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File:Meissner effect.jpg

A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect.

For the periodical, see Science (journal).

Science (from the Latin scientia, 'knowledge'), in a historical sense, refers to any systematic knowledge or practice. The modern use of the term refers to a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method, as well as to the organized body of knowledge gained through such research.

Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:

Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), and
Social sciences, which study human behavior and societies.

These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being experimented for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Mathematics, which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).

The history of science is marked by a chain of advances in technology and knowledge that have always complemented each other. Technological innovations bring about new discoveries and are bred by other discoveries which inspire new possibilities and approaches to longstanding science issues. Investing in science and technology is critical to ensuring prosperity and a high quality of life. Scientists are at the forefront of the development of scientific and technological innovations. The primary objectives of these professionals are to create and develop novel research that can be used to solve problems for both the states' populations, as well as individual entities like companies.

Science as discussed in this article is sometimes termed experimental science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs, though the two are often interconnected.

Etymology

The word science comes through the Old French, and is derived from the Latin word Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) for knowledge, which in turn comes from Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), "I know". The Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root that yields scio is *skei-, and it means "cut, separate, or discern". Other words from the same root include Sanskrit chyati, "he cuts off", Greek schizo, "I split" (hence English schism, schizophrenia), Latin Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), "I split" (hence English rescind). From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic recorded knowledge. Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carries this meaning.

Well into the eighteenth century, science and philosophy were roughly synonymous. In fact, the preferred term for the study of nature was often natural philosophy, while English speakers most typically referred to the study of the human mind as moral philosophy. By the early 1800s, science had begun to separate from philosophy, though it often retained a very broad meaning. In many cases, it stood for reliable knowledge about any topic. It was often linked to a set of well-defined laws, not just of nature but among any phenomena. Over the course of the nineteenth century, however, there was an increased tendency to associate science with the natural world (that is, the non-human world). This move sometimes left the study of human thought and society (what would come to be called social science) in a scientific limbo by the end of the century and into the next.

Over the 1800s, many English speakers were increasingly differentiating science from all other forms of knowledge in a variety of other ways as well. For instance, the now-familiar expression “scientific method” was almost unused during the early part of the century. It became widespread only after the 1870s, though there was rarely totally agreement about just what it entailed. Similarly, discussion of “scientists” as a special group of people who did science, even if their attributes were up for debate, or of the differences between “science and religion,” though that topic was one of great controversy, grew after mid-century especially. Whatever people actually meant by them, such terms ultimately depicted science as something deeply distinguished from all other realms of human endeavor.

By the twentieth century, the modern notion of science as a special brand of information about the world, practiced by a distinct group and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place. It was used to give legitimacy to a variety of fields through such titles as “Scientific Medicine,” “Scientific Engineering,” “Scientific Advertising,” or even “Scientific Motherhood.” Over the 1900s, links between science and technology also grew increasingly strong. By the end of the century, it is arguable that technology had even begun to eclipse science as a term of public attention and praise. Scholarly studies of science have begun to refer to “technoscience” rather than science of technology separately. Meanwhile, such fields as biotechnology and nanotechnology are capturing the headlines. One author has suggested that, in the coming century, "science" may fall out of use, to be replaced by technoscience or even by some more exotic label such as “techknowledgy.”

Scientific method

Main article: Scientific method

The scientific method seeks to explain the events of nature in a reproducible way, and to use these reproductions to make useful predictions. It is done through observation of natural phenomena, and/or through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions. It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields. Often scientists have a preference for one outcome over another, and scientists are conscientious that it is important that this preference does not bias their interpretation. A strict following of the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. This can be achieved by correct experimental design, and a thorough peer review of the experimental results as well as conclusions of a study.

Scientists use models to refer to a description or depiction of something, specifically one which can be used to make predictions that can be tested by experiment or observation. A hypothesis is a contention that has been neither well supported nor yet ruled out by experiment. A theory, in the context of science, is a logically self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena. A theory typically describes the behavior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis—commonly, a large number of hypotheses may be logically bound together by a single theory. A physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a sufficiently large number of empirical observations that it is taken as fully verified.

