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Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an electrical component opposes the passage of current. It is the ratio of the potential difference (i.e. voltage) across an electric component (such as a resistor) to the current passing through that component:

${\displaystyle R={\frac {V}{I}}}$

where

R is the resistance of the component.

V the potential difference across the component, measured in volts

I is the current passing through the component, measured in amperes

V can either be measured directly across the component or calculated from a subtraction of voltages relative to a reference point. The former method is simpler for a single component and is likely to be more accurate. The latter method is useful when analysing a larger circuit or if you want to work one handed with one lead clipped (which can be a useful safety precaution on systems using dangerous voltages). There may also be problems with the latter method if the system is AC and the two measurements from the reference point are not in phase with each other.

Resistance is thus a measure of the component's opposition to the flow of electric charge. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. Its reciprocal quantity is electrical conductance measured in siemens.

For a wide variety of materials and conditions, the electrical resistance does not depend on the amount of current flowing or the amount of applied voltage. This means that voltage is proportional to current and the proportionality constant is the electrical resistance. This case is described by Ohm's law and such materials are known as ohmic devices.

Resistive loss

When a current I flows through an object with resistance R, electrical energy is converted to heat at a rate (power) equal to

${\displaystyle P={I^{2}\cdot R}\,}$

where

P is the power measured in watts

I is the current measured in amperes

R is the resistance measured in ohms

This effect is useful in some applications like incandescent lighting and electric heating, but is undesirable in power transmission. Common ways to combat resistive loss include using thicker wire and higher voltages. Superconducting wire is used in special applications, but may become more common someday.

Resistance of a wire

The DC resistance R of a wire can be computed as

${\displaystyle R={L\cdot \rho \over A}\,}$

where

L is the length of the wire, measured in metres

A is the cross-sectional area, measured in square metres

ρ (Greek: rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm · metre. Resistivity is a measure of the material's ability to oppose the flow of electric current.

AC Resistance:

If a wire conducts high frequency Alternating Current then the effective cross sectional area of the wire available for current conduction is proportionally diminished. (See skin effect).

The formula below (Terman) gives the diameter of wire that will suffer a 10% increase in resistance at the frequency of operation, F (in Hz) -

${\displaystyle Dw={200 \over {\sqrt {F}}}\,}$

This formula applies for isolated conductors. In a coil surrounded by other turns the actual resistance will be higher because of the proximity effect.

Causes of resistance

In metals

A metal consists of a lattice of atoms, each with a shell of electrons. The outer electrons are free to to dissociate from their parent atoms and travel through the lattice, making the metal a conductor. When an electrical potential (a voltage) is applied across the metal, the electrons drift from one end of the conductor to the other under the influence of the electric field. In a real material the atomic lattice is never perfectly regular, so its imperfections scatter the electrons and cause resistance. A rise in temperature causes the atoms to vibrate more strongly, creating even more collisions and increasing the resistance still further.

The larger the cross-sectional area of the conductor, the more electrons are available to carry the current, so the lower the resistance. The longer the conductor, the more scattering events occur in each electron's path through the material, so the higher the resistance.

Differential resistance

When resistance may depend on voltage and current, Differential resistance or incremental resistance is defined as the slope of the V-I graph at a particular point, thus:

${\displaystyle R={\frac {dV}{dI}}\,}$

This quantity is sometimes called simply resistance, although the two definitions are equivalent only for an ohmic component such as an ideal resistor. If the V-I graph is not monotonic (i.e. it has a peak or a trough), the differential resistance will be negative for some values of voltage and current. This property is often known as negative resistance, although it is more correctly called negative differential resistance, since the absolute resistance V/I is still positive.

Temperature-dependence

The electric resistance of a typical metal conductor increases linearly with the temperature:

${\displaystyle R=R_{0}+aT\,}$

The electric resistance of a typical semiconductor decreases exponentially with the temperature:

${\displaystyle R=R_{0}+e^{a/T}\,}$

SI electricity units

See also

• Electrical conduction for more information about the physical mechanisms for conduction in materials.
• voltage divider
• current divider
• Thermal resistance
• Electrical resistivity

External links

• Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance
• Calculation: electrical resistance, voltage, current, and power

1. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp. 14–15. Electronic version.

• Electromagnetism
• Physical quantity