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Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a collection of self-help recommendations, promoted through the popular psychology and self development sections of bookshops, and advertised in various media including the Internet and infomercials.

NLP was proposed in 1973 by Richard Bandler and John Grinder as a set of models and principles to describe the relationship between mind (neuro) and language (linguistic, both verbal and non-verbal) and how their interaction might be organized (programming) to affect an individual's mind, body and behavior. It is described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic" and "the study of the structure of subjective experience" (Sharpley 1987; Dilts et al 1980), and is predicated upon the assumption that all behaviors have a practically determinable structure (Grinder & Bandler 1975a) .

NLP is based on New Age principles such as the belief in unlimited potential through access to the subconscious, and body language cues derived from the observation of “therapeutic wizards” (Bandler and Grinder 1979; Sharpley 1984). Some techniques include behavior change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas through techniques such as reframing (Grinder & Bandler 1983; Andreas & Faulkner, 1994) and the "meta-modeling" (Grinder & Bandler 1975 ch.3) proposed for exploring the personal limits of belief as expressed in language.

The practice initially attracted mostly therapists, although it eventually attracted business and sales people, and New Age believers (Hall, 1994). NLP has been applied to a number of fields such as sales, psychotherapy, communication, education, coaching, sport, business management, interpersonal relationships, seduction, occult and spirituality.

NLP has been criticized in reviews of research by scientists such as Heap (1988), Sharpley (1987), Lilienfeld (2003), and (Singer & Lalich 1999), which have found that Neuro-linguistic programming is scientifically unsupported and largely ineffective. Scientists such as Lilienfeld et al (2003), Helisch (2004), Williams (2000), and Drenth (2003) also state that NLP is pseudoscientific. NLP is identified as a dubious therapy by some therapists (Heap 1991; Morgan 1993; Dryden 2001) and the National Council Against Health Fraud (Loma 2001), and fraudulent by Heap (1991) and Winkin (1991).

Overview

NLP is most widely known as a collection of self-help recommendations, promoted through the popular psychology and self development sections of bookshops, and advertised in various media including the Internet and infomercials. "NLP participants are taught that life is programmed, unfortunately we have all been mis-programmed by negative input. Like Scientology, rebirthing and other alternative therapies, NLP embraces this Null Hypothesis and eschews the classic New Age concept of "clearing" these blocks" (Edwards 2003). While the more traditional therapies concentrate on solving problems by focusing on the reasons "why", Neurolinguistic programming looks at the "hows" to provide a quick fix to a solution.

Foundational Assumptions

Distinct from its formal presuppositions, NLP incorporates a variety of foundational assumptions that precede the presuppositions. These are:

  1. There is a mind-body (and some also include spirituality) connection (Grinder and DeLozier, 1986, pp.xx,xxi; Grinder and Bostic St Clair, 2002, ch.3; ibid p.222).
  2. The mind is broadly composed of a conscious and a subconscious (or unconscious) component (Bandler & John Grinder, 1975b, pp.12-13,137,179-99).
  3. A person's experience of the world is processed and organized in terms of the five senses (Grinder & Bandler 1975b p.6; Dilts et al, 1980, p.17).
  4. Physiology, sensory representation ("submodality") and emotion comprise internal state (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1303).
  5. Behavior is the result of systematically ordered sequences of sensory representations ("strategies") (Bandler & Grinder, 1979 p.30; Dilts et al, 1980, p.6).
  6. All behavior occurs in the context of internal state (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1300).
  7. Internal state mediates experience and influences or determines behavior (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1300).
  8. Internal state and strategy -- hence behavior -- have a discernible and communicable structure (Dilts et al, 1980, Ch.3; Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, p.1303-6).
  9. People exhibit their internal state in their language (verbal and non-verbal) (Dilts and DeLozier, 2000, pp.75-77).
  10. Since behavior and its substrates -- internal state and strategy -- can be codified, a person's skill can be reproduced in another person (Dilts et al, 1980, p.14).
  11. Behavior is learned (Dilts et al, 1980, p.4).
  12. Direct and objective knowledge of the (external) world is not possible (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a, pp.7-13; Bandler & Grinder, 1975b, pp.7-8,180-1; Dilts et al, 1980, pp.3-4).

NLP and Theory

Many NLP proponents state that NLP is not theory-oriented, and Bandler states that he does not "do theory" (Singer & Lalich, 1996). Instead, the stated goals of NLP are to model effective patterns "in the field", to learn what someone is actually doing in practice (internally and externally) that works, and how they do it, rather than deriving behaviors from a theory or obtaining their motivations for doing them. However, NLP proponents do make hypotheses and propose armchair theories (Singer and Lalich 1997). For example, NLP assumes that all human behaviour is neurological, and all human behaviour is based on the 5 senses, rather than "attitudes" "reason" "emotions" "mind" "morals" or "ego".

Common Techniques and Practices

Main article: List of NLP topics
  • Meta model: questions to recover distortion, generalisation and deletion from a speaker (Grinder & Bandler 1975a ch.3; ).
  • Representational systems: verbal and non-verbal cues such as eye movements, sensory predicates, breathing rate, and body posture are calibrated to identify the modality, type and sequence of internal Visual, Auditory or Kinesthetic representations (Grinder & Bandler 1979 p.24; Grinder & Bandler 1976 p.9; Dilts et al 1980).
  • Perceptual positions: a situation is considered from different points of view of those involved, typically self, other, and neutral observer (Grinder & Delozier 1986 pp.xix,197; Dilts & Delozier p.938-943).
  • Dilts' Neurological Levels of Learning: categorisation of information into a hierarchies consisting of environment, behavior, competency, belief/value, identity and purpose (or spirit) (Dilts & Delozier 2000).
  • Swish: a basic "quick-fix" technique that involves swapping a representation of a simple habit for desired self-image in the future (Bandler 1985; Grinder & Bostic St Clair p.169).
  • Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation: separates the see-feel synaesthesia that drives reponses to a stimulus. The NLP "phobia cure" uses two place dissociation (Grinder & Bandler 1979; Einspruch & Forman 1988; Carbonell & Figley 1999; ).
  • Rapport: pacing and leading attention by matching, mirroring or cross pacing verbal and non-verbal behavior (Grinder & Bandler 1977; Clabby, PhD, O’Connor, MD 2004) such as breathing, sensory predicates (1979 p.15,45), and gestures.
  • Submodality modification: deliberately altering the coding of internal sensory representations such as location, size and brightness of internal images (Bandler 1982; S & C Andreas 1987)

NLP Modeling

NLP modeling is a method that is promoted for duplicating behaviour, expertise or excellence, or reproducing "magic" abilites of experts (Bandler and Grinder 1975). It is considered by some practitioners to be at the heart of NLP (Grinder 2003). It can be thought of as the process of discovering relevant distinctions within these experiential components, as well as sequencing these components, aiming to achieve a specific result. NLP proponents claim that it is used to discover and codify patterns of excellence as demonstrated consistently by top performers in any field (Grinder & Bostic St-Clair 2002). It has also been applied to clinical conditions, such as the "skill" of schizophrenia (Grinder & Bandler 1979 p.52; Grinder & Bandler 1981 p.171; Grinder & Delozier 1986 p.62) and notable dead people of whom we have only writings, such as Jesus of Nazareth (Dilts 1992). It has been argued that modeling from writings is unverifiable (both within and outside NLP)

Some modelers also discuss with the model their thoughts, feelings, beliefs (Dilts & Delozier 2000 p.792); this is often not considered to be true NLP modeling, and has been labeled Analytic modeling (Grinder & Dilts, 2005).

Fundamentals

Presuppositions

The presuppositions of NLP are sometimes described as an epistemology (Grinder & Bandler, 1975a; Dilts et al 1980; Dilts 1983; Grinder & Delozier 1986; Grinder & Bostic 2001; Tosey & Mathison 2003; Malloy et al 2005). A presupposition (linguistic term) is a background belief that is treated by the NLP practitioner "as if" (1911; The Philosophy of 'As If', Hans Vaihinger; Grinder & Bandler 1975a) it were literal.