Scientists never claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subject of the field of study. Unlike a mathematical proof, a scientific theory is empirical, and is always open to falsification, if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. Critical to this process is making every relevant aspect of research publicly available, which permits peer review of published results, and also allows ongoing review and repeating of experiments and observations by multiple researchers operating independently of one another. Only by fulfilling these expectations can it be determined how reliable the experimental results are for potential use by others.

Isaac Newton's Newtonian law of gravitation is a famous example of an established law that was later found not to be universal—it does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of light or in close proximity of strong gravitational fields. Outside these conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity. Since general relativity accounts for all the same phenomena that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a more comprehensive theory.

Karl Popper denied the existence of evidence and of scientific method. Popper holds that there is only one universal method, the negative method of trial and error. It covers not only all products of the human mind, including science, mathematics, philosophy, art and so on, but also the evolution of life.

Philosophy of science

Main article: Philosophy of science

The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive account of the scientific method that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the scientific community at large. (see: Problem of demarcation)

Science is reasoned-based analysis of sensation upon our awareness. As such, the scientific method cannot deduce anything about the realm of reality that is beyond what is observable by existing or theoretical means. When a manifestation of our reality previously considered supernatural is understood in the terms of causes and consequences, it acquires a scientific explanation.

Resting on reason and logic, along with other guidelines such as parsimony (e.g., "Occam's Razor"), scientific theories are formulated and repeatedly tested by analyzing how the collected evidence compares to the theory. Some of the findings of science can be very counter-intuitive. Atomic theory, for example, implies that a granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is actually a combination of subatomic particles with none of these properties, moving very rapidly in space where the mass is concentrated in a very small fraction of the total volume. Many of humanity's preconceived notions about the workings of the universe have been challenged by new scientific discoveries. Quantum mechanics, particularly, examines phenomena that seem to defy our most basic postulates about causality and fundamental understanding of the world around us. Science is the branch of knowledge dealing with people and the understanding we have of our environment and how it works.

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of scientific method. Methodological naturalism maintains that scientific investigation must adhere to empirical study and independent verification as a process for properly developing and evaluating natural explanations for observable phenomena. Methodological naturalism, therefore, rejects supernatural explanations, arguments from authority and biased observational studies. Critical rationalism instead holds that unbiased observation is not possible and a demarcation between natural and supernatural explanations is arbitrary; it instead proposes falsifiability as the landmark of empirical theories and falsification as the universal empirical method. Critical rationalism argues for the ability of science to increase the scope of testable knowledge, but at the same time against its authority, by emphasizing its inherent fallibility. It proposes that science should be content with the rational elimination of errors in its theories, not in seeking for their verification (such as claiming certain or probable proof or disproof; both the proposal and falsification of a theory are only of methodological, conjectural, and tentative character in critical rationalism). Instrumentalism rejects the concept of truth and emphasizes merely the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.

Mathematics and the scientific method

Mathematics is essential to many sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include calculus and statistics, although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as number theory and topology. Mathematics is fundamental to the understanding of the natural sciences and the social sciences, all of which rely heavily on statistics. Statistical methods, comprised of accepted mathematical formulas for summarizing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results.

Whether mathematics itself is properly classified as science has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In practice, mathematical theorems and formulas are obtained by logical derivations which presume axiomatic systems, rather than a combination of empirical observation and method of reasoning that has come to be known as scientific method. In general, mathematics is classified as formal science, while natural and social sciences are classified as empirical sciences.

Scientific literature

Main article: Scientific literature

An enormous range of scientific literature is published. Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions.

Most scientific journals cover a single scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a scientific paper. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider populace.

Science magazines such as New Scientist and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Science books engage the interest of many more people.

Tangentially, science fiction, primarily fantastic in nature, engages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if not the methods, of science.

Fields of science

Main article: Fields of science

Science is broadly subdivided into the categories of natural sciences and the social sciences. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as engineering and health science. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.

The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter of debate since the 20th century (see Positivism dispute). Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist Percy W. Bridgman, or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of Texas at Austin, to politicians like U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison and other co-sponsors, oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific, ambiguous, or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.

Scientific institutions

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period. The oldest surviving institution is the Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in Italy. National Academy of Sciences are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660 and the French Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) in 1666.

International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the National Science Foundation in the U.S.

