Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by SandyGeorgia (talk | contribs) at 13:44, 18 August 2007 (→Diagnosis: overlinked, already linked above, remove overlinking per WP:MOSLINK, WP:CONTEXT). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Asperger syndrome
Specialty	Psychiatry

Asperger syndrome (also referred to as Asperger's syndrome, Asperger's disorder, Aspergers, or AS) is a condition on the autistic spectrum. Like other autistic spectrum disorders, Asperger's includes "restrictive, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities". However, Asperger's differs from 'classic' autism in that there is no significant delay in non-social aspects of intellectual development. It manifests in individual ways and can have both positive as well as negative effects on a person's life.

The disorder affects people in various ways, but individuals with Asperger's commonly share characteristics such as a tendency to focus intensely on areas of interest, hyposensitivity or hypersensitivity to certain stimuli and sensory integration problems, self-stimulating ('stimming') behaviors such as rocking back and forth, and difficulty interpreting facial expressions and other social cues. Some positive characteristics include things such as enhanced mental focus, excellent memory abilities, superior spatial skills, and an intuitive understanding of logical systems. These characteristics can often lead to fulfilling careers in mathematics, engineering, the sciences, or other fields which utilize these strengths.

There is significant debate over the difference between AS and high-functioning autism (HFA). While neither AS nor HFA have universally accepted definitions, diagnosticians often distinguish the two according to speech development. Delayed speech indicates HFA; normal onset of speech indicates Asperger's. However, objective tests have not demonstrated the validity of this position, and at least one diagnostic guide takes the opposite position; that delayed onset of speech favors a diagnosis of AS.

Some clinicians deny that AS is differentiated from other autistic spectrum disorders and indicate that a "DSM-IV diagnosis of Asperger's disorder is unlikely or impossible". Instead they refer to Asperger's as HFA, or treat the diagnoses interchangeably, arguing that language delay is a difference in degree and not kind. Tests have shown no significant difference between patients diagnosed with AS and those diagnosed with HFA. Even among those who feel that the differences between AS and HFA are significant, it is common for diagnoses to be influenced by non-technical issues, such as availability of government benefits for one condition but not the other. Due to the mixed nature of its effects, and continued debate over its definition, Asperger's remains controversial among researchers, clinicians, and people with the diagnosis.

Classification

Asperger syndrome is one of five neurobiological pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), and is characterized by deficiencies in social and communication skills, normal to above normal intelligence, undelayed language development, and repetitive or restrictive patterns of thought and behavior. The four related disorders or conditions are autism, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder, and PDD-NOS (pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified).

Some doctors believe that AS is not a separate and distinct disorder, referring to it as high-functioning autism (HFA). The diagnoses of AS or HFA are used interchangeably, complicating prevalence estimates: the same child can receive different diagnoses, depending on the screening tool the doctor uses, and some children will be diagnosed with HFA instead of AS, and vice versa. Many experienced clinicians apply the early onset of high-functioning autism or the regressive pattern of development as the distinguishing factor in differentiating between AS and HFA. Others feel that the speech delay associated with HFA is significant. According to Peter Szatmari, a Canadian PDD researcher, the current classification of the pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) is unsatisfying to many parents, clinicians, and researchers, and may not reflect the true nature of the conditions. Szatmari says that greater precision is needed to better differentiate between the various PDD diagnoses. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and World Health Organization ICD-10 focus on the idea that discrete biological entities exist within PDD, which leads to a preoccupation with searching for cross-sectional differences between PDD subtypes rather than recognition of the conditions as distinct points on a spectrum, a strategy which has not been very useful in classification or in clinical practice.

Diagnosis

Asperger's Disorder (Asperger Syndrome) is defined in section 299.80 of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) by six main criteria:

1. Qualitative impairment in social interaction;
2. The presence of restricted, repetitive and stereotyped behaviors and interests;
3. Significant impairment in important areas of functioning;
4. No significant delay in language;
5. During the first three years of life, there can be no clinically significant delay in cognitive development such as curiosity about the existing environment or the acquisition of age appropriate learning skills, self-help skills, or adaptive behaviors (other than social interaction); and,
6. The symptoms must not be better accounted for by another specific pervasive developmental disorder or schizophrenia.

The diagnosis of AS is complicated by the use of several different screening instruments. The diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual have been criticized for being too broad, too narrow, and too vague. Other sets of diagnostic criteria for AS are the World Health Organization ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria, Szatmari Diagnostic Criteria, and Gillberg Diagnostic Criteria. The ICD-10 definition has similar criteria to the DSM-IV version. Asperger's syndrome had at different times been called Autistic psychopathy and Schizoid disorder of childhood, although those terms are now understood as archaic and inaccurate, and are therefore no longer accepted in common use.

Characteristics

AS is characterized by:

• Narrow interests or preoccupation with a subject to the exclusion of other activities
• Repetitive behaviors or rituals
• Peculiarities in speech and language
• Extensive logical/technical patterns of thought
• Socially and emotionally inappropriate behavior and interpersonal interaction
• Problems with nonverbal communication
• Clumsy and uncoordinated motor movements

The most common and important characteristics of AS can be divided into several broad categories: social impairments, narrow but intense interests, and peculiarities of speech and language. Other features are commonly associated with this syndrome, but are not always regarded as necessary for diagnosis. This section mainly reflects the views of Attwood, Gillberg, and Wing on the most important characteristics of AS; the DSM-IV criteria represent a slightly different view. Unlike most PDDs, AS is often camouflaged, and many people with the disorder blend in with those who do not have it. The effects of AS depend on how an affected individual responds to the syndrome itself.