The fundamental presuppositions in NLP are:

  • The map is not the territory. "NLP epistemology" follows Alfred Korzybski (1933) and Gregory Bateson's (1972, 1979) postulations that there is no such thing as " objective experience". The subjective nature of our experience never fully captures the objective world. It is assumed that each of us creates a representation of the world in which we live - that is, we create a map or model which we use to generate our behavior. Our representation or map of the world determines to a large degree what our experience of the world will be (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a; Dilts et al, 1980).
  • Life and 'Mind' are Systemic Processes. The processes that take place within a human being and between human beings and their environment are systemic (Bateson 1979). Our bodies, our societies, and our planet form an ecology of complex systems and sub-systems all of which interact with and mutually influence each other. This assumes that looking from different vantage points may result in quite different and yet equally valid descriptions and emphasis of what is important in the system (Grinder & Delozier 1986; Dilts & DeLozier 2000).

These presuppositions are considered groundbreaking by NLP proponents because of a contradiction with the modern scientific Aristotelian view that reality can be objectively measured (Grinder & Bandler 1979; Grinder & Delozier 1986; Thaler Singer 1999).

The other commonly related presuppositions are derived from the these two fundamental presuppositions (Dilts & DeLozier 2000 pp.1003-4).

The B.A.G.E.L. Model

The B.A.G.E.L. Model specifies the five elements (in mnemonic form) that purportedly comprise the behavioral cues that indicate an individual's internal processes. The B.A.G.E.L. Model is predicated on the notion that internal processes are subjectively represented in sensory terms: visually, auditory, kinesthetically and least likely, olfactory and gustatory.

  1. Body posture (eg. leaning back, head upwards and shallow breathing indicates visual representation)
  2. Accessing cues (eg. fluctuating voice tone and tempo indicates auditory representation)
  3. Gestures (eg. gesturing below the neck indicates kinesthetic representation)
  4. Eye movements (See Eye accessing cues and the representational systems below)
  5. Language patterns (specifically sensory based, eg. "I see!", "Sounds right!" or "I feel that...")

(Dilts et al, 1980; Dilts, 1998; Dilts and DeLozier, 2000).

Eye accessing cues, body cues, and NLP representational systems

File:NLP neural elicitation2.JPG
Eye accessing cues of NLP (for a normally organized right-hander)

A core NLP training exercise involves learning to calibrate eye movements patterns with internal representations (Grinder & Bandler 1979 p.24; Dilts & Delozier 2000 p.383; Grinder & Bostic St Clair 2002 p.171). According to NLP developers, this core tennet loosely relates to the VAK guidelines below. See chart (Dilts et al 1980; O'Connor and McDermot, 1996; Dilts & Delozier 2000 p.383):

  • Visual: eyes up to left or right according to dominant hemisphere access; high or shallow breathing; muscle tension in neck; high pitched/nasal voice tone; phrases such as “I can imagine the big picture”.
  • Auditory: eyes left or right; even breathing from diaphragm; even or rhythmic muscle tension; clear midrange voice tone, sometimes tapping or whistling; phrases such as “Let's tone down the discussion”.
  • Kinesthetic: eyes down left or right; belly breathing and sighing; relaxed musculature; slow voice tone with long pauses; phrases such as “I can grasp a hold of it”

NLP theory explains these breathing and mental processing according to the varying levels of chemical composition in the blood that affects the brain, and “Visual” people tend to be fast visual thinkers and can seem untrustworthy to “kinesthetic” thinkers because thinking by feeling is inherently slow (Dilts et al 1980). It is further claimed that matching VAK predicates can build rapport with individuals. Some authors (Bradbury, 1997; Molden 2000) use internal Verbal/Auditory/Kinesthetic strategies in order to categorize people within a thinking strategies or learning styles framework for instance, that there exist visual, kinesthetic or auditory types of manager.

Meta-model and Milton Model

The meta-model is a set of thirteen language patterns Bandler and Grinder (1975a) developed from their observations of Virginia Satir and Fritz Perls, and is proposed as an information gathering tool, and to challenge (theoretical) distortions, generalizations or deletions in the speaker's language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a Ch3). The meta-model can be reduced to the asking "What specifically", or "How specifically?" to clarify unspecified syntactic elements (Grinder & McMaster 1998).

