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Allegations of apartheid have been made with regard to countries and societies beyond South Africa in the years since the international condemnation of the now dismantled apartheid system. Activists and political theorists have used the term "apartheid" to describe other perceived social or political discrimination. Apartheid has been used in compound phrases coined to compare actual or alleged forms of segregation, discrimination or disparity to South African apartheid.

History

The term apartheid (meaning separateness in Afrikaans) referred to a system of segregation used in South Africa between 1948 and 1994 and "Separate Development", the political program of the now defunct National Party of South Africa.

As a result of international attention and widespread opposition to the apartheid system in South Africa the concept of the crime of apartheid was developed internationally and recognized in 1973 by the United Nations General Assembly in the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. "As such, apartheid was declared to be a crime against humanity, with a scope that went far beyond South Africa. While the crime of apartheid is most often associated with the racist policies of South Africa after 1947, the term more generally refers to racially based policies in any state." In light of South African apartheid being dismantled by the end of 1993, legal scholars discussed whether the convention could be invoked by other victimized indigenous peoples. The U.N. again defined the crime in the 2002 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the treaty establishing the International Criminal Court.

Post-South Africa

The term apartheid has been used in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to allege systematic discrimination against Palestinians by Israel. In France the word apartheid has been used to describe the social situation in the French suburbs where Arab immigrants are not integrated with the general French population and live with inferior social services and housing. Social apartheid in Brazil has been used to describe the social segregation of the poor (who are mostly dark-skinned) from wealthier classes.

Other countries whose practices have been compared to apartheid include Bosnia and Herzegovina, Canada for its treatment of native peoples, the People's Republic of China in regards to the Hukou pass system for peasant population, as well as Tibet. Cuba has been accused of practicing tourist apartheid, Greece for its treatment of Macedonians, India for its caste system which has been described as a "hidden apartheid," Jordan for its nationality law which excludes Jews from citizenship and its two-tiered citizenship system in general, New Zealand for its treatment of Maoris, Czech Republic for its educational discrimination against the Roma, Pakistan, Puerto Rico, the Baltic states of the former Soviet Union, the Crimea, Sri Lanka, as well as the proposed state of Tamil Eelam. Muslim countries accused of gender apartheid include Afghanistan, Iran, Malaysia, and Saudi Arabia. Racism in the United Kingdom has been compared to apartheid, as has de jure and de facto practice of racial segregation in the United States.

Terms such as "Islamic apartheid", "Muslim apartheid" or "religious apartheid" have been used to describe discrimination against non-Muslims in Muslim countries, or Muslims' own resistance to integration. "Gender apartheid" (or "sexual apartheid") has been used to describe sexual segregation and discrimination against women, particularly sexual segregation in Islamic countries. The term "sexual apartheid" has also been used to describe discrimination against gays and lesbians.

"Global apartheid" has been used by advocates for the developing world, including President of South Africa Thabo Mbeki, to describe what they believe is an "international system of minority rule" and the disparity between a minority of the world's population in developed countries and the rest of the world.

Disparities between rich and poor in various countries has been described as social apartheid, urban apartheid or economic apartheid, particularly in countries where the poor are more likely to have darker skin than the rich or in European countries to describe the disparity and perceived ghettoization of Muslim immigrants.

The lack of access of many of the world's poor to clean water has been called "water apartheid" while the government of Iran has used the term "nuclear apartheid" to denounce international attempts to stop the country's nuclear program.

See also

• Crime of apartheid
• Social apartheid
• Racial segregation
• Sex segregation
• Religious segregation

References

1. United Nations (30 November). "International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid". {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
2. Morton, Jeffrey S. (2000). The International Law Commission of the United Nations. University of South Carolina Press. p. 27. ISBN 1570031703.
3. Abrams, Jason S. (2001). Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law: Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 0198298714. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
4. United Nations (2002). "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Part 2, Article 5". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
5. Silverstein, Paul A. & Tetreault, Chantal."Postcolonial Urban Apartheid", Civil Unrest in the French Suburbs, November 2005, Social Science Research Council, June 11, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2007.
6. "The truth is that certain French citizens are treated as second-class citizens, if not the leprous members of the national community. Their children are sent to ghetto schools and taught by inexperienced teachers, they are crammed into inhumane public housing developments, and they are confronted with an essentially closed job market. In short, they live in a bleak, devastated universe. France is disintegrating before our eyes into socio-economic communities, into territorial and social apartheid. The rich live in their own ghettos. Institutionalized racism is a daily reality." Follath, Erich. Tariq Ramadan on the crisis in France, Salon.com, November 16, 2005.
7. Ladle, Jane. Insight Guides: Brazil, American Map, 1999, p. 76.
8. Steele, JonathanToday's Bosnia: a dependent, stifled, apartheid regime. The Guardian, November 11, 2005.
9. The Globe and Mail - Canada's Apartheid: Introduction
10. Welcome to... / Bienvenue à
11. Luard, Tim. , BBC News, November 10, 2005.
12. United States Congressional Serial Set, United States Government Printing Office, 1993, p. 110.
13. ° "One of the most disconcerting aspects of contemporary Cuba is the government's creation of exclusive 'foreigner-only' tourism zones where Cuban nationals aren't welcome. Effectively, there are two Cubas, a reality that reeks of something akin to tourism apartheid, as many observers have noted.", Frommer's Travel Guide to Cuba, 2006. Retrieved July 10, 2006.
14. Shea, John (1997). Macedonia and Greece: The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation. McFarland & Company. p. 150. ISBN 0786402288.
15. India’s “hidden apartheid”
17. Davis, Uri (1997). Citizenship and the State: A Comparative Study of Citizenship Legislation in Israel, Jordan, Palestine, Syria and Lebanon. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 7. ISBN 0863722180.
18. "In the 1950s and 1960s the National government occasionally talked of abolishing the Maori seats. Some politicians described special representation as a form of 'apartheid', like in South Africa." , Elections New Zealand website, April 9 2005. Retrieved November 3, 2006.
19. , Scoop, Jun 15, 2000.
20. Traynor, Ian (November 16, 2007). "Apartheid in the heart of Europe: how Roma children lose out on education". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-11-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
21. BBC NEWS | South Asia | Hindus feel the heat in Pakistan
22. "US Congressman Urging Independence for PR Lives Paradox". San Juan Star. 1999-02-12. Retrieved 2007-07-22. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
23. Who is Black?
24. Template:Ru icon Apartheid in Latvia (1996)
25. Template:Ru icon Apartheid with Baltic flavor (2004)
26. Template:Ru icon Latvia discontinues Russian language education in schools (2003)
27. Template:Ru icon "Soft Apartheid" is flourishing in Crimea (2006)
28. The Devolution Law of Sri Lanka "A Critique", Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.
29. The Devolution Law of Sri Lanka "A Critique", Australian Centre for Sri Lankan Unity, publication no. 25b.
30. , Women's Human Rights Resource Programme, University of Toronto Bora Laskin Law Library.
31. BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Malaysia women 'suffer apartheid'
32. "In 'From the Valley of the Chador,' Jan Goodwin (1994) discusses 'gender apartheid' in Saudi Arabia, unmasking a phenomenon that, she argues, has long been thought of as a 'personal problem' and revealing it to be a political issue that deserves attention from the international human rights community." Hanigsberg (1997), p. 76.
33. See, e.g., http://www.americanthinker.com/2006/12/islams_apartheid.html
34. Muslim apartheid: Getting behind the veil
35. Muslim apartheid burns bright in France | Minette Marrin - Times Online
36. World Politics Review | Muslim Apartheid in Britain: A Veiled Threat?
37. "Annual Report on International Religious Freedom 2004" and Designations of Countries of Particular Concern
38. Women clergy accuse Church of sexual apartheid | The Guardian | Guardian Unlimited
39. Theology Today - Vol 34, No. 4 - January 1978 - ARTICLE - Women Clergy And The Cultural Order
40. Phyllis Chesler, "Islamic Gender Apartheid", FrontPageMagazine.com, December 16, 2005
41. Sexual Apartheid
42. Scottish Green Party :: Civil Partnerships: Bill Does Not End Sexual Apartheid
43. CNN.com - Mbeki: End 'global apartheid' - August 28, 2002
44. • Global Apartheid by Salih Booker and William Minter in The Nation, July 9 2001
    • Global Apartheid resources from the Africa Action website.
    • Global Apartheid in the Twenty-First Century by Manning Marable.
    • Global Apartheid Continues to Haunt Global Democracy by Charles Mutasa
    • Global Village or Global Apartheid from the from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives
45. Charles Murray. The advantages of social apartheid. US experience shows Britain what to do with its underclass – get it off the streets. The Sunday Times. April 3, 2005.
46. Michel Collon. Racism and Social Apartheid. French Suburbs: 10 Questions. Global Research, November 22, 2005.
47. Lyon, David. "UN urges end to 'water apartheid'", BBC News, November 9, 2006.
48. Iran rejects nuclear ‘apartheid’, Aljazeera, December 26, 2005.
49. Iran blasts 'nuclear apartheid', News24.com, November 30, 2005.

• International relations
• Racism
• Development
• Globalization
• Discrimination
• Gender
• Apartheid