Social differences

The unwritten rules of social behavior are said to mystify many with AS and have been termed the hidden curriculum. People with AS must learn these social skills intellectually through seemingly contrived, dry, math-like logic rather than intuitively through normal emotional interaction.

Non-autistics are able to gather information about other people's cognitive and emotional states based on clues gleaned from the environment and other people's facial expression and body language, but, in this respect, some people with AS are impaired; this is sometimes called mind-blindness. People with mind-blindness are frequently unable to interpret or understand the desires or intentions of others and thereby are unable to predict what to expect of others or what others may expect of them. This sometimes leads to social awkwardness and inappropriate behavior.

It is not claimed that people with AS lack emotions. The concrete nature of emotional attachments they might have (for example, to objects rather than to people), however, often seems curious or can even be a cause of concern to people who do not share their perspective. Alexithymia, a Greek term coined in 1972 by P.E. Sifneos meaning literally "lack of words for emotions", is a personality trait of "people who have difficulties recognizing, processing, and regulating emotions". Recent studies suggest that 85% of people with ASDs have alexithymia.

Failing to show affection—or failing to do so in conventional ways—does not necessarily mean that people with AS do not feel affection. Understanding this can lead partners or caregivers to feel less rejected and to be more understanding. Increased understanding can also come from learning about AS and any comorbid disorders. Sometimes, the opposite problem occurs: the person with AS is unusually affectionate to significant others; and misses or misinterprets signals from the other partner, causing the partner stress.

Speech and language differences

People with AS typically have a highly pedantic way of speaking, using a far more formal language register than appropriate for a context. A five-year-old child with this condition may regularly speak in language that could easily have come from a university textbook, especially concerning his or her special area of interest.

Literal interpretation is another common, but not universal, hallmark of this condition. Attwood gives the example of a girl with AS who answered the telephone one day and was asked, "Is Paul there?" Although the Paul in question was in the house, he was not in the room with her, so after looking around to ascertain this, she simply said "no" and hung up. The person on the other end had to call back and explain to her that he meant for her to find him and get him to pick up the telephone.

Individuals with AS may use words idiosyncratically, including new coinages and unusual juxtapositions. This can develop into a rare gift for humor (especially puns, word play, doggerel and satire). A potential source of humor is the eventual realization that their literal interpretations can be used to amuse others. Some are so proficient at written language as to qualify as hyperlexic. Tony Attwood refers to a particular child's skill at inventing expressions, for example, "tidying down" (the opposite of tidying up) or "broken" (when referring to a baby brother who cannot walk or talk).

Children with AS may show advanced abilities for their age in language, reading, mathematics, spatial skills, or music, sometimes into the 'gifted' range, but these talents may be counterbalanced by appreciable delays in the development of other cognitive functions. Some other typical behaviors are echolalia, the repetition or echoing of verbal utterances made by another person, and palilalia, the repetition of one's own words.

A 2003 study investigated the written language of children and youth with AS. They were compared with neurotypical peers in a standardized test of written language skills and legibility of handwriting. In written language skills, no significant differences were found between standardized scores of both groups; however, in hand-writing skills, the AS participants produced significantly fewer legible letters and words than the neurotypical group. Another analysis of written samples of text, found that people with AS produce a similar quantity of text to their neurotypical peers, but have difficulty in producing writing of quality.

Tony Attwood states that a teacher may spend considerable time interpreting and correcting an AS child's indecipherable scrawl. The child is also aware of the poor quality of his or her handwriting and may be reluctant to engage in activities that involve extensive writing. Unfortunately for some children and adults, high school teachers and prospective employers may consider the neatness of handwriting as a measure of intelligence and personality. The child may require assessment by an occupational therapist and remedial exercises, but modern technology can help minimize this problem. A parent or teacher aide could also act as the child's scribe or proofreader to ensure the legibility of the child's written answers or homework.

Narrow, intense interests

AS in children can involve an intense and obsessive level of focus on things of interest, many of which are those of neurotypical children. The difference in children with AS is the unusual intensity of the interest. Some have suggested that these "obsessions" are essentially arbitrary and lacking in any real meaning or context; however, researchers note that these "obsessions" typically focus on the mechanical (how things work) as opposed to the psychological (how people work). Those with a creative proclivity may be more interested in music or art, rather than in fiction, especially ones whose content is intended to arouse emotions, such as romance novels etc.

Sometimes these interests are lifelong; in other cases, they change at unpredictable intervals. In either case, there are normally only one or two interests at any given time. The interests are often linked in some way that is logical only to the AS individual. In pursuit of these interests, people with AS often manifest extremely sophisticated reasoning, an almost obsessive focus, and a remarkably good memory for trivial facts (occasionally even eidetic memory). Hans Asperger called his young patients "little professors" because he thought his patients had as comprehensive and nuanced an understanding of their field of interest as university professors.

Some clinicians do not entirely agree with this description. For example, Wing and Gillberg both argue that, in children with AS, these areas of intense interest typically involve more rote memorization than real understanding, despite occasional appearances to the contrary. Such a limitation is an artifact of the diagnostic criteria, even under Gillberg's criteria, however.

People with AS may have little patience for things outside these narrow interests. In school, they may be perceived as highly intelligent underachievers or overachievers, clearly capable of outperforming their peers in their field of interest, yet persistently unmotivated to do regular homework assignments (sometimes even in their areas of interest). Others may be hypermotivated to outperform peers in school. Symptoms may be seen by obsessional absorption with inanimate objects, such as watches and clocks; or a predominant interest in systematic things like numbers, indices, telephone directories, encyclopedias, dictionaries, or measuring scales. The combination of social problems and intense interests can lead to unusual behavior, such as greeting a stranger by launching into a lengthy monologue about a special interest rather than introducing oneself in the socially accepted way. However, in many cases adults can outgrow this impatience and lack of motivation and develop more tolerance to new activities and meeting new people.