The meta-model involves the identification of the abandoned theoretical concepts of Chomsky's transformational grammar (Bandler & Grinder 1975a; Grinder & Bostic 2002). These are distortions, generalizations, and deletions. However, in contrast with Chomsky's abandoned theory and with linguistics theory, distortions, generalizations and deletions are universals according to NLP, and are applied directly from untested theory to empirically untested application (REF).

The inverse of the meta-model is the Milton-model (Grinder & Bandler 1976,1977); a collection of "artfully vague" language patterns (Grinder & Bandler 1981, appendix II) elicited from the work of Milton H. Erickson. It is said that the use of non-specific language patterns can allow the client to make their own meaning for what is being said.

Together the meta model and the milton model form the basis for the all other NLP models.

Varying Concepts

Meaning of "Neuro" in NLP

File:Engram Trace and NLP V-K Circuit3.JPG
Explaining the neuro in NLP in relation to V-K modalities(click to enlarge)

All NLP literature refers to the altering of one's neurology through the neural pathways of the senses and the neural circuits of the brain. Most current NLP literature mentions no more than the reprogramming of mental habits and associations. However, the neurological concept engrams is used by some NLP theorists to explain how NLP works (Drenth 2003; Levelt 1995). Some practitioners theorize that NLP processes can be explained through the neurological concepts of programming and reprogramming engrams (Sinclair 1992). Within NLP, Engrams are proposed to give a patterned response which has been stabilized at the level of unconscious competence (Derks & Goldblatt 1985; Sinclair 1992).

Brain lateralization

Hemispheric differences (brain lateralization) is used to support assumptions in some versons of NLP. Dilts et al (1980) propose eye movements (and sometimes gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/ kinesthetic representations systems and to the specific regions in the brain (Bandler and Grinder 1975b; Lewis 1985; Dilts 1998). For example, the left side is said to be more logical/analytical than the right side, which is said to be more creative/imaginative (Patterns 1977 pp.10,87) or that regions of the brian are specialised for certain functions such as mathematics or language (Bandler & Grinder, 1975a; O'Connor & McDermott, 1996).

NLP Models

Aside from the fundamental Meta, Milton, and B.A.G.E.L models, NLP proponents also did research in beliefs, meta programs, the T.O.T.E. model, etc. For more information, see the NLP concepts and methods category. Dilts & Delozier (2000) claim that the SMART model, amongst others are also part of NLP.

New Age

NLP is often promoted in combination with New Age developments. This is partly due to New Age notions that were common at the time of development, such as Zen spirituality and Dianetics promoted by Perls and the enneagram promoted by Virginia Satir and also a result of practitioners modeling spiritual concepts. Bandler often used anecdotes and metaphors about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and teaches workshops in practical shamanism. Hall (2001) claims that NLP can be used to “create both positive (+) and negative (-) psychic energy which operate at polar opposites from each other”.

Alternate Brands

Individual trainers have often introduced or idiosyncratically developed their own methods, concepts and labels, branding them under the "NLP" name (Carroll 2003):

  • John Grinder teaches New Code of NLP
  • Anthony Robbins teaches NAC (Neuro Associative Conditioning)
  • Michael Hall teaches Neuro Semantics
  • Tad James teaches Advanced Neuro Dynamics & Time Line Therapy
  • Richard Bandler himself now teaches his own offshoot of NLP, called DHE (Design Human Engineering)
  • Margo Anand promotes a form of NLP called SkyDancing Tantra

Background and Applications

Background

One of the earliest influences on NLP were General Semantics (Alfred Korzybski) as a new perspective for looking at the world which included a kind of mental hygiene. This was a departure from the Aristotelian concepts of modern science and objective reality, and it influenced notions of programming the mind. Korzybski General semantics influenced several schools of thought, leading to a viable human potential industry and associations with emerging New Age thinking. By the late 1960s, self-help organizations such as EST, Dianetics, and Scientology had become financially successful. The Esalen human potential seminars in California began to attract people, such as the therapist and dianetics proponent Fritz Perls (Naranjo 2000), as well as Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir, and Milton H. Erickson.

While at Kresge College, University of California, Santa Cruz, John Grinder then an Assistant Professor of linguistics was invited by Richard Bandler, then a fourth year undergraduate student to visit his Gestalt therapy group (Grinder & Bostic St Clair 2002). Between 1973-1979, under the mentorship of Gregory Bateson, the co-founders collaborated, and published several books including The Structure of Magic Volumes I & II (1975, 1976), Changing with families and Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, Volumes I & II (1977, 1978) based on the patterns of Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, Milton H. Erickson.

The practice of neuro-linguistic programming attracted mostly therapists at first although it eventually attracted business people, sales people, artists, and "new-agers" (Hall, 1994). As it expanded, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Stephen Gilligan, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon (Therapeutic Metaphors 1978) made further contributions to NLP and the seminars of Bandler and Grinder were transcribed by Steve Andreas into a book, Frogs into Princes. This was published in 1979 and drove the demand for seminars which in turn became successful human potential attractions (Dilts, 1991).

Since the mid 1990s NLP has become more widespread, and following the example of Richard Bandler (who attempted legal action to claim the bulk of the field as his own personal intellectual and commercial property because he could not resolve the dispute through the use of NLP (Salerno 2005). The dispute between Bandler and Grinder over trademarks and copyright was resolved in court of California in 2000 who deemed NLP a generic term (Grinder & Bostic, 2001 Appendix; Salerno 2005).

Applications

Much of NLP is now largely targeted for niche markets (particularly commercialized, cut down or self-help usage), and may be more controversial or esoteric, sometimes charismatically or evangelistically taught (Eisner 2000). Some of the original developers, notably Richard Bandler and the stage hypnotist Paul McKenna, have encouraged these trends and the resulting fragmentation and move towards "pop NLP" has discredited the subject in the eyes of many people (Salerno 2005).

NLP is sometimes applied to coaching and for personal or business development, including motivational communication and systems thinking (Pasztor 1998). NLP is often promoted as large group seminars, similar to or in combination with Landmark Forum seminars .

Some of these involve day long, or several day periods of large group awareness activities including the introduction of authority figure guest speakers and promotion of New Age products. For example, Anthony Robbins promotes NLP as a "systemic approach for change" through his seminars , and other products. NLP trainers and consultants are now applying NLP rituals and techniques in some HR application areas.

  • NLP "therapy"

NLP is considered a fringe or alternative therapy (Raso 1994). Although several aspects of NLP have been found to be largely ineffective (Singer and Lalich 1996), NLP is used, or suggested as an approach, by a few mental health bodies, including The National Phobics Society of Great Britain , MIND (PDF), , The British Stammering Association , the Center for Development & Disability at the University of New Mexico Center for autism ,. Around 1978, NLP practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards.

  • New Age, and Occult applications

NLP's New Age background, deriving from such notions as Zen spirituality and Dianetics promoted by Perls (Naranjo 2000) and the enneagram promoted by Virginia Satir and the modeling spiritual concepts, has led to variability in the use of occult notions in NLP. For example, bandler often used anecdotes and metaphors about the occult in his workshops and large group awareness training LGAT seminars (Hall & Belnap, 1999) and teaches workshops in practical shamanism. Hall (2001) claims that NLP can be used to “create both positive (+) and negative (-) psychic energy which operate at polar opposites from each other”. Proponents state that NLP is compatible with any religion or spiritual context (O'Connor and McDermot, 1996).

Scientific analysis of NLP

NLP has been empirically tested over many years and many of its models and methods have been found to be largely ineffective (Singer & Lalich, 1996).

The 1988 US National Committee (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts) report found that "Individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique" (Druckman & Swets, 1988). In addition, Edgar Johnson, technical director of the Army Research Institute heading the NLP focused Project Jedi stated that "Lots of data shows that NLP doesn't work" (Squires 1988). NLP has failed to yield convincing evidence for the NLP model, and failed to provide evidence for its effectiveness (Heap 1989).

