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Early history
In ancient times Celts and Illyrians inhabited the territory of present-day Slovenia. Also, the Adriatic Veneti were dwelling in northeastern Italy and parts of Slovenia. A well-developed Illyrian population existed as far north as the upper Sava valley in what is now Slovenia. Illyrian friezes discovered near the present-day Slovene city of Ljubljana depict ritual sacrifices, feasts, battles, sporting events, and other activities.
The Roman Empire established its rule in the region in the 1st century, after 200 years of fighting with the local tribes. The most important ancient Roman cities in this area included: Celeia (now Celje), Emona (Ljubljana), Nauportus (Vrhnika), Poetovio (Ptuj). The modern country's territory was split among the Roman provinces of Dalmatia, Italia, Noricum, and Pannonia.
Slavic settlement
Further information: Slavic settlement of Eastern AlpsThe first phase of Slavic settlement in the territory of modern Slovenia is dated around the year 550 and originated in the area of modern Moravia (i.e., the West Slavic speaking branch). From there Slavs moved southward into the territory of the former Roman province of Noricum (modern Upper and Lower Austria regions). Subsequently, they progressed along the valleys of Alpine rivers towards the Karawanken range and towards the settlement of Poetovio (modern Ptuj).
The second phase of Slavic settlement took place after Langobards had retreated into Northern Italy in 568. Slavs eventually occupied the depopulated territory with the help of their Avar overlords. In 588 they reached the area of the Upper Sava river and in 591 they arrived to the Upper Drava region where they soon fought with the Bavarians. In 592 the Bavarians won, but in 595 the Slavic-Avar army gained victory and thus consolidated the boundary between the Frankish and Avar territories.
Carantania (660-976)
Between 623-626, the Western and the Southern Slavic tribes were united under Samo's Tribal Union, which extended from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic Sea. Its purpose was to defend the Slavs from the Bavarians, the Langobards and the Avars. It collapsed due to the death of Samo (658) and the disconnected link between the western and the southern Slavs.
After the demise of Samo's Tribal Union, a Slavic principality was established under the guidance of Knez (Lord) Valuk, the Duchy of Carantania (first mentioned in 660), which largely corresponded to the territory of today's Austrian Carinthia and Slovenian Carinthia.
In 745 Carantania was joined to the Frankish Empire. The consuetudo Sclavorum, the ritual of inthronisation of the knez, dates to this period.
Caranthania joined Ljudevit Posavski's revolt against Louis the Pious in 819, but were beaten in 823. Caranthinia passed under the dominion of Louis the German with the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
Holy Roman Empire (976-1918)
The Frankish margraviate passed to the Holy Roman Empire as the duchys of Carinthia, Carniola and Styria in 975.
The Slovenes living in the provinces of lived under the rule of the Habsburg dynasty from the 14th century until 1918, with the exceptions of Napoleon's 4-year tutelage of parts of modern-day Slovenia and Croatia — the "Illyrian provinces" and Prekmurje region was managed by Ottomans approximately 150 years.
While the elites of these regions mostly became Germanized, the peasants strongly resisted Germanization influences and retained their unique Slavic language and culture. A major step towards the social and cultural emancipation of the Slovenians happened during the Reformation, when Primož Trubar published the first printed books in the Slovenian language (Catechismus and Abecedarium, 1550 in Tübingen, Germany). Protestant publishing in Slovene culminated by a full translation of the Bible (Jurij Dalmatin, Wittenberg 1584). Even though the majority of the population assumed Protestant teaching, the region became re-Catholicized under the rule of Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria (ruled 1590 - 1637), who later became Emperor and pursued similar policies in the other Habsburgh territories. See also: Croatian and Slovenian peasant revolt of 1573.
Carantania preserved the inauguration of its knez (prince) in the Slovenian language until the year 1414 on the Prince's Stone (knežji kamen). Until the year 1651 the oath ceremony of the lord took place at the Duke's Chair (vojvodski stol) and then, until the year 1728, in the county house in Klagenfurt (Celovec). The inauguration ritual is described in Jean Bodin's book Six livres de la République and it is known that Thomas Jefferson learned about it from that book.
In the 19th century intellectuals codified Slovene into a literary language, and Slovene nationalist movements began to take hold, initially demanding Slovene autonomy within the framework of the Habsburg Monarchy (see United Slovenia). In the second half of 19th century, Slovenia gained an administrative autonomy in the province of Carinthia. Other provinces settled with Slovenians had some cultural and educational concessions.