Other differences

Those affected by AS may show a range of other sensory, developmental, and physiological anomalies. Children with AS may evidence a slight delay in the development of fine motor skills. In some cases, people with AS may have an odd way of walking, and may display compulsive finger, hand, arm or leg movements, including tics and stims.

In general, orderly things appeal to people with AS. Some researchers mention the imposition of rigid routines (on themselves and/or others) as a criterion for diagnosing this condition. It appears that changes to their routines cause inordinate levels of anxiety for some people with this condition.

Some people with AS experience varying degrees of sensory overload and are extremely sensitive to touch, smells, sounds, tastes, and sights. They may prefer soft clothing, familiar scents, or certain foods. Some may even be pathologically sensitive to loud noises (as some people with AS have hyperacusis), strong smells, or dislike being touched; for example, certain children with AS exhibit a strong dislike of having their head touched or their hair disturbed while others like to be touched but dislike loud noises. Sensory overload may exacerbate problems faced by such children at school or indeed adults at work, where levels of noise in the classroom or workplace can become intolerable for them. Some are unable to block out, as in habituation, certain repetitive or background stimuli, such as the constant ticking of a clock, or a television in another room of the house. Whereas most children stop registering this sound after a short time and can hear it only if they consciously attend to it, a child with AS can become distracted, agitated, or even (in cases where the child has problems with regulating emotions such as anger) aggressive if the sound persists.

The flicker of fluorescent lighting or computer monitors at low refresh rates (both common in schools) can be very disturbing visual stimuli for AS people, contributing to otherwise inexplicable headaches, bad moods and agitation.

A study of parent measures of child temperament found that children with autism were rated as presenting with more extreme scores than typically-developing children.

Research

Some research is to seek information about symptoms to aid in the diagnostic process. Other research is to identify a cause, although much of this research is still done on isolated symptoms. Many studies have exposed base differences in areas such as brain structure. To what end is currently unknown; research is ongoing, however.

Peter Szatmari suggests that AS was promoted as a diagnosis to spark more research into the syndrome: "It was introduced into the official classification systems in 1994 and has grown in popularity as a diagnosis, even though its validity has not been clearly established. It is interesting to note that it was introduced not so much as an indication of its status as a 'true' disorder, but more to stimulate research ... its validity is very much in question."

Causes

The direct cause of Asperger syndrome is unknown. Even though no consensus exists for the cause(s) of AS, it is widely accepted that AS has a hereditary factor. It is suspected that multiple genes play a part in causing AS, since the number and severity of symptoms vary widely among individuals. Studies regarding the mirror neurons in the inferior parietal cortex have revealed differences which may underlie certain cognitive anomalies such as some of those which AS exhibits (for example, understanding actions, learning through imitation, and the simulation of other people's behavior). Non-neurological factors that are not well-understood, including a possible link between mercury levels and incidence of AS are suspected but again causes are as yet not well-understood and affect all classes and races.

Other possible causative mechanisms include a serotonin dysfunction and cerebellar dysfunction. Simon Baron-Cohen proposes a model for autism based on his empathising-systemising theory (EQ SQ theory). The EQ SQ theory holds that the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for empathy while the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems, and that AS is an extreme of the male brain.

Some genetic studies point to involvement of neuroligins in AS. Neuroligins are a family of proteins thought to mediate cell-to-cell interactions between neurons. Neuroligins function as ligands for the neurexin family of cell surface receptors. Mutations in two X-linked genes encoding neuroligins NLGN3 and NLGN4 have been reported. These mutations affect cell-adhesion molecules localized at the synapse and suggest that a defect of synaptogenesis may predispose to autism.

In 2006, anomalies in chromosome 22 were related to the diagnosis of autism and Asperger syndrome in five children. The distal tip of the long arm of the chromosome 22 contains the SHANK3 gene, which is supposed to have a role in the maturation and maintenance of brain synapses. The deletion of this part of the chromosome was found in low-functioning autistic subjects (see 22q13 deletion syndrome), and its duplication was found in a subject diagnosed with Asperger syndrome.

Other

There are other studies linking autism with differences in brain-volumes such as enlarged amygdala and hippocampus. Current research points to structural abnormalities in the brain as a cause of AS. These abnormalities impact neural circuits that control thought and behavior. Researchers suggest that gene/environment interactions cause some genes to turn on or turn off, or turn on more or less in the certain places, and this alters the normal migration and "wiring" of embryonic brain cells during early development.

Other finds include brain region differences, such as decreased gray matter density in portions of the temporal cortex which are thought to play into the pathophysiology of ASDs (particularly in the integration of visual stimuli and affective information), and differing neural connectivity. Research on infants points to early differences in reflexes, which may be able to serve as an "early detector" of AS and autism.

Some professionals believe AS is not necessarily a disorder and thus should not be described in medical terms.

Treatment

The preferred treatment coordinates therapies that address three core symptoms of Asperger's syndrome: poor communication skills, and obsessive or repetitive routines. AS and high-functioning autism may be considered together for the purpose of clinical management.

A typical treatment program generally includes:

• Social skills training, to teach the skills to more successfully interact with others;
• Cognitive behavioral therapy, to help in better managing emotions that may be explosive or anxious, and to cut back on obsessive interests and repetitive routines;
• Medication, for co-existing conditions such as depression, anxiety, and ADD/ADHD;
• Occupational or physical therapy, to assist with sensory integration problems or poor motor coordination;
• Specialized speech therapy, to help with the trouble of the "give and take" in normal conversation;
• Parent training and support, to teach parents behavioral techniques to use at home; and,

The techniques described above will not cure AS, but are intended to help those diagnosed with AS function better in society.