The conjecture that a person has a preferred representational system (PRS), which is observed in the choice of words, has been found to be false according to rigorous research reviews (Heap 1988; Platt, 2001). The assertion that a person has a PRS which can be determined by the direction of eye movements found even less support (Heap, 1988; Platt, 2001).

Thus, objective empirical studies (Bertelsen, 1987, Bleimeister, 1988; Heap, 1988) and review papers (Sharpley, 1987, Druckman et al 1988, Platt, 2001) have consistently shown NLP to be ineffective and reviews or meta-analysis have given NLP a conclusively negative assessment, and the reiterated statement is that there is no neuro-scientific basis for any of NLP's claims, or any scientific support for its claimed efficacy (Thaler Singer and Lalich 1996; Drenth 2003; Lilienfeld et al 2003; Eisner 2000).

Due to general disillusionment with NLP, its mention in psychotherapy journals and books is becoming increasingly rare (Efran and Lukens 1990). NLP proponents have provided not one iota of scientific support for their claims, and as such NLP is considered inappropriate for thorough clinical studies (Eisner 2000).

Psychologists such as Carroll (2003) have stated that it is impossible to determine a "correct" NLP model, and that applying one particular model to everyone is over-simplistic and will be no substitute for hard earned expertise and cannot be verified through statistical methods (Carrol, 2003).

The fact that some people perceive NLP to work sometimes can be explained by the placebo effect, social pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment, distortion of fact through beliefs change misrepresenting the value in the treatment, and overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or explaining away failures (Beyerstein, 1997).

Criticism

Critics say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if not incorrect, presuppositions (Sanghera Finanical Times 2005). NLP has been criticized by clinical psychologists, management scholars, linguists, psychotherapists and cult awareness groups, concerning ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology, ethical questionability, cult-like characteristics, and promotion by exagerated claims.

False claims to science

Critics say that NLP often associates itself with science in order to raise its own prestige (Beyerstein 1991) and anthropologists such as Winkin (1990) consider such promotion to be intellectually fraudulent. Furthermore, Winkin (1990) asserts that NLP's association with science is as distant as astrology's association to astronomy.

Grinder has stated that NLP is a science and an art, eg. "the coding phase of NLP modeling is at present an art"(Whispering p.127). Bandler and Grinder (1975a) have used erroneously connected neuroscience to NLP (REF). Advertising standards bodies have asked for NLP proponents to avoid promoting NLP as a new science .

However, Richard Bandler and John Grinder have also stated that "NLP is not a science... we are not scientists" (Frogs into Princes, 1979 REF PAGE). Richard Bandler claims that NLP is an educational tool and that the relationship of NLP to psychology is like the relationship beetween pharmacology and biochemistry. The developers of NLP are still inaccurately refered to as "scientists" according to some who promote NLP (Singer and Lalich 1999).

Psycholinguist Levelt (1995) states, "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of programming."(PAGE)

Pseudoscience

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NLP has been classed as a pseudoscientific self help development (Levelt, 1995; Williams et al, 2000; Lilienfeld et al, 2003; Drenth, 2003; Bordlein 2001), in the same mould as EST (Landmark Forum) and Dianetics. Authors such as Salerno (2005) also state NLP is pseudoscience, and have criticized its promotion as self-help, and psychologists such as Singer (1999) and management experts such as Hardiman (1994) have criticized quasi-spiritual and unethical uses within management and human resources developments. The National Council Against Health Fraud (Loma 2001) classify NLP is a "dubious therapy".

Numerous extraordinary and unsupported claims have been made by some NLP promoters. There have been claims that the hightening of perception using NLP can allow a novice martial artist to beat an expert (Bandler 1993. p105), and that it is possible to develop photographic memory through the use of NLP (Bandler and Grinder 1975b).

The NLP community continues to claim their assumptions and methods are powerful, primarily relying on testimonials and anecdotal evidence to support their claims.

Historically, NLP has many pseudoscientific associations such as the erroneous adherence of some NLP models to the engram concept , claims to rapid cures and treatment of traumas, the use of popular new age myths such as unlimited potential, left/right brain simplicities, past life regression, and the use marketing/recruitment models similar to that of Dianetics and other cults (Sala et al 1999).

Pseudoscience is prone to certain fallacies and characteristics. These can be; Overgeneral predictions, pseudoscientific experimentation, dogmatic adherence or recycling of un-validated claims (Winn and Wiggins, 2001). The characteristics of pseudoscience are more specifically shown thus (Lilienfeld et al, 2003) :

  • The use of obscurantist language (eg meta programs, parapragmatics, sub-modalities etc)
  • The absence of connectivity (Levelt, 1995)
  • Over-reliance on testimonial and anecdotal evidence (Krugman et al 1999)
  • An overuse of ad hoc hypotheses and reversed burden of proof designed to immunize claims from falsification (Singer 1999)
  • Emphasis on confirmation rather refutation (eg reliance on asking how rather than why)
  • Absence of boundary conditions
  • The mantra of holism and eclecticism designed to immunize from verifiable efficacy (Lilienfeld et al 2003) (Claiming that NLP is unmeasurable due to too many factors(Eisner 2000) or to simplistically “do what works”.
  • Evasion of peer review (If claims were true, why were they not properly documented and presented to the scientific community?) (Eisner 2000)

Critics point of that NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors (Druckman and Swets 1988). Modern neuroscience indicates that NLP's notions of neurology are erroneous and pseudoscientific in regards to: left/right brain hemispheric differences (Sala et al, 1999; Drenth, 2003, Dilts et al 2000), the association of eye movements or body gestures to brain hemispheres, and in the universal division of humanity to 40% visual, 40% auditive, and 20% kinesthesic (Winkin 1999), in the adherence of NLP to positive/negative and psychic out of body energy (Sala 1999). NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology community for decades (Eisner 2000).

Ethical Concerns

Ethical concerns of NLP’s encouragement towards manipulation have been raised. As such, NLP is seen as encouraging people to find more ways to manipulate individuals against their will within seduction, sales and business settings. NLP book titles include "The Unfair Advantage in Sales" and "The Science and Technology of Getting What You Want" and “Get Anyone to Do Anything”.

The therapy and coaching fields require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation of Australia Ethical Guidelines). It has been found that NLP certified practitioners often show a weak grasp of ethics (Hardiman 1994).

In addition, "Ethical standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public, especially if money is to change hands" (Beyerstein 1997). NLP is also criticised for unethically encouraging the belief in non existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals (Salerno 2005).

NLP has also been described as a "commercial cult", and has been criticised within the business sector for being coercive, including undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs and intense confrontational psychological techniques, tantamount to forced religious conversion (Singer 1995). Its various forms, such as those promoted by Grinder, and Tony Robbins are said to be ill conceived and coercive in some business settings (Hardiman 1994).

Questionable Applications

Currently, there is criticism from psychotherapists about the promotion of NLP and other dubious therapies within psychotherapy associations (Eisner 2000; Lilienfeld et al 2003). NLP certification for therapists in general still does not require any professional qualifications (Eisner 2000).

File:NLP-Scientology of achievement2.JPG
Critical view of NLP and pseudoscience
  • Human Resources: As with other pseudoscientific subjects, human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al (1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource training . NLP has been found to be most ineffective concerning influence/persuasion and modeling of skills (Druckman et al 1988). There is a general view that NLP is dubious and is not to be taken seriously in a business context (Hardiman 1994; Summers 1996). Within management training there have also been complaints towards NLP concerning undue and forced adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion (Singer 1995).
  • NLP and Education: Although NLP has no reliable neuroscience foundation, it is sometimes considered as part of "accelerated learning" or "brain based learning", PDF(Walberg 2003). There is no reliable evidence to support the use of NLP within education, and as such, the use of this unvalidated method is discouraged by educational experts.
  • Cosmetic Effect Claims: Dubious treatments such as hypnotic breast enhancement and penis enlargement often claim to use NLP processes to produce this effect. If such miraculous effects had actually been achieved, then why have they not been properly documented by the people making these claims, and presented to the scientific community? (Eisner 2000).
  • Occult and New Age Practices: With its promotion with Tai Chi, Meditation, and Dianetics, NLP is in the margins of contemporary obscurantism (Winkin 1990). NLP is often criticised as being a dubious new age therapy. Practitioners sometimes attempt to model spiritual experiences, which inherently, are lacking in scientific support. NLP's new age background often leads to it being sold in combination with shamanic methods of magic such as those by (by Richard Bandler) or Huna (by Tad James).

