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St. Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) (1412 – 30 May 1431), is a national heroine of France and a Saint of the Catholic Church. This deeply religious young woman from a humble background believed she had visions from God to recover her homeland. In early 1429 she convinced the uncrowned king Charles VII to give her a suit of armor and permission to relieve the siege at Orléans. At first treated as a figurehead by veteran commanders, she gained prominence by lifting the siege in only nine days.

After several other engagements and an important victory at Patay she led a bloodless expedition to Rheims for Charles VII's coronation. This settled the disputed royal succession and recovered important territory. The renewed French confidence outlasted her own brief career. Wounded during an unsuccessful attempt to recover Paris, she participated in minor actions until her capture outside Compiègne the following spring.

Her Burgundian captors delivered her to the English, who selected clergymen to convict her of heresy. John, Duke of Bedford had her burnt at the stake in Rouen. She had been the heroine of her country at the age of seventeen. She died at just nineteen.

Some twenty-four years later Pope Callixtus III reopened the case at the request of Joan's surviving family members and the Inquisitor-General. Citing testimony in her favor and illegalities in the original trial, the new finding reversed the original conviction.Template:Fn Her piety to the end impressed this court. Support from the Catholic League in the 16th century and renewed interest in the 19th led to her canonization by Pope Benedict XV on May 16, 1920.

Joan of Arc has remained an important figure in the collective imagination of Western culture. From Napoleon to the present French politicians of all leanings have invoked her memory. Major writers and composers who created works about her include Shakespeare, Voltaire, Schiller, Verdi, Tchaikovski, Twain, Shaw, and Brecht. Depictions of her continue in film, television, and song.

Biography

Context

Joan of Arc was born circa 1412 in the small village of Domrémy along the Meuse in the Duchy of Bar on the far eastern edge of France. Her parents, Jacques D'Arc and Isabelle Romee, owned a modest farm. During much of her life, most of the surrounding area was loyal to the ducal family of Burgundy, which was allied with England after 1419. Her own community remained loyal to the French crown.

This was a low period in French history. The French king, Charles VI, was periodically insane and unable to rule. A quarrel between his cousins duke John the Fearless of Burgundy and the duke of Orléans led to the assassination of the duke of Orléans. The factions loyal to these two men became known as the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. The English king, Henry V, took advantage of the turmoil. He invaded and won a dramatic victory at Agincourt in 1415, then proceeded to capture other French towns. The future French king Charles VII became dauphin at the age of fourteen after all four of his older brothers had died. In 1419 Armagnac partisans murdered John the Fearless during a meeting with Charles. The new duke, Philip the Good of Burgundy, responded to the murder by forming an alliance with the English. Large sections of France fell under foreign control. In 1420, the Treaty of Troyes granted the throne to Henry V and his heirs, disinheriting Charles. Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, leaving the infant Henry VI of England the nominal king of both kingdoms. John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford, acted as regent.

By the beginning of 1429, nearly all of the north and some parts of the southwest were under foreign control. Paris and Rheims had fallen to the English. The latter was important as the site of French coronations. Orléans, the gateway to south-central France, was under siege. Its strategic location along the Loire made it the last obstacle to an assault on the remaining French heartland.

Visions and mission

Jules Bastien-Lepage's 1879 portrayal of Joan of Arc when she first heard her call; Saint Michael, Saint Margaret, and Saint Catherine are behind her. Oil on canvas in two joined vertical panels. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

Around 1424, Joan said she began receiving visions of Saint Michael the Archangel, St Catherine, and St Margaret telling her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. In 1428 at the age of 16, she asked a family relative, Durand Lassois, to bring her to nearby Vaucouleurs in order to ask the garrison commander, Lord Robert de Baudricourt, to give her an escort to bring her to the Dauphin's court at Chinon. She was rejected, but returned the following January and was finally granted an escort of six men. Two of these soldiers, Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy, said they gave her male clothing to wear (as the standard disguise used in such circumstances) and brought her through Burgundian-controlled territory to Chinon. She won Charles's confidence in a private conference. He verified her morality with background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers. She was then brought to a succession of towns where preparations were being made to bring supplies to the city of Orléans, which had been under siege by the English since the previous October.