Many studies have been done on early behavioral interventions. Most of these are single case with one to five participants. The single case studies are usually about controlling non-core autistic problem-behaviors like self-injury, aggression, noncompliance, stereotypies, or spontaneous language. Packaged interventions such as those run by UCLA or TEACCH are designed to treat the entire syndrome and have been found to be somewhat effective. Social skills training has minimal empirical support.

Behavioral interventions, such as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), have been researched for many years. Empirical data demonstrate its effectiveness in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders because it is an individualized set of programs. In addition, ABA has the benefits of individualized functional analyses of exhibited behaviors. In 1982 Becker and Gersten found that ABA techniques were indeed educationally beneficial because they provide "motivational programs based on positive reinforcement such as a token system and a systematic task analysis for developing academic skills." ABA also promotes the foundation for academic and living skills. Once certain skills have been acquired, it is possible through ABA to generalize these skills and add new skills to the "existing repertoire through various techniques of shaping, extinction, backward chaining, and prompting." (Schreibman, 1975, Sulzer & Mayer, 1972, Wolery et al, 1988)

Unintended side effects of medication and intervention have largely been ignored in the literature about treatment programs for children or adults, and there are claims that some treatments are not ethical and do more harm than good.

Prognosis

People with AS have normal lifespans but have an increased prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions such as depression, mood disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Children who have AS are seen to improve naturally. This may be relevant to the validity of purported 'cures' for various forms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) which claim success without correcting for the natural course of improvement. Developmental pediatrician James Coplan, M.D., states, "We can offer the hopeful message to parents that many children with ASD will improve as part of the natural course of the condition." The deficits associated with AS may be debilitating, but many individuals experience positive outcomes, particularly those who are able to excel in areas less dependent on social interaction, such as mathematics, music, and the sciences.

Epidemiology

The prevalence of AS is not well established, but conservative estimates using the DSM-IV criteria indicate that two to three of every 10,000 children have the condition, making it rarer than autistic disorder itself. Three to four times as many boys have AS compared with girls. The universality of AS across races, and validity of epidemiologic studies to date, is questioned.

A 1993 broad-based population study in Sweden found that 36 per 10,000 school-aged children met Gillberg's criteria for AS, rising to 71 per 10,000 if suspected cases are included. The estimate is convincing for Sweden, but the findings may not apply elsewhere because they are based on a homogeneous population. The Sweden study demonstrated that AS may be more common than once thought and may be currently underdiagnosed. Gillberg estimates 30–50% of all persons with AS are undiagnosed. A survey found that 36 per 10,000 adults with an IQ of 100 or above may meet criteria for AS.

Leekam et al. documented significant differences between Gillberg's criteria and the ICD-10 criteria. Considering its requirement for "normal" development of cognitive skills, language, curiosity and self-help skills, the ICD-10 definition is considerably more narrow than Gillberg's criteria, which more closely matches Hans Asperger's own descriptions.

Like other autism spectrum disorders, AS prevalence estimates for males are higher than for females, but some clinicians believe that this may not reflect the actual incidence rates. Tony Attwood suggests that females learn to compensate better for their impairments due to gender differences in the handling of socialization. The Ehlers & Gillberg study found a 4:1 male to female ratio in subjects meeting Gillberg's criteria for AS, but a lower 2.3:1 ratio when suspected or borderline cases were included.

The prevalence of AS in adults is not well understood, but Baron-Cohen et al. documented that 2% of adults score higher than 32 in his Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) questionnaire, developed in 2001 to measure the extent to which an adult of normal intelligence has the traits associated with autism spectrum conditions. All interviewed high-scorers met at least 3 DSM-IV criteria, and 63% met threshold criteria for an ASD diagnosis; a Japanese study found similar AQ Test results.

Comorbidities

Most patients presenting in clinical settings with AS have other comorbid psychiatric disorders. Children are likely to present with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), while depression is a common diagnosis in adolescents and adults. A study of referred adult patients found that 30% presenting with ADHD had ASD as well.

Research indicates people with AS may be far more likely to have the associated conditions. People with AS symptoms may frequently be diagnosed with clinical depression, oppositional defiant disorder, antisocial personality disorder, Tourette syndrome, ADHD, general anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

The particularly high comorbidity with anxiety often requires special attention. One study reported that about 84 percent of individuals with a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) also met the criteria to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Because of the social differences experienced by those with AS, such as trouble initiating or maintaining a conversation or adherence to strict rituals or schedules, additional stress to any of these activities may result in feelings of anxiety, which can negatively affect multiple areas of one's life, including school, family, and work. Treatment of anxiety disorders that accompany a PDD can be handled in a number of ways, such as through medication or individual and group cognitive behavioral therapy, where relaxation or distraction-type activities may be used along with other techniques in order to diffuse the feelings of anxiety.

History

Asperger syndrome was named in honour of Hans Asperger by the English psychiatrist Lorna Wing, who first used the term in a 1981 paper. In 1994, AS was recognized in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as Asperger's Disorder.

In 1944, Hans Asperger (1906–1980), an Austrian psychiatrist and pediatrician, observed four children in his practice who had difficulty integrating socially. Although their intelligence appeared normal, the children lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Their way of speaking was either disjointed or overly formal, and their all-absorbing interest in a single topic dominated their conversations. Asperger called the condition “autistic psychopathy” and described it as a condition primarily marked by social isolation. He also stated that "exceptional human beings must be given exceptional educational treatment, treatment which takes into account their special difficulties. Further, we can show that despite abnormality, human beings can fulfill their social role within the community, especially if they find understanding, love and guidance."

The Austrian-American child psychiatrist Leo Kanner identified a very similar syndrome in 1943, although the population characterized by Kanner was perhaps less "socially functional" than Asperger's. Kannerian autism is therefore characterized by significant cognitive and communicative deficiencies, including delays in language development or complete lack of language. (In contrast, AS is characterized by normal language acquisition.)

Asperger’s observations, published in German, were not widely known until 1981, when Lorna Wing published a series of case studies showing similar symptoms, which she called "Asperger’s Syndrome." Wing’s writings were widely published and popularized. In 1992, the tenth published edition of the World Health Organization’s diagnostic manual and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) included AS, making it a distinct diagnosis. Later, in 1994, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) and the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic reference book also added AS.

Uta Frith (an early researcher of Kannerian autism) wrote that people with AS seem to have more than a touch of autism to them. Others, such as Lorna Wing and Tony Attwood, share Frith's assessment. Dr. Sally Ozonoff, of the University of California at Davis's MIND Institute, argues that there should be no dividing line between "high-functioning" autism and AS, and that the fact that some people do not start to produce speech until a later age is no reason to divide the two groups because they are identical in the way they need to be treated.

In January 2006, Professor Simon Baron-Cohen of the University of Cambridge, regarded as one of the leading current researchers in this field, proposed the theory that people with AS tend to hyper-systematize; that they tend to seek to approach all spheres of life, including the social sphere, by developing systems or sets of rules to operate to.

Cultural aspects

Some professionals contend that, far from being a disease, AS is simply the pathologizing of neurodiversity that should be celebrated, understood and accommodated instead of treated or cured. MacKenzie identified the Jungian personality type ISTJ as the most likely type to exhibit autistic-like behaviors. Duke pointed out similarities between the I and J preferences and ASD, but specifically excluded the whole type ISTJ, while Chester asserted that, "In terms of function pairs, NT is more likely than ST to be seen as having Asperger's Disorder," He also said, "For whole types, I_TPs appear to be at a greater risk of being diagnosed with Asperger's Disorder than any other type, especially as children."

Shift in view

Autistic people have contributed to a shift in perception of autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather than diseases that must be cured. Proponents of this view reject the notion that there is an 'ideal' brain configuration and that any deviation from the norm is pathological. They demand tolerance for what they call their neurodiversity. These views are the basis for the autistic rights and autistic pride movements. Researcher Simon Baron-Cohen has argued that high-functioning autism is a "difference" and is not necessarily a "disability." He contends that the term "difference" is more neutral, and that this small shift in a term could mean the difference between a diagnosis of AS being received as a family tragedy, or as interesting information, such as learning that a child is left-handed.

Autistic culture

People with AS may refer to themselves in casual conversation as "aspies", coined by Liane Holliday Willey in 1999, or as an "Aspergian". The term neurotypical (NT) describes a person whose neurological development and state are typical, and is often used to refer to people who are non-autistic.

A Wired magazine article, The Geek Syndrome, suggested that AS is more common in Silicon Valley, a haven for computer scientists and mathematicians. It posited that AS may be the result of assortative mating by geeks in mathematical and technological areas. AS can be found in all occupations, however, and is not limited to those in the math and science fields.

The popularization of the Internet has allowed individuals with AS to communicate with each other in a way that was not possible to do offline due to the rarity and the geographic dispersal of individuals with AS. As a result of increasing ability to connect with one another, a subculture of "Aspies" has formed. Internet sites like Wrong Planet have made it easier for individuals to connect with each other.

See also

• Picture thinking
• Autistic Pride Day

References

• Attwood, Tony (1997). Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals. Jessica Kingsley Pub., London. ISBN 1-85302-577-1

