052. doi:10.3390/en14238052. ISSN 1996-1073.
- "Limits to growth: Resistance against wind power in Germany". Clean Energy Wire. 12 June 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- ^ Hogan, Jessica L.; Warren, Charles R.; Simpson, Michael; McCauley, Darren (December 2022). "What makes local energy projects acceptable? Probing the connection between ownership structures and community acceptance". Energy Policy. 171: 113257. Bibcode:2022EnPol.17113257H. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113257. hdl:10023/26074.
- Department of Energy & Climate Change (2011). UK Renewable Energy Roadmap (PDF) Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine p. 35.
- DTI, Co-operative Energy: Lessons from Denmark and Sweden, Report of a DTI Global Watch Mission, October 2004
- Morris C & Pehnt M, German Energy Transition: Arguments for a Renewable Energy Future Archived 3 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Heinrich Böll Foundation, November 2012
- "Energy Communities". Nordic Cooperation. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
- K. Kris Hirst. "The Discovery of Fire". About.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
- "wind energy". The Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy and Sustainable Living. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
- "Geothermal Energy". faculty.fairfield.edu. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
- Siemens, Werner (June 1885). "On the electro motive action of illuminated selenium, discovered by Mr. Fritts, of New York". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 119 (6): 453–IN6. doi:10.1016/0016-0032(85)90176-0. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
- Weber suggests that the modern economic world will determine the lifestyle of everyone born into it "until the last hundredweight of fossil fuel is burned" (bis der letzte Zentner fossilen Brennstoffs verglüht ist Archived 25 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine).
- "Power from Sunshine": A Business History of Solar Energy Archived 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine 25 May 2012
- Hubbert, M. King (June 1956). "Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels" (PDF). Shell Oil Company/American Petroleum Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
- "History of PV Solar". Solarstartechnologies.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
- Clean Edge (2009). Clean Energy Trends 2009 Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp. 1–4.
Sources
- "2021 Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) Technologies". United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2021. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
- Renewable Capacity Statistics 2024. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). March 2024. ISBN 978-92-9260-587-2. Retrieved 28 March 2023.
- Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
- Renewables 2011 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
- Renewables 2021 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2021. ISBN 978-3-948393-03-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- Renewables Global Futures Report: Great debates towards 100% renewable energy (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2017. ISBN 978-3-9818107-4-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- "Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2019" (PDF). IRENA. 2020.
- "Renewable Capacity Statistics 2020". IRENA. 2020.
- "Renewable Energy Statistics 2020". IRENA. 2020.
External links
- Energypedia – a wiki platform for collaborative knowledge exchange on renewable energy in developing countries
- Renewable Energy Conference – a global platform for industry professionals, academics, and policymakers to exchange knowledge and discuss advancements in renewable energy technologies, with a focus on innovation, sustainability, and future energy solutions.
Renewable energy by country and territory | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | |||||
Asia | |||||
Europe |
| ||||
North America | |||||
Oceania | |||||
South America | |||||
Solar energy | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Concepts | |||||||||||||||||
Solar power |
| ||||||||||||||||
Distribution and uses |
| ||||||||||||||||
Applications |
| ||||||||||||||||
See also | |||||||||||||||||
Bioenergy | |
---|---|
Biofuels | |
Energy from foodstock | |
Non-food energy crops | |
Technology | |
Concepts | |