She was joined by her brothers Jean and Pierre, and equipped with armour and a white banner depicting God flanked by two angels and the words "Jesus" and "Mary" on the side. With her piety, confidence, and enthusiasm, she boosted the morale of the troops. The small force she eventually led included the legendary soldiers Jean d'Orleans (Count of Dunois), La Hire, and Poton de Xaintrailles.

She arrived at the besieged city of Orléans on April 29, 1429. After French forces drove the English from several smaller fortifications on May 4–May 6, the French attacked the main English stronghold of Les Tourelles on May 7. Contemporaries acknowledged Jeanne as the hero of the engagement after she sustained a serious arrow wound between her neck and left shoulder but nevertheless returned to inspire a final assault against the enemy fortifications.Template:Fn The lifting of the siege — the "sign" that she had said would verify her legitimacy as a visionary — gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and the prominent theologian Jean Gerson, who both wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event.

The Royal army's next objective was to clear the rest of the Loire Valley of English strongholds. Jargeau was taken on June 12; the bridge at Meung-sur-Loire was occupied on the 15th, followed by the surrender of Beaugency on the 17th. A greater victory was achieved on the 18th, when an English army was cut to pieces near Patay, with a loss of 2,200 English soldiers versus only a little over 20 French and Scots. This allowed the Royal army to now attempt a march toward Reims for Charles' coronation.

The army set out from Gien-sur-Loire on 29 June, accepting the neutrality of the Burgundian-held city of Auxerre by 3 July before laying siege to the city of Troyes on July 5. This city surrendered on the 9th, followed by Châlons-sur-Marne on the 14th. Reims opened its gates to the army when it arrived on the 16th, allowing the Dauphin to be crowned as Charles VII the following morning, July 17, 1429.

Although Jeanne and a number of the commanders urged a prompt march on Paris, the Royal Court was mesmerized by the prospect of a negotiated peace offered by the Duke of Burgundy. Negotiations with Burgundian diplomats began at Reims shortly after the coronation, resulting in a 15-day truce which merely had the effect of stalling the Royal army's momentum. Charles used this time to take the army on a wandering tour of nearby cities in the hope of accepting their allegiance in turn, a process which bore fruit largely due to Jeanne's "great diligence" (according to one of the chroniclers who served in her army). A day of skirmishing with an English army under the Duke of Bedford at Montépilloy on August 15 led to a slow march toward Paris. An attack on the city finally came on September 8. Despite a crossbow bolt wound to the leg she continued directing the troops until the day's fighting ended. The following morning she received a royal order to withdraw. A lack of royal support was also blamed for the failure to take La-Charité-sur-Loire in late November and December.

Capture, trial and execution

File:Joan of Arc on horseback (1505 manuscript).png

Jeanne depicted on horseback in an illustration from a 1505 manuscript

With a truce in effect, Jeanne did not return to the field until the following March. An attempt to lift the siege at Compiègne on May 23 led to her capture. When she ordered a retreat she assumed the place of honor as the last to leave the field. Burgundians surrounded the rear guard.

Several sources (such as a letter from the University of Paris on 14 July 1430, an entry in the Morosini registers, etc) state that Charles' government tried to get the Burgundians to allow her to be ransomed back to her own side, but the Burgundians refused.Template:Fn As with many of the prisoners captured at Agincourt, Jeanne was instead transferred between allies in exchange for a monetary reward. The transfer was entrusted to Pierre Cauchon, Bishop of Beauvais and counselor for the English occupation government. Surviving documents record payments made by the English government to cover the costs of obtaining Joan and rewarding many of the judges whom they selected to preside over her trial.

Jeanne's trial for heresy was political. The duke of Bedford claimed the throne of France for his nephew Henry VI. She was responsible for his rival's coronation. Discrediting her was an attempt to discredit her king. Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431,Template:Fn at Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government. The procedure was irregular on a number of points.

To summarize some major problems, promoter Bishop Cauchon's jurisdiction was a legal fiction.Template:Fn He owed his appointment to his partisanship. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, commissioned to collect testimony against her, could find no adverse evidence to report.Template:Fn Without such evidence the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial. Opening one anyway, it denied her right to a legal advisor.