1. ^ BehaveNet® Clinical Capsule™. DSM-IV & DSM-IV-TR: Asperger's Disorder (AD). Retrieved 15 July 2007.
2. Etchepareborda MC, Diaz-Lucero A, Pascuale MJ, Abad-Mas L, Ruiz-Andres R (March 2, 2007). "Asperger's syndrome, little teachers: special skills". Rev Neurol. 44 (Suppl 2): S43–47. PMID 17347944. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
3. ^ Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E (2001). "The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians". Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 31 (1): 5–17. PMID 11439754.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Erratum in: J Autism Dev Disord 2001 Dec;31(6):603.
4. ^ Hans Asperger Die ‘autischen Psychopathen’ Kindesalter. Arch Psychiatrie Nervenkrankheiten 1944;17: 76–136. Pertinent quotations translated to English, in James I (January 2003). "Singular Scientists". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 96(1);36–39. PMID 12519805
5. ^ Brasic, JR. Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Asperger Syndrome. eMedicine.com (April 10, 2006). Retrieved 15 July 2007.
6. Attwood (1997), pp. 129–40
7. Attwood (1997), pp. 28–29
8. Schultz RT, Gauthier I, Klin A; et al. (2000). "Abnormal ventral temporal cortical activity during face discrimination among individuals with autism and Asperger syndrome". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 57 (4): 331–40. PMID 10768694. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
9. Attwood (1997), pp. 116–17
10. ^ Treffert, DA. Asperger's Disorder and Savant Syndrome. Wisconsin Medical Society. Retrieved on 2007-08-17
11. Attwood (1997), p. 180
12. Attwood, Tony. The Complete Guide to Asperger's, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, UK., 2007, Page 12. "... the unusual profile of abilities that we define as Asperger's Syndrome has probably been an important and valuable characteristic of our species throughout evolution."
13. Attwood (1997), pp. 126–27, 180
14. Moran, Mark. Asperger's May Be Answer To Diagnostic Mysteries. Psychiatric News October 6, 2006, Volume 41, Number 19, page 21
15. Kasari C, Rotheram-Fuller E (2005). "Current trends in psychological research on children with high-functioning autism and Asperger disorder". Curr Opin Psychiatry. 18 (5): 497–501. doi:10.1097/01.yco.0000179486.47144.61. PMID 16639107.
16. Blacher J, Kraemer B, Schalow M (2003). "Asperger Syndrome and High Functioning Autism: Research Concerns and Emerging Foci". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 16 (5): 535–542. Retrieved 2007-08-18.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. Leekam S, Libby S, Wing L, Gould J, Gillberg C (2000). "Comparison of ICD-10 and Gillberg's Criteria for Asperger Syndrome". Autism. 4 (1): 11–28. doi:10.1177/1362361300004001002.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
18. Dingfelder, Sadie. A Dilemma of Definition. American Psychological Association, Volume 35, No. 11 December 2004, page 48.
19. ^ Eisenmajer R, Prior M, Leekam S; et al. (1998). "Delayed language onset as a predictor of clinical symptoms in pervasive developmental disorders". Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 28 (6): 527–33. PMID 9932239. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
20. ^ Mayes SD, Calhoun SL (2001). "Non-significance of early speech delay in children with autism and normal intelligence and implications for DSM-IV Asperger's disorder". Autism : the international journal of research and practice. 5 (1): 81–94. PMID 11708393.
21. Attwood (1997), pp. 195–196
22. Rühl D, Bölte S, Poustka F (2001). "". Der Nervenarzt (in German). 72 (7): 535–40. PMID 11478225.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
23. ^ Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Crites DL (2001). "Does DSM-IV Asperger's disorder exist?". Journal of abnormal child psychology. 29 (3): 263–71. PMID 11411788.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</
24. Cuccaro ML, Nations L, Brinkley J; et al. (2007). "A comparison of repetitive behaviors in Aspergers Disorder and high functioning autism". Child psychiatry and human development. 37 (4): 347–60. doi:10.1007/s10578-007-0052-y. PMID 17410426. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
25. Attwood (1997), pp. 150–51
26. Attwood, Tony (2003). Is There a Difference Between Asperger's Syndrome and High Functioning Autism? (PDF). Sacramento Asperger Syndrome Information & Support. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.
27. ^ NINDS (May 11 2006). Asperger Syndrome Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 July 2006.
28. Koyama T, Tachimori H, Osada H, Takeda T, Kurita H (Feb 2007). "Cognitive and symptom profiles in Asperger's syndrome and high-functioning autism". Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 61 (1): 99–104. PMID 17239046.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
29. ^ Szatmari, Peter (2000). "The classification of autism, Asperger's syndrome, and pervasive developmental disorder". Can J Psychiatry (45(8):731–38. Review). PMID 11086556. Retrieved 2007-08-17. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
30. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Robinson J, Woodbury-Smith M (2005). ["The Adult Asperger Assessment (AAA): a diagnostic method" (PDF). Journal of autism and developmental disorders. 35 (6): 807–19. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0026-5. PMID 16331530. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
31. Mahoney WJ, Szatmari P, MacLean JE; et al. (1998). "Reliability and accuracy of differentiating pervasive developmental disorder subtypes". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 37 (3): 278–85. PMID 9519632. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
32. Szatmari P, Bremner R, Nagy J (1989). "Asperger's syndrome: a review of clinical features". Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 34 (6): 554–60. PMID 2766209.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
33. ^ Gillberg IC, Gillberg C. "Asperger syndrome-some epidemiological considerations: A research note." J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1989 Jul;30(4):631–38. PMID 2670981
34. Fitzgerald M, Corvin A (2001). Diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Asperger syndrome. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 7: pp. 310–318.
35. ^ Bauer S. Asperger Syndrome. The Source (2000). Retrieved 7 July 2006.
36. Myles, Brenda Smith; Trautman, Melissa; and Schelvan, Ronda (2004). The Hidden Curriculum: practical solutions for understanding unstated rules in social situations. Shawnee Mission, Kansas: Autism Asperger Publishing Co., 2004. ISBN 1-931282-60-9.
37. Levanthal-Belfer, Laurie and Coe, Cassandra (2004). Asperger Syndrome in Young Children: A Developmental Approach for Parents and Professionals. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, p. 161. ISBN 1-84310-748-1