Cult characteristics

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NLP is sometimes referred to as technique used by both mild and aggressive cults (Heap 1991; Winkin 1990; Singer 1995), involved in destructive or amoral pseudoscientific psychocults (Novopashin 2004)(eg NLP Rekaunt) , and is often held in circles considered to be akin to a cult (Tippet 1994; Langone 1993; Singer 2003; Eisner 2000; Sharpley 1987). Some NLP processes are seen as an intrinsic part of modern ritual mind control tactics (Crabtree, 2002). The German educational minister banned the use of NLP in education due to its close similarity to Scientology .

Similar to other pseudoscientific subjects such as Dianetics and EST, NLP is adopted as a pretext for applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and social pressure to obtain compliance from the cult's victim or to induce dependence on the cult (Langone 1993).

References

See Neuro-linguistic programming: Bibliography for a fuller list of Books and articles not directly referenced on this page.

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  • . ISBN 08314-0044-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 091699001X. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 1555520537. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0911226257. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0226039056. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0525166902. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • Games People Play: the Psychology of Human Relations; 1964; (1978 reprint, Grove Press, ISBN 0345170466); (1996 Paperback, ISBN 0345410033)
  • Beyerstein. B.L. (1997) Why Bogus Therapies Seem to Work. Skeptical Inquirer magazine. September/October 1997
  • Beyerstein, B. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70-79.
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  • . ISBN 0-9717223-0-7. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Bradbury, A (1997) NLP for business success. Kogan Page.
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  • Derks, L. & Goldblatt, R.,(1985) The Feedforward Conception of Consciousness: A Bridge between Therapeutic Practice and Experimental Psychology. The William James Foundation, Amsterdam.
  • "The Skeptic's Dictionary". 2003. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0970154003. {{cite book}}: External link in |Url= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Url= ignored (|url= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0916990079. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • . ISBN 0916990265. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0916990419. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN -. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • . ISBN 0309037921 http://www.nap.edu/books/0309037921/html. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Pages= ignored (|pages= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help) Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
  • Dryden. W. 2001 Reason to Change: Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Brunner-Routledge 0415229804
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  • Hall, M (2001) The Spirit of NLP. Crown House Publishing ISBN: 1899836047
  • . ISBN 1899836225. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • Hardiman (1994) NLP background and issues. Industrial relations review and report No 560 May
  • Summers, L. (1996) Training & Development. Alexandria: Jan 1996. Vol. 50, Iss. 1; pg. 30, 2 pgs
  • Heap, M. (1989) Neurolinguistic programming: What is the evidence? In D Waxman D. Pederson. I, Wilkie, and P Mellett(Eds) Hypnosis: The fourth european congress at Oxford (pp 118-124) London. Whurr Publishers.
  • Heap.M. Dryden.W. (1991) Hypnotherapy : a handbook. Publisher: Open University Press, 1991.
  • . ISBN 0709947798. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • Helisch. M (2004) Veranstaltung:- Gesellschaftliche Funktion, Entwicklung und Sozialisation von Emotionen Seitenzahl: 39 Issue: 1
  • Raso. J. (1994) "Alternative" Healthcare: A Comprehensive Guide. Prometheus Books. ISBN: 0879758910
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  • Joyce, T, (1989) Gnosis no 12, Hubbards Ladder. Pub Chichester.
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  • . ISBN 0722531958. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
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  • Sala, S.D, editor (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain. Wiley.
  • Salerno, S (2005); Sham : How the Self-Help Movement Made America Helpless. Crown Publishers ISBN 1400054095
  • Sanghera, S (Aug 26, 2005). "Look into my eyes and tell me I'm learning not to be a loser". {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
  • Schacter.D (1997) Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. Publisher: Basic Books; ISBN 0465075525
  • Seitz, V A., Cohn, W A. (1992) Using the Psychology of