Nonetheless her testimony can be brilliant. The transcript's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety.

Asked if she knows she is in God's grace, she answered: "If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me."Template:Fn

The question is a scholarly trap. Church doctrine held that no one can be certain of being in God's grace. If she answers yes then she convicts herself of heresy. If she answers no then she confesses her own guilt. Her response is not only perfect but poetic.

Several court functionaries later testified that significant portions of the transcript were altered in her disfavor. A number of clerics served under compulsion, including the inquisitor, and a few even received death threats. Jeanne should have been confined to an ecclesiastical prison with female guards. Instead the English kept her in a secular prison with their own soldiers for guards. Bishop Cauchon denied Jeanne's appeals to the Council of Basel and the Pope, which should have stopped his proceeding.Template:Fn

The twelve articles of accusation that summarize the court's finding contradict the already doctored court record.Template:Fn When Jeanne signed her abjuration she did not understand what the word meant, was unable to read the document, and only knew she faced immediate execution if she refused to wear a dress. A longer confession appeared in the official record in place of the document she signed.Template:Fn

Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offender. Shortly afterward there was an attempted sexual assault, possibly by an English lord, in the prison where the English still kept her. She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or, in the testimony of Jean Massieu, because her dress had been stolen and she was left with nothing else to wear.Template:Fn

File:Jeanne d'arc Marseille.jpg

Jeanne D'Arc statue in Marseille, France

Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution on May 30, 1431. Tied to a tall pillar, she asked two of the clergy, Martin Ladvenu and Isambart de la Pierre, to get a crucifix from a nearby church to hold up in front of her. She repeatedly called out "...in a loud voice the holy name of Jesus, and implored and invoked without ceasing the aid of the saints of Paradise." After she expired the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive, then reduced the body to ashes to prevent any collection of relics. Her remains were cast into the Seine. The executioner, Geoffroy Therage, confessed to having "...a great fear of being damned, he had burned a saint." Template:Fn

Retrial

After Charles VII regained Rouen in November of 1449, the process of investigating the case began with an inquest by the clergyman Guillaume Bouille. This was followed by Inquisitor-General Jean Brehal's investigation in 1452. The formal appeal was initiated in November of 1455. Pope Callixtus III authorized this appeal (known today as the "Rehabilitation Trial") at the request of the Inquisitor and three surviving members of Jeanne d'Arc's family. Unlike the original trial, the appellate process included clergy from throughout Europe, and faithfully observed lawful court procedure. After taking the testimony of 115 witnesses and the opinions of theologians, the Inquisitor drew up his final summary of the case, the "Recollectio F Johannis Brehalli", in June of 1456, describing Jeanne as a martyr and her judges as heretics for having deliberately convicted an innocent woman in the pursuit of a secular vendetta. The declaration of her innocence was read out on 7 July 1456. The religious play in her honor at Orleans was declared by the 15th century Church to be a pilgrimage site meriting an indulgence, and she was subsequently used as a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century. Her official beatification came in 1909 in Notre Dame de Paris, followed by canonization as a saint on May 16, 1920. Her feast day is the 2nd Sunday in May.

Clothing

Jeanne often wore men's clothing between her departure from Vaucouleurs and her abjuration at Rouen. This sparked a debate in her own era, with the clergy of her own faction supporting her actions and the clergy of the opposing faction utilizing the issue against her (see Deborah Fraioli's "Joan of Arc, The Early Debate"). Her assumption of male clothing had no sexual overtones. The technical reason for her execution was a Biblical clothing law.Template:Fn Medieval theology recognized exceptions to that stricture.Template:Fn

Doctrinally speaking, she was safe to disguise herself as a page during a journey through enemy territory and she was safe to wear armor during battle. The Chronique de la Pucelle claims it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field. These defenses leave other occasions open to challenge. When questioned on the matter during her condemnation trial she referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry. That record no longer survives. Circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved her practice. In other words, she had a mission to do a man's work so it was fitting that she dress the part.Template:Fn

A number of clergy who testified at her rehabilitation trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape.Template:Fn The garments she chose would slow an assailant.Template:Fn In the end, as cited above, she probably had no choice at all.