38. Romanowski, Patricia; Kirby, Barbara L. The Oasis Guide to Asperger Syndrome
39. Levanthal-Belfer and Coe (2004), pp. 160–161.
40. Attwood (1997), pp. 89–92.
41. Sifneos PE (1973). "The prevalence of 'alexithymic' characteristics in psychosomatic patients". Psychotherapy and psychosomatics. 22 (2): 255–62. PMID 4770536.
42. Haviland MG, Warren WL, Riggs ML (2000). "An observer scale to measure alexithymia". Psychosomatics. 41 (5): 385–92. PMID 11015624. Retrieved 2007-08-10.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
43. Hill E, Berthoz S, Frith U (2004). "Brief report: cognitive processing of own emotions in individuals with autistic spectrum disorder and in their relatives". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 34 (2): 229–235. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000022613.41399.14.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
44. Attwood (1997), pp. 57–66
45. Attwood (1997), pp. 165–169
46. Attwood (1997), pp. 80–82.
47. Attwood (1997), p. 78.
48. Attwood (1997), p. 82.
49. Attwood (1997), p. 109.
50. Myles BS, Huggins A, et al. Written language profile of children and youth with Asperger syndrome: From research to practice. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 38:4 December 2003, 362–369. Abstract.
51. Attwood (1997), p. 106.
52. Attwood (1997), pp. 89–102
53. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S. "'Obsessions' in children with autism or Asperger syndrome. Content analysis in terms of core domains of cognition." Br J Psychiatry. 1999 Nov;175:484–90. PMID 10789283
54. ^ Wing, Lorna. "Asperger syndrome: a clinical account". Psychological Medicine. 11:115–129 . Available at mugsy.org. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.
55. Hippler K, Klicpera C (2003). "A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of 'autistic psychopaths' diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children's Hospital, Vienna". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. 358 (1430): 291–301. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1197. PMID 12639327.
56. ^ Asperger, H. (1944), Die 'Autistischen Psychopathen' im Kindesalter, Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 117, pp. 76–136.
57. ^ Aquilla P, Yack E, Sutton S. "Sensory and motor differences for individuals with Asperger Syndrome: Occupational therapy assessment and intervention" in Stoddart, Kevin P. (Editor) (2005), p. 198.
58. Jankovic J, Mejia NI. "Tics associated with other disorders". Adv Neurol. 2006;99:61–68. PMID 16536352
59. Mejia NI, Jankovic J. Secondary tics and tourettism. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2005;27(1):11–17. PMID 15867978 Full-text PDF
60. Attwood (1997), p. 100.
61. Romanowski and Kirby (2005), pp. 420–421.
62. Sikile-Kira "Autism Spectrum Disorders". (2003)
63. Hepburn SL, Stone WL. "Using Carey Temperament Scales to Assess Behavioral Style in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders". J Autism Dev Disord. 2006 21 April; PMID 16628481
64. Stoddart, K. P. (Editor) (2005). "Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4. p. 239.
65. Muhle R, Trentacoste SV, Rapin I. "The genetics of autism." Pediatrics. 2004 May;113(5):e472–86. Review. PMID 15121991
66. Oberman LM, Hubbard EM, McCleery JP, Altschuler EL, Ramachandran VS, Pineda JA (2005). "EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders". Brain research. Cognitive brain research. 24 (2): 190–98. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.014. PMID 15993757.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
67. Dapretto M, Davies MS, Pfeifer JH; et al. (2006). "Understanding emotions in others: mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders". Nat. Neurosci. 9 (1): 28–30. doi:10.1038/nn1611. PMID 16327784. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
68. Larsson HJ, Eaton WW, Madsen KM, Vestergaard M, et al.. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2005 May 15;161(10):916–25; discussion 926–28. PMID 15870155Full text.
69. Murphy DG, Daly E, Schmitz N, et al. "Cortical serotonin 5-HT2A receptor binding and social communication in adults with Asperger's syndrome: an in vivo SPECT study." Am J Psychiatry. 2006 May;163(5):934–36. PMID 16648340
70. Gowen E, Miall RC. "Behavioural aspects of cerebellar function in adults with Asperger syndrome." Cerebellum. 2005;4(4):279–89. PMID 16321884
71. Lawson J, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S. "Empathising and systemising in adults with and without Asperger Syndrome." J Autism Dev Disord. 2004 Jun;34(3):301–10. PMID 15264498
72. Baron-Cohen, Simon (April 17 2003). "They just can't help it." Guardian. Retrieved on 19 July 2006.
73. Jamain S, Quach H, Betancur C; et al. (2003). "Mutations of the X-linked genes encoding neuroligins NLGN3 and NLGN4 are associated with autism". Nat. Genet. 34 (1): 27–29. doi:10.1038/ng1136. PMID 12669065. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
74. Durand CM, Betancur C, Boeckers TM; et al. (2007). "Mutations in the gene encoding the synaptic scaffolding protein SHANK3 are associated with autism spectrum disorders". Nat. Genet. 39 (1): 25–27. doi:10.1038/ng1933. PMID 17173049. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
75. Schumann CM, Hamstra J, Goodlin-Jones BL, et al. "The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages." J Neurosci. 2004 14 July;24(28):6392–6401. PMID 15254095
76. ^ Kwon H, Ow AW, Pedatella KE, et al. "Voxel-based morphometry elucidates structural neuroanatomy of high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome." Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004 Nov;46(11):760–64. PMID 15540637
77. Belmonte MK, Allen G, Beckel-Mitchener A, et al. "Autism and Abnormal Development of Brain Connectivity." J Neurosci. 2004 20 October;24(42):9228–31 PMID 15496656 Full text
78. Théoret H, Halligan E, Kobayashi M, Fregni F, Tager-Flusberg H, Pascual-Leone A (2005). "Impaired motor facilitation during action observation in individuals with autism spectrum disorder". Curr. Biol. 15 (3): R84–85. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.022. PMID 15694294. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
79. Teitelbaum O, Benton T, Shah PK, et al. "Eshkol-Wachman movement notation in diagnosis: the early detection of Asperger's syndrome." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 10 August;101(32):11909–14. Epub 2004 28 July. PMID 15282371 Full text.
80. ^ Clements, Colleen. Making intelligence a disease. The Medical Post, 2001. Retrieved 18 July 2006. Colleen Clements is clinical associate professor of psychiatry at the University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.
81. ^ Matson JL (2007). "Determining treatment outcome in early intervention programs for autism spectrum disorders: a critical analysis of measurement issues in learning based interventions". Research in developmental disabilities. 28 (2): 207–18. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2005.07.006. PMID 16682171.
82. Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ (2007). "Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations". J Autism Dev Disord. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0402-4. PMID 17641962.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
83. Dawson, Michelle. The Misbehaviour of Behaviourists. sentex.net/~nexus23. January 18, 2004. Retrieved 7 July 2006.
84. Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse. dinahm.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk Retrieved 7 July 2006.
85. "New model may better predict outcomes for children with autism and autistic spectrum disorders; classification tool may better describe autism-related disorders, help evaluate treatments" (Press release). The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. 2005-07-05. Retrieved 2007-08-15. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
86. Coplan J, Jawad AF (2005). "Modeling clinical outcome of children with autistic spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 116 (1): 117–22. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1118. PMID 15995041.
87. Fombonne E. "Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorders." J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66 Suppl 10:3–8. PMID 16401144
88. Sanua VD. "Is infantile autism a universal phenomenon? An open question." Int J Soc Psychiatry. 1984 Autumn;30(3):163–77. PMID 6746221
89. ^ Ehlers S, Gillberg C. "The epidemiology of Asperger's syndrome: a total population study." J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1993 Nov;34(8):1327–50. PMID 8294522 Full Text.
90. Barnard J, et al. "Ignored or Ineligible? : The reality for adults with ASD". The National Autistic Society, London, 2001. Full Text (PDF).
91. Leekam S, et al. (2000). Comparison of ICD-10 and Gillberg’s Criteria for Asperger Syndrome. The National Autistic Society, SAGE Publications, 2000.
92. Attwood(1997), pp. 151–52.
93. Wakabayashi A, Tojo Y, et al. "" Japanese. Shinrigaku Kenkyu. 2004 Apr;75(1):78–84. PMID 15724518
94. ^ Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N. "Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report." J Intellect Disabil Res 42 (Pt 4):279–83 PMID 9786442
95. Stahlberg O, Soderstrom H, et al. "Bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and other psychotic disorders in adults with childhood onset AD/HD and/or autism spectrum disorders." Journal of neural transmission. 2004 Jul;111(7):891–902. PMID 15206005
96. Stoddart, K. P. (Editor) (2005). "Children, Youth and Adults with Asperger Syndrome: Integrating Multiple Perspectives". London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-268-4, p. 44.
97. Gillberg C, Billstedt E. "Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders." Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000 Nov;102(5):321–30. PMID 11098802
98. Muris P, Steerneman P, Merckelbach H, Holdrinet I, Meesters C (1998). "Comorbid anxiety symptoms in children with pervasive developmental disorders". Journal of anxiety disorders. 12 (4): 387–93. PMID 9699121.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
99. Dasari, Meena (May 24, 2005). "Asperger's Syndrome and Anxiety". NYU Child Study Center. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.
100. Attwood(1997), p. 15
101. Kanner, L (1943). "Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact". Nervous Child, 2;217–250.
102. Note: The NINDS Asperger Syndrome Fact Sheet lists 1995 as the date AS was included in the DSM, but the DSM-IV was published in 1994.
103. Frith, U (1991). "Asperger and his syndrome." In U. Frith (ed) Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
104. Ozonoff S, Rogers SJ, Pennington BF. "Asperger's syndrome: evidence of an empirical distinction from high-functioning autism." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 1991 Nov;32(7):1107–22. PMID 1787139
105. Baron-Cohen S (2006). "The hyper-systemizing, assortative mating theory of autism" (PDF). Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 30 (5): 865–72. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.010. PMID 16519981.
106. MacKenzie, EH (2004, July). Using type to understand the autistic experience. Paper presented at APT-XV, the Fifteenth Biennial International Conference of the Association for Psychological Type, Toronto, ON.
107. Duke, LR (2005). Autism and learning styles: An assessment of children with high-functioning autism and Asperger's syndrome using the Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children-Revised. A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the graduate school of the Texas Woman's University, College of Arts and Sciences, Denton, TX.
108. Chester RG (2006, December). Asperger's syndrome and psychological type. Journal of Psychological Type, 66(12), 114–137.
109. Williams, Charmaine C. "In search of an Asperger culture," in Stoddart, Kevin. (Ed.) (2005), p. 246.
110. Williams (2005), p. 246. Williams writes: "The life prospects of people with AS would change if we shifted from viewing AS as a set of dysfunctions, to viewing it as a set of differences that have merit."
111. Dakin, Chris J. "Life on the outside: A personal perspective of Asperger syndrome," in Stoddart, Kevin (Ed.) (2005), pp. 352–353.
112. Baron-Cohen, Simon. "Is asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism necessarily a disability?" Development and Psychopathology. 2000 Summer;12(3):489–500. PMID 11014749 Full-text PDF.
113. Willey, LH. Pretending to be Normal: Living with Asperger's Syndrome. Jessica Kingsley, London, 1999. ISBN 1-85302-749-9
114. Bringing Children Together. Aspergian Pride. Retrieved 2 July 2006.
115. Silberman, S (2001). The Geek Syndrome. Wired.com Retrieved 31 May 2006.
116. Nash, J. Madeleine (2002-05-06). "The Secrets of Autism". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2006-07-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
117. Dekker, Martijn. On our own terms: Emerging autistic culture. AutisticCulture.com. Retrieved on 2007-08-15.

External links

• Template:Dmoz
• Asperger syndrome fact sheets - Fact sheets on diagnosis, early intervention, behaviors, family issues & personal stories, for both parents of a child on the autistic spectrum, and adults on the spectrum
• MedlinePlus Asperger Syndrome Resources
• CDC's "Learn the Signs. Act Early.” campaign - Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities
• Fresh Air with Terry Gross - National Public Radio (NPR) Program on Asperger's (2004 May 5)
• BBC's h2g2: "Autism and Asperger's Syndrome: The 'Little Professors'" (2006 April 19)
• Radio Times with Marty Moss-Coane Real audio feed of hour long public radio segment on coping with Asperger's (2007 February 7)

Template:Link FA

• Autism
• Pervasive Developmental Disorders
• Childhood psychiatric disorders
• Educational psychology
• Genetic disorders
• Neurological disorders
• Special education
• Syndromes