Yugoslavia (1918-1989)
In 1918, after World War I, the Slovenes joined with other southern Slav peoples in forming the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (October 29, 1918) and then the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (December 1, 1918) under King Peter I of Serbia. In 1929, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was renamed as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1941, Yugoslavia fell to the Axis powers during the invasion of Yugoslavia. After Yugoslavia fell, Germany, Italy, and Hungary each annexed parts of Slovenia, the largest part being Lower Styria which was annexed to the "Ostmark" (Nazi German Austria).
Following Yugoslav partisan resistance to German, Hungarian, and Italian occupation and the elimination of quisling groups, Josip Broz Tito established the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1945. During the immediate postwar period, political opponents and members of noncommunist armed formations were imprisoned and executed, and many were buried in unmarked mass graves. Following the 1948 Tito-Stalin split, measures became less repressive. Slovenia formed a constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
Slovenia continued to form Yugoslavia's most prosperous and advanced republic throughout the communist era. Slovenia was at the forefront of Yugoslavia's unique version of communism.
Disintegration of Yugoslavia (1989-1991)
The independence of Slovenia came about as a result of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, and the rise of nationalism. Crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of communism in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s. In Yugoslavia, the federal Communist party, officially called Alliance or League of Communists, was losing its ideological dominance.
At the same time, nationalist and separatist ideologies were on the rise in the late 1980s throughout Yugoslavia. This was particularly noticeable in Serbia and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to a lesser extent in Slovenia and the Republic of Macedonia. Slobodan Milošević's rise to power in Serbia, and his rhetoric in favour of the unity of all Serbs, was responded to with nationalist movements in other republics, particularly Croatia and Slovenia. These Republics began to seek greater autonomy within the Federation, including confederative status and even full independence. Nationalism also grew within the still ruling League of Communists. So the weakening of the communist regime allowed nationalism to become a more powerful force in Yugoslav politics. In January 1990, the League of Communists broke up on the lines of the individual Republics.
In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after adoption of amendments to the Serbian constitution. This allowed the Serbian republic's government to re-assert effective power over the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. The Serb government claimed that the previous situation was unjust in allowing these provinces to be involved in the rule of Serbia Central whilst Serbia Central had not control over what happened in these two provinces. Serbia, under president Slobodan Milošević, thus gained control over three out of eight votes in the Yugoslav presidency. With additional votes from Montenegro and, occasionally, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia was thus able to heavily influence decisions of the federal government. This situation led to objections in other republics and calls for reform of the Yugoslav Federation.
At the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, on 20 January 1990, the delegations of the republics could not agree on the main issues in the Yugoslav federation. As a result, the Slovenian and Croatian delegates left the Congress. The Slovenian delegation, headed by Milan Kučan demanded democratic changes and a looser federation, while the Serbian delegation, headed by Milošević, blanketly opposed this. This is considered the beginning of the end of Yugoslavia.
Slovenia and Croatia shortly after began the process towards independence. The first free elections were scheduled in Croatia and Slovenia. Defying the politicians in Belgrade, Slovenia embraced democracy and opened its society in the cultural, civic, and economic spheres to a degree almost unprecedented in the communist world.
On December 23, 1990, 88% of Slovenia's population voted for independence in a plebiscite, and on June 25, 1991, the Republic of Slovenia declared its independence.
A 10-day war with Yugoslavia followed (June 27, 1991 - July 6, 1991). The Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) forces withdrew after Slovenia demonstrated stiff resistance to Belgrade. The conflict resulted in relatively few casualties: 67 people were killed according to statistics compiled by the International Red Cross, of which most (39) were JNA soldiers.
Independent Slovenia (1991 to present)
Slovenia joined the United Nations on May 22, 1992.
Historical ties to Western Europe made Slovenia a strong candidate for accession to the European Union. This occurred on May 1, 2004. The other Yugoslav Republics all had to remain outside the European Union. Just a few weeks earlier - in March 2004 - Slovenia had become a member of NATO.
The boundaries of Slovenia today are as they were as a Socialist Republic prior to independence, but a series of border disputes arose between Slovenia and its neighbour Croatia.
The Slovenian tolar became part of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism in 2004. Slovenia joined the European Monetary Union and adopted the Euro as its currency on the 1 January 2007 as the first of the new member countries.
Slovenia implemented Schengen Agreement on December 21, 2007.
See also
- Timeline of Slovenian history.
- Habsburg Monarchy
- History of the Balkans
- History of Austria, History of Italy, History of Hungary, History of Croatia, History of Yugoslavia
- Divje Babe
- Ten-Day War
- List of states that formally recognise the independent Republic of Slovenia
References
- Janko Prunk, A Brief History of Slovenia, Založba Grad, Ljubljana, 1996
| Republics and autonomous provinces of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia* | |
|---|---|
| * in order of population and territory size |