Visions

Many contemporary attempts to explain Joan's visions have been based on the commonly-held belief that her visions were described merely as auditory sensations which only she could hear. Analyses based on this idea have led to the belief that she was experiencing hallucinations brought on by mental illness, ranging from schizophrenia to temporal lobe epilepsy and even Bovine Tuberculosis. However, the historical documents describe her visions quite differently than the common conception of the subject, containing quotes from Joan stating that these visions instead were often visual and tactile, and could take solid, physical form that she and other people could see and touch. These quotes and other documents state that people such as the Count of Clermont, Guy de Cailly, etc, could simultaneously experience her visions.

False "Joans of Arc"

After the execution of the Maid of Orleans, there were number of impostors who claimed to be Joan, having escaped from the fire. Most of these were swiftly exposed but two of the most famous are known as Jeanne de Armoises and Jehanne de Sermaises, although contemporary accounts are sketchy at best.

According to a later story (found 1686 in Metz), Jeanne appeared for the first time in 20 May 1436 in Metz where she met with two brothers of Joan – Pierre and Jehan – and convinced them that she was their deceased sister. Whether the brothers really did believe or feigned belief for their own reasons is impossible to say. For the next three years the town of Orleans stopped the memorial services for the Maid of Orleans and, according to town records, paid some of her expenses.

Afterwards, the false Joan supposedly moved to Arlon in Luxembourg where she reputedly met Madame de Luxembourg. Later she married a knight: Robert des Hermoises or Armoises.

The false Joan dealt with the king Charles VII via letters for the next four years. Around 1440 she finally received an audience with him. According to a later account of the king's chamberlain de Boisy, the king asked her about the secret he and Joan had shared; reputedly it was that the king had suspected he might have been illegitimate. She did not know the secret so she kneeled, confessed and begged for mercy. Later she was forced to admit her imposture in public. Still, there are contemporary claims that Joan's brothers had with them a woman they called their sister around 1449-1452.

In 1457, after the Maid had been exonerated, there was a woman named Jehanne de Sermaises in Anjou. De Sermaises was accused of having called herself the Maid of Orleans; having worn male dress; and deceiving many people. She was sentenced to prison but released in February 1457 on the condition that she would "bear herself honestly in dress" (i.e. use female clothing). Afterwards she disappeared from public records.

Trivia

Historical representation

The figure of Jeanne d'Arc has fascinated writers throughout the ages. A selected list of fictional representations includes:

Christine de Pizan, "Song in Honor of Joan of Arc," an elegiac poem written during Jeanne's own lifetime is this author's final work.
Anonymous (possibly Jacques Millet), Mystery of the Siege of Orleans was first performed in Orleans four years after Jeanne d'Arc's death. The surviving version appears to be a revision from around 1450. God and several saints play major roles in this this sprawling drama of more than a hundred speaking parts.
William Shakespeare, Henry VI, Part I makes Joan la Pucelle the leading villain. Drawn from English sources of the previous century, this Jeanne d'Arc begins with the appearance of piety but soon proves to be a cunning witch justly executed.
Voltaire, The Maid of Orleans is a mock epic poem that explores typically Voltairean themes deriding mysticism as humbug.
Friedrich Schiller, The Maid of Orleans in literary rebuttal to Voltaire, Schiller creates a sympathetic Jeanne d'Arc as a Romantic heroine. A magic helmet renders her invincible until she falls in love. This influential drama dominated nineteenth century fictional treatments: Verdi's and Tchaikovsky's operas about her are essentially musical adaptations.
Mark Twain, Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc remains little remembered yet in his own opinion is his finest work. Twain spent months in France researching newly rediscovered documents. This reverent fictional biography is Twain's most uncharacteristic novel.
Georg Kaiser, Gilles and Jeanne explores Joan of Arc's (historically tenuous) association with the most notorious criminal of her era, Gilles de Rais.
George Bernard Shaw, Saint Joan this drama, widely esteemed as Shaw's masterpiece, draws heavily from trial records. Historians dismiss Shaw's contention that she was an early Protestant with impartial judges. Subsequent twentieth century plays often mirror Shaw's interest in her trial.
Bertolt Brecht, Saint Joan of the Stockyards transposes Jeanne d'Arc into working class Chicago and portrays her as a labor leader. Brecht made Jeanne d'Arc the subject of three separate plays, all with Socialist themes.
Maxwell Anderson, Joan of Lorraine this play-within-a-play with a debt to Shaw is chiefly memorable as the basis for Ingrid Bergman's screen portrayal.
Paul Claudel and Arthur Honegger, Joan of Arc at the Stake relives her trial in a deeply religious oratorio that summons the founder of the Inquisition to condemn Jeanne d'Arc's judges.
Jean Anouilh, The Lark is an allegory of Vichy collaboration in the aftermath of World War II. Lillian Hellman's noteworthy English translation adds a critique of McCarthyism.

Jeanne d'Arc has been a political symbol in France since the time of Napoleon. Liberals emphasized her humble origins. Early conservatives stressed her support of the monarchy. Later conservatives recalled her nationalism.

During World War II, both the Vichy Regime and the French resistance used her image: Vichy propaganda remembered her campaign against the English with posters that show British warplanes bombing Rouen with the ominous caption: "They Always Return to the Scene of Their Crimes". The resistance emphasized her fight against foreign occupation and her origins in the province of Lorraine, which had fallen under Nazi control.

At present the the French political party Front National holds rallies at her statues, reproduces her likeness in party publications, and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem. This party's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image.

Her name has been applied to three separate vessels of the French Navy, including a Helicopter Carrier currently in active service.

Joan of Arc in popular culture

File:Char joan2.gif

Joan of Arc on Clone High

Leonard Cohen's 1970 album Songs of Love and Hate contains a song named Joan of Arc, and a verse in the song Last Year's Man refers to her: 'I met a lady, she was playing with her soldiers in the dark, oh one by one she had to tell them that her name was Joan of Arc,'
A "clone" of Joan of Arc appeared in the traditionally animated television show Clone High.
The reincarnation of Joan of Arc was the main character in the Japanese manga and animated show Kamikaze Kaitou Jeanne, who used her God-given powers and arsenal of push-pins to trap demons hiding in works of art.
The theme song to the CBS series Maude refers to Joan: 'with the Lord to guide her/she was a sister who really cooked.'
CBS's Joan of Arcadia, in which a girl about Joan's age speaks to God and uses His influence to do good deeds in her community.
The Fox Television series Wonderfalls was inspired by Joan of Arc.
The WB animated series Histeria! (1998-2000), featured Joan as a regular character, voiced by Laraine Newman.
Joan of Arc is the name of an indie rock band from Chicago.
Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark released two singles Joan of Arc and Maid of Orleans.
The Smiths' song "Bigmouth Strikes Again" includes the line 'And now I know how Joan of Arc felt, as the flames rose to her Roman nose and her Walkman started to melt' and 'And now I know how Joan of Arc felt, as the flames rose to her Roman nose and her hearing aid started to melt'.
The Silverfish song "This Bug" includes the lyrics, "Sometimes I feel like Joan of Arc -- the way I bite, and spit and bark".
Garbage's song Vow includes the line 'You burned me out but I'm back at your door, like Joan of Arc coming back for more'.
Catatonia's song Post Script includes the line 'Joan of Arc, come kiss my art, leave a charcoal mark. There's so much more to solitary refinement'.
In an episode of The Simpsons, Lisa played Joan of Arc and Milhouse played the Dauphin, after Homer read about her in a children's book.
In Mobile Suit Victory Gundam, the flagship for the League Militaire's resistance is a Ra Cailum class battleship named Jeanne D'Arc.
There is a Japanese rock band named Janne Da Arc, although they are not directly named after Joan of Arc.
Tal Bachman mentions Joan of Arc in his 1999 hit 'She's So High', "She's so high, like Cleopatra, Joan of Arc".
In an episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, the character of Willow dresses as Joan of Arc for a costume party, having almost been burned at the stake herself in a previous episode.
Also, in the Buffyverse, Joan of Arc was the Vampire Slayer of her time period. She had some encounters with the newly sired vampire and former ally, Gilles de Rais, after the war.

Joan of Arc in film

The story of Joan of Arc has been played out to varying degrees of success in many motion pictures, including:

Geraldine Farrar was film's earliest Joan in Joan the Woman 1917
Sybil Thorndike portrayed Joan in the 1927 film, Saint Joan
The 1928 film, La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc (The Passion of Joan of Arc), was made by Carl Theodor Dreyer, based upon transcripts of her trial. Starring Maria Falconetti in her second and final film role, her performance is considered by some film historians to be the definitive portrayal of Joan. Some also regard the film itself to be one of the great masterpieces of the silent era.
German actress Angela Salloker portrayed Joan in the 1935 film Das Mädchen Johanna
Ingrid Bergman, despite being much older than Joan was in real life, portrayed her in two films, 1948's Joan of Arc, and again in the 1954 Italian film, Giovanna d'Arco al rogo (a.k.a. Joan at the Stake).
Jean Seberg portrayed Joan in the 1957 film, Saint Joan.
Hedy Lamarr portrayed Joan in the 1957 film, The Story of Mankind
Janet Suzman portrayed Joan in the 1968 TV movie St. Joan
Jane Wiedlin portrayed Joan in the 1989 comedy Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure.
Sandrine Bonnaire portrayed Joan in the 1994 Jacques Rivette film Joan the Maid (Jeanne la Pucelle).
Milla Jovovich portrayed Joan in the 1999 Luc Besson film The Messenger: The Story of Joan of Arc.
Leelee Sobieski portrayed Joan in a television mini-series also made in 1999.
Christine Lakin portrayed Joan of Arc in the 2005 TV movie/musical Reefer Madness.

Notes

Template:Fnb An Inquisitorial tribunal led by Inquisitor-General Brehal retried her case after the English were driven out. She was pronounced innocent, and described as a martyr by the Inquisitor-General. She was beatified in 1909, and canonized in 1920.

Template:Fnb Devout Catholics regard this remarkable act as proof of her divine mission. At Chinon and Poitiers she had declared that she would give a sign at Orléans. The lifting of the siege gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and the prominent theologian Jean Gerson, who both wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event.

Template:Fnb Several surviving documents state that Charles or his faction tried to induce the Burgundians to ransom her - e.g., on 14 July 1430 the University of Paris sent a letter to John of Luxembourg stating that the Armagnacs were attempting to obtain her by ransom or other means (see Barrett's "Trial of Jeanne d'Arc", p. 9; and Pernoud's "Joan of Arc By Herself and Her Witnesses", p 158). An entry in the records of Antonio Morosini records a similar account. But just as Charles VII was never given the chance to ransom his own cousin the duke of Orléans (since Henry V's last will and testament had forbidden it - see: Pernoud's "Joan of Arc: Her Story", p. 193), the Burgundians, in similar fashion, never gave him the chance to ransom Joan - she, like the Duke of Orleans, was considered too important to be allowed ransom, and the Burgundians were just as opposed to Joan as their English allies were.

Template:Fnb Judges' investigations January 9 - March 26, ordinary trial March 26 - May 24, recantation May 24, relapse trial May 28-29.

Template:Fnb The retrial verdict later affirmed that Cauchon had no right to try the case. Also see Joan of Arc: Her Story by Regine Pernoud and Marie-Veronique Clin, p. 108. The vice-inquisitor of France objected to the trial on jurisdictional grounds at its outset.

Template:Fnb Quoted from his testimony at her retrial.

Template:Fnb Condemnation trial, p. 52

Template:Fnb See especially the testimony of court clerk Guillaume de Manchon.

Template:Fnb See note 7.

Template:Fnb See note 8.

Template:Fnb Ibid.

Template:Fnb Deutoronomy 22:5.

Template:Fnb Most notably Thomas Aquinas, Outward apparel should be consistent with the state of the person according to general custom. Hence it is in itself sinful for a woman to wear man’s clothes, or vice-versa; especially since this may be the cause of sensuous pleasure; and it is expressly forbidden in the Law (Deut 22) …. Nevertheless this may be done at times on account of some necessity, either in order to hide oneself from enemies, or through lack of other clothes, or for some other such reason. (Summa Theologiae II, II, question 169, article 2, reply to objection 3).