Other prominent organizations include:

In Australia, CSIRO
In France, Centre national de la recherche scientifique
In Germany, Max Planck Society and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
In Spain, CSIC
In Russia, Russian Academy of Sciences

Critiques

Jacques Barzun termed science "a faith as fanatical as any in history" and warned against the use of scientific thought to suppress considerations of meaning as integral to human existence.

The media and the scientific debate

The mass media face a number of pressures that can prevent them from accurately depicting competing scientific claims in terms of their credibility within the scientific community as a whole. Determining how much weight to give different sides in a scientific debate requires considerable expertise on the issue at hand. Few journalists have real scientific knowledge, and even beat reporters who know a great deal about certain scientific issues may know little about other ones they’re suddenly asked to cover.

Ethics and science

The implications of the ideological denial of ethics for the practice of science itself in terms of fraud, plagiarism, and data falsification, has been criticized by several academics. In "Science and Ethics", Bernard Rollin examines the ideology that denies the relevance of ethics to science, and argues in favor of making education in ethics part and parcel of scientific training.

Controversy	Fringe science Junk science Pathological science Pseudoscience Relationship between religion and science Creation-evolution controversy Scientific misconduct Scientific skepticism (cf. Pseudoskepticism)
History	History of science and technology Historiography of science Protoscience Scientific constants named after people Scientific laws named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific revolution Scientific units named after people
Philosophy	Philosophy of science Rhetoric of science Scientific method Antiscience

Notes

http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/science Merriam Webster definition of science, Retrieved September 12, 2007 "2 a : a department of systematized knowledge as an object of study <the science of theology> b : something (as a sport or technique) that may be studied or learned like systematized knowledge <have it down to a science>"
"science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com"
^ (Popper 1959, p. 3) harv error: no target: CITEREFPopper1959 (help)
(Popper 1959, p. 20) harv error: no target: CITEREFPopper1959 (help)
(Popper 1959, pp. 10–11) harv error: no target: CITEREFPopper1959 (help)
(Popper 1959, pp. 79–82) harv error: no target: CITEREFPopper1959 (help)
Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online. See also details of the PIE root at American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition, 2000..
MacMorris, Neville (1989). The Natures of Science. New York: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. pp. pp. 31–33. ISBN 0838633218. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Thurs, Daniel Patrick (2007). Science Talk: Changing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. pp. 22–52. ISBN 978-0-8135-4073-3. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Ibid., 74-79.
Ibid., 69-74, 79-84.
Ibid., 95.
Ibid., 142-144, 180-181.
Logik der Forschung, new appendix *XIX (not yet available in the English edition Logic of scientific discovery)
Karl Popper: On the non-existence of scientific method. Realism and the Aim of Science (1983)
Karl Popper: Objective Knowledge (1972)
See: Editorial Staff (March 7, 2007). "Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms". Seed magazine. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in Karl R. Popper's The Poverty of Historicism.
Siepmann, J. P. (1999). "What is Science? (Editorial)". Journal of Theoretics. 3. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
Richardson, R. H. (Dick) (January 28, 2001). "Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.)". The University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
Staff (May 19, 2006). "Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate". American Sociological Association. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
Parrott, Jim (August 9, 2007). "Chronicle for Societies Founded from 1323 to 1599". Scholarly Societies Project. Retrieved 2007-09-11.
"Benvenuto nel sito dell'Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei" (in Italian). Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. 2006. Retrieved 2007-09-11.
"Brief history of the Society". The Royal Society. Retrieved 2007-09-11.
Meynell, G.G. "The French Academy of Sciences, 1666-91: A reassessment of the French Académie royale des sciences under Colbert (1666-83) and Louvois (1683-91)". Topics in Scientific & Medical History. Retrieved 2007-09-11.
Jacques Barzun, Science: The Glorious Entertainment, Harper and Row: 1964. p. 15. (quote) and Chapters II and XII.

References

Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. Science, history of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
Papineau, David. 2005. Science, problems of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
Popper, Karl (2002) . The Logic of Scientific Discovery (2nd English edition ed.). New York, NY: Routledge Classics. p. 3. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
Richard P. Feynman. "The Pleasure of Finding Things Out"

External links

Journals

Science

Textbooks:

News:

Current Events. New Scientist Magazine, Reed Business Information, Ltd.
ScienceDaily
Discover Magazine

Resources:

United States Science Initiative. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.
Science Resources

Fun science: