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History

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is probably one of the hardest labels to define in the whole area of psychology. It began in the 1970s as the outgrowth of Richard Bandler's study of Gestalt therapy, and in particular his desire to know how world-renowned Gestalt therapist Fritz Perls was able to achieve the results he produced.

As a fourth year student at the Santa Cruz campus of the University of California, Bandler was entitled to deliver a course of his choice so long as he could find students willing to pay the fees, and a member of the faculty who was willing to oversee the course. Which is how Bandler and his co-developer John Grinder came together. At this early stage Bandler, who was doing a degree in maths and computing, apparently knew next to nothing about linguistics, and Grinder, who already held a Ph.D. in linguistics, knew little or nothing about Gestalt therapy, or any other area of psychology.

The initial stages of the development of NLP were heavily influenced by Noam Chomsky's work on transformational grammar, which was Grinder's special area of interest/expertise at the time. In particular the NLP "meta model" is directly related to certain aspects of transformational grammar. The ways in which Bandler and Grinder began to explore the various elements which constitute the original core NLP techniques are detailed in their first two books - The Structure of Magic 1 and 2. Volume one also includes an annotated bibliography which gives clear indications of the various sources that Bandler were drawing on,

Many, probably most, of the core elements in NLP can be traced to the work of Chomsky, Perls, Virginia Satir, Milton Erickson and Alfred Korzybski (founder of the General Semantics movement).

What is NLP?

Since the early days when NLP was more or less exclusively defined by the work of Bandler and Grinder, it has developed in so many directions that it is almost impossible to give a single definition which would be universally acceptable.

Chronolically speaking, the rise of NLP largely co-incides with the rise of Cognitive Psychology and Albert Ellis' RET (Relational Emotive Therapy). All three areas of study lay considerable emphasis on the way we use and are influenced by our use of language, especially in regard to the way this shapes our perception of reality. Which is why one of the earliest descriptions of NLP is "the study of the structure of subjective experience."


What NLP Isn't

Although NLP theory normally eschews negatives, the confusion surrounding NLP today is largely due to the way in which individuals have combined other ideas, concepts, techniques with the core NLP technology - and then claimed that the add ins ARE NLP. Unfortunately, since this is essentially how core NLP developed - borrowing ideas and methodologies from various sources, especially those listed above, it is extremely difficult to make any hard and fast rules about where NLP stops and anything else starts, and vice versa.

For example, whilst some NLP practitioners incorporate "engrams" into their work, this is a well-defined area of theory and practice in its own right and there seems to be no reasonable basis for claiming that engrams are an inherent part of NLP as such. There have been various claims that NLP in some sense belongs in the same category as Scientology and its offshoots EST and the Landmark Forums. Yet Scientology is a registered religion (something NLP has never been or claimed to be), involving Science-fiction like theories about the pre-history of mankind (which bears no resemblance whatever to anything in NLP), and claims to offer a methodology by which human beings can free themselves in order to rise to some higher state of being (way beyond anything that could be reasonably claimed for NLP which at best may enable people to get a better grip on the way they run their wholly earthbound lives in the here and now).methods of NLP involve programming and reprogramming engrams (Sinclair 1992) (Drenth 2003) treating traumas (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994) by reframing, and belief change methods (O'Connor and McDermot 1996). Originally developed for psychotherapy, NLP has expanded to include applications to a variety of contexts including business, sports performance, and the development of psychic abilities, and covert seduction techniques.

NLP was originally created by Richard Bandler and John Grinder and has been further developed by a number of people since the 1970s, and is claimed to borrow from a great many sources and inspirations. NLP is also promoted by Grinder as an "operational epistemology" or a meta-discipline(Grinder & Bostic, 2001).

Reviews of the empirical testing of NLP have concluded that NLP is scientifically unsupported, and as such, NLP is classed as a pseudoscientific self help development in the same mould as that of Dianetics and EST (Lilienfeld 2003)(Williams 2000).


Overview

NLP is a method of programming the mind, emphasizing the mind-body-spirit connection. “Neuro” refers to the workings of the brain and to detectable patterns of thinking. “Linguistic” refers to verbal and non-verbal expressions of the brains thinking patterns. “Programming” implies that the patterns can be are recognized and understood by the mind and that they can be altered.


NLP advocate, Robert Dilts asserts that NLP "is theoretically rooted in the principles of neurology, psychophysiology, linguistics, cybernetics, and communication theory" (Dilts et al 1980). NLP makes use of concept of the engram (Sinclair 1992) in relation to the mind/body connection, (Drenth 2003) for the utility of change, the development of unconscious competence, and the treatment or removal of traumas (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994). The concept involves the memory trace, or engram, can be located using the eye directionality, or other such cues, and then can be accessed and manipulated using changes in internal visuo-spatial imagery.

The engram concept is by and large scientifically unsupported. Aspects of associative conditioning as discovered by Pavlov have also been used extensively in NLP “anchoring” techniques, although they are often used out of context. Some NLP spokespeople, such as Rex and Carolyn Sikes say "what occurs is a way of conciously creating the placebo effect", although most NLP proponents tend to avoid the theory question and state that they don't really have one (Singer and Lalich 1996).

Goals

NLP practitioner’s goal is generally claimed to be; to change a person's state and “re-program” that person’s beliefs about themselves. By detecting automatic body changes such as skin color changes, muscle tension, and eye movements, as well as other physiological responses, the NLP practitioner attempts to discern how a client perceives and relates to identity, personal beliefs, and life goal issues. NLP practitioners claim to help clients to replace false or negative perceptions, with positive, life affirming beliefs, although some NLP patterns of persuasion within NLP seduction are designed to create negative beliefs.

NLP has been applied to a great many applications outside of therapy. These include the use of LGATs or large awareness training seminars taught by NLP practitioners such as Tony Robbins in a similar manner to EST. NLP has also been used in a variety of different other related therapies and activities, such as power therapies (Gallo 2003), hypnotherapy, seduction, and other more fringe practices such as shamanism, and psychic development.


Principles of NLP

In essence, all of NLP is founded on two fundamental presuppositions (Dilts et al 1980)

  • The map is not the territory. As human beings, we can never know reality. We can only know our perceptions of reality. Your idea of reality is changeable and not the same as reality, and as with other New Age notions, you can create your own reality to some extent depending on your beliefs.
  • Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic. Our bodies, our societies, and our universe form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other.

The other most commonly related presuppositions are:

  • Behind every behavior is a positive intention. This means that no matter how badly or illegally people behave, there is always an underlying positive intent.
  • There is no failure, only feedback. If you fail at something, it is best not to consider it a failure, but an opportunity to somehow get around it.
  • We already have all the resources we need to succeed. This relates to the New Age human potential notion that we have unlimited resources at our disposal. This often refers to the engram concept and studies by Wilder Penfield which help foster the belief that all memories are kept in the subconcious and can be manipulated by NLP users for self-change or persuasion.


Background of neuro-linguistic programming

One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind that NLP includes.

General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful, receiving attention and promotion from human potential thinkers such as Fritz Perls who had a great interest in the engram concept, and during this period, promoted and operated a Dianetics clinic. The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the aforementioned Fritz Perls, as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton Erickson.

The first 3 people Grinder and Bandler modeled were

(source Andreas & Faulkner, 1994)

All 3 were considered by Grinder and Bandler to be highly competent in their fields, and the patterns they detected in their therapy became the basis of NLP, along with influences from Korzybski and Bateson (who coined the NLP expressions "The map is not the territory", and "the difference that makes the difference", respectively).

Grinder and Bandler analyzed the speaking patterns, voice tones, word selection, gesticulations, postures, and eye movements of these individuals and related this information to the internal thinking process of each participant. According to their claims, Bandler and Grinder found that eye movements, posture, voice tone, word choice, and breathing changes reveal unconscious patterns affecting a person’s emotional state. For people experiencing emotional difficulties or physical illness, Bandler and Grinder suggest that once these unconscious patterns are discovered the client can be assisted I adopting new healthy patterns of thinking that trigger positive immunological responses and guide the mind and body to greater health and wellbeing.

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first. The promise of effective communication patterns and the ability to influence people attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall 1994). As time went by, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon made contributions and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed into a book, Frogs into Princes. This became a popular NLP book and demand for seminars increased, which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).

NLP's core methods and hypotheses have been tested over the period from the early 1980's to the present and are scientifically unsupported. Presently, the field of NLP is classed as a pseudoscientific self help development in the same mould as that of Dianetics and EST (Lilienfeld 2003).

Following the influence of the Esalen Institute, NLP is often promoted in combination with New Age developments such as biofeedback, neurofeedback, intuition development, remote viewing, and psychic development. NLP claims to be nonjudgmental to all creeds and points of view (Andreas & Faulkner, 1994).


Eye accessing cues and the preferred representational system (PRS)

File:Eye accessing cuesG.JPG
Eye accessing cues of NLP


According to this core NLP model, upward eye movements indicate visual processing, eye movements down indicate somatic or kinesthetic processing, and eye movements to the sides indicate auditory processing. Also, eye movements to the left, or right indicate if a representation was recalled or constructed. NLP advocates connect this with brain hemispheric science of left and right brain dominance for certain skills, such as logic and mathematics for the left hemisphere, and creativity and imagination for the right hemisphere (O'Connor & McDermott, 1996).

NLP practitioners also use other cues to understand the preferred representational system (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) of the person. For example, the posture of a person could be; head up and erect, swaying or tilted, rounded and head down to indicate visual, auditory or kinesthetic respectively (O'Connor and McDermot 1996).

Most evidence used by NLP practitioners to promote the use of NLP appears to be “unsubstantiated, uncorroborated or entirely anecdotal” (Platt 2001). However, NLP "models" have been rigorously reviewed and tested by independent scientists but the results show that NLP has “no significant scientific support” (Platt 2001). For example the conjecture that a person has a primary representational system (PRS) which is observed in the choice of words has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001). The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support (Heap 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt 2001). The assertion that matching PRS will increase rapport with the client has also been found to be false. Research has indicated that therapists who match their clients' language using techniques proposed within NLP were rated by the client and external observers as being untrustworthy and ineffective (Heap1988) (Morgan, 1993).


Meta-model and Milton Model

The meta-model is a set of language patterns (from Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls and Transformational syntax) designed to challenge limits to a person's map of the world (Grinder & Bostic, 2001). Effectively the meta-model can be reduced to asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to challenge unspecified nouns or verbs. Other challenges are directed at distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). The reverse set of the meta-model is the Milton-model; a collection of artfully vague language patterns elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson (Bandler & Grinder, 1975b). Together these models form the basis for the all other NLP models.

Mind, body and spirit

Similar to the followers other New Age disciplines some NLP practitioners consider the mind, spirit and physical body as a system; that is, each influences the other (Dilts 1992) (Lilienfeld et al 2003). This means that there needs to be a balance between the concious and unconcious mind (O'Connor and McDermot 1996), changes can be easier to make by working at a physical (body) level (letting the body inform the mind), as well as by dialog (mind informing emotions), and humans communicate by taking in information through the senses, but also by giving out communication as a kind of energy, and this can be considered the spiritual side of communication (Dilts 1992). This can be considered metaphorically in terms of the communication sender and recipient's mutual intention to spend energy on sending/receiving, and it can also be thought of as in the sense of a "thought field" or "thought energy" defined in the related subject of energy psychology (Gallo 2002). There are no physical correlates between these kind of energies and energy explained through physics (Sala et al 1999). Virginia Satir often stated this kind of humanism as being the spirit and soul of communication and therapy (Brothers, 1992). NLP spirituality is said to be fully accepting of any religion whether it be Christian, Buddhist, Occultist, Taoist, Rosicrucian, or any other (O'Connor and McDermot 1996).


The scientific testing of NLP

NLP has been empirically tested over many years, and it has been found to be largely ineffective (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). The US National Committee was asked in 1984 to judge the various techniques, and they used 14 different judges in order to do so. A review of research showed that NLP is scientifically unsupported (Heap 1988).

The 1988 US National Committee report then reported that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique" (Druckman & Swets, 1988). In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused “Project Jedi” concern stated "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work” (Squires 1988).

Since then objective and empirical studies and review papers have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analyses have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment (Bleimeister, 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001) (Bertelsen, 1987), and the statement that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP’s claims (Thaler Singer and Lalich 1996)(Drenth 2003).


Is NLP a science?

Grinder often claims that NLP is both an art and a science (Grinder 2003) and many NLP promoters and advertisers continue to call the originators "scientists" and to use such terms as "Science" to promote their ideas, "technology", and "hi-tech psychology" in order to sell NLP (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). However Grinder more recently has been promoting NLP as an epistemology than a technology or psychological science.

NLP advocates attempt to associate NLP with great minds such as Einstein (Grinder & Delozier, 1987), and uses extraordinary claims of its efficacy. However, in distinct contrast with Einsteinian thought, NLP prefers to ignore Hume's dictum: "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence". NLP promoters have consistently failed to provide even normal scientific evidence. This includes the notion of adopting unconscious competence through the manipulation of the engram, which is also not supported by science.

NLP models contrast sharply with accepted psychological models of behavior, motivation or personality. Psychological modeling makes considerable effort to measure the existence and strength of the parts of the model for distinguishable constructs or factors, and takes great care to measure the distinct association between each proposed construct (Michie et al, 2005). NLP promoters make no attempt at all to do this, and NLP models cannot be verified, and so the techniques developed from them may have nothing to do with the models or their sources (Carroll, 2005).

The psycholinguist view is that "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming. NLP developers are not interested in the question as to how neurological processes take place, or in serious research" (Levelt 1995).

In sum, NLP promotes methods which are false, inaccurate or ineffective (Bleimeister, 1988) (Morgan, 1993) (Platt, 2001). From these models it develops techniques which may have nothing to do with either the models or the sources of the "models" (Carroll, 2005). NLP makes claims about thinking and perception which do not seem to be supported by neuroscience (Carroll, 2005) (Platt, 2001) (Druckman & Swets, 1988) (Bertelsen, 1987). And NLP has been marketed to the general public using a broad brush approach to solutions" (Carroll, 2005), and adopts conveniently broad and simple terms, popular psychology, and pseudoscience and myths about the brain to promote its claims (Drenth 2003).

NLP as a pseudoscience

NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development in the same mould as EST and Dianetics (Lilienfeld et al 2003) (Williams et al 2000)(Levelt 1995)(Drenth 2003). This is in part due to the fact that the reviews of research on NLP have not supported either the assumptions of NLP or the efficacy (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996), but similar to proponents of other pseudoscientific subjects such as Dianetics and EST, the NLP community continues to claim their assumptions and methods are powerful, relying only on testimonials and anecdotal evidence to support their claims.

Pseudoscience is also prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of de-validated claims (Winn and Wiggins 2001).

The characteristics of pseudoscience have been identified in NLP promotion. These are (Lilienfeld et al 2003):

  • The absence of connectivity (Levelt 1995)
  • The use of psycho-babble (eg metaprograms, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
  • The use of obscurantist language (eg Missmatcher)
  • Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence
  • Emphasis on confirmation rather refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)
  • Absence of boundary conditions
  • The mantra of holism
  • An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses designed to immunize claims from falsification
  • Evasion of peer review
  • Reversed burden of proof


Criticisms of NLP

There have been many criticisms of NLP from psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups. Critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudo-science that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a bunch of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions (Sanghera 2005). The criticisms range from the fact that it is ineffective, ethically questionable, pseudoscientific, full of unwarranted claims that lead to the sale of further dubious products, inconsistent, unscientific, and cult-like.

File:Scientology of achievement.JPG
Critical view of NLP and pseudoscience


NLP and dubious new age remedies

Although NLP has been found to be largely ineffective, the general behavior of NLP advocates is one of wishful thinking and passing the buck that is often characteristic of quick fix schemes (Thaler Singer & Lalich, 1996). NLP has consistently been unequivocally promoted as a technology that promises solutions for everyone, far beyond the specific application of psychotherapy. As such, NLP is promoted by some for dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement, penis enlargement, remote viewing, covert seduction, and remote seduction. In close association with its New Age spiritual principles, it is often sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic or Huna witchcraft by original NLP developers such as Richard Bandler. Although Grinder claims that NLP epistemology does not encourage mysticism (Grinder & Delozier, 1987), shamanic metaphors from Carlos Castenada are used in his NLP seminars. NLP has also been promoted by the originator, Bandler, in his shamanism teachings, and he often used anecdotes about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999). This is partly attributable to NLP's New Age spiritual appeal (Lilienfeld 2003).

Also, the modeling of deceased experts has been criticized even within the field of NLP. Robert Dilts published models of Albert Einstein's and Nikola Tesla’s internal strategies. With limited, or no high quality video available, it is almost impossible to test within the NLP modeling framework.


Unethical use of NLP

Some have criticized the manner in which NLP has been promoted. NLP trainers are often said to make unwarranted claims for the field in general or for the specific techniques that they teach. Ethical standards bodies for psychology and psychotherapy require that the client should have an explanation for why something works for it to be acceptable as a treatment. However, some trainers are secretive about their techniques, referring to them as "secrets" and only make them available through expensive training courses or products, making it hard to for customers to assess the validity of the techniques.

Ethical concerns of manipulation have also been voiced: “so long as the influenced party's outcome is achieved at the same time as the influencer, this is "influencing with integrity." However, "Achieving your own outcome at the expense of or even without regard for the other party constitutes manipulation. What makes this particular 'informed manipulation' so frightening is that people with these skills acquire such personal power that they are able to affect people deeply, and their capacity to misguide others is thereby increased to the point of evil." (Seitz and Cohen 1992). Concerns have also been raised over NLP's use in “speed seduction” methods proposed by NLP proponents such as Ross Jeffries in that may encourage manipulation and coercion.


NLP and cult activities

NLP has been associated with modern day cults (Tippet, 1994) (Langone, 1993)(Singer 2003), it is seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics (Crabtree, 2002) and NLP has even been monitored by the Cult Awareness Network (Shupe & Darnell, 2000) and appears on some lists of cults (Howell, 2001). This has partly been attributed to NLP’s tendency to promote an “almost evangelical fervour” which makes practitioners unreceptive or even unprepared to countenance scientific reviews of NLP (Platt 2001).

Certain cults use the techniques within NLP, in combination with the occult and pseudoscience to claim modern day miracles and induce dependence and compliance on the part of the cult’s victims. NLP hypnotic techniques are used by both mild cults and very aggressive cults to induce dependence on the cult, and to further provide conditioning to induce compliance within the cult (Langone, 1993). Well trained psychologists even have to refer to the mind control aspects of NLP to help the victim recover from the NLP using cult.


Issues with buzzwords and trademarks

Consistent with other pseudoscientific developments NLP's existing patterns, processes and jargon are modified then rebranded for promotional purposes. Motivational speaker Anthony Robbins, for example, uses NLP technology under the banner 'neuroassociative conditioning' and promotes using gimmicks such as firewalking as clearly explained by the humourist Dave Barry . Some terms or buzzwords, are invented such as anchoring (similar to conditioning), and embedded commands, which are actually only hypnotic suggestions. Other terms are used completely out of context from their originally intended areas such as applied psychology and linguistics.

NLP lacks a coherent theory that would explain its terminology and mechanisms of action, it uses anecdotal stories and testimonials as "evidence" and lacks empirical support. It is not surprising that NLP has many characteristics of other pseudosciences: scientific-sounding jargon, reliance on anecdotal evidence, unsubstantiated claims of rapid cures, absence of a sound theoretical basis, and over-promotion for financial gains (Krugman et al 1985). Nevertheless, the extended addition of pseudoscientific buzzwords and anecdotal promotion suggests that it will continue to operate on a commercial scale, with a disregard for objective proof of its proposed assumptions or claimed effectiveness.

References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

  • . ISBN 0688146198. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • . ISBN 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0-9717223-0-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Brothers B.J. (1992) Spirituality and couples : heart and soul in the therapy process New York : Haworth Press.
  • . ISBN 0-9701540-0-3. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help) Two volumes, 1600 pages of "history, biography & related knowledge the steps to techniques and procedures".
  • . ISBN 0916990265. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • Drenth, J.D. (2003) Growing anti-intellectualism in Europe; a menace to science. Studia Psychologica, 2003, 45, 5-13
  • . ISBN 0309037921. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
    See On-line edition pages 138-149. Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
  • Gallo, F, (2001) Energy Psychology in Psychotherapy. Norton and Company publishers.
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  • . ISBN 1555520227. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0831400498. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 1899836225. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • Howell, Tom (2001). Cults and Small Religions. Retrieved August 29, 2005.
  • Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
  • . ISBN 0393313212. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Levelt W. (1995) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguistisch Programmeren! Intermediair 17 Nov pp113
  • Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, and Jeffrey M. Lohr (Eds.)(2003) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. Guilford Press, New York. ISBN: 1-57230-282-1,.
  • . ISBN 0722531958. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN Aquarian Press1855383446. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Sala, S.D, editor (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. Wiley.
  • Sanghera,S (2005) Financial Times. London (UK): Aug 26, 2005. pg. 9
  • Seitz, V A., Cohn, W A. (1992) Using the Psychology of Influence in Job Interviews. Business Forum. Los Angeles: Summer 1992.Vol.17, Iss. 3; pg. 14, 4 pgs
  • Sinclair. J. (1992) An ABC of NLP. Publisher: ASPEN ISBN: 0951366017
  • Squires. S. (1988) The Pentagon's Twilight Zone. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. : Apr 17, 1988
  • . ISBN 0787967416. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
    See Margaret Singer and Excerpts from 'Cults in Our Midst' Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
  • . 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Williams,W F. general editor.(2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience /

Publisher Facts On File New York.

  • Winn, C.M , and Wiggins,A.W (2001) QUANTUM LEAPS..in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.

See also

Developers

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

People that NLP claims to have developed and borrowed from

External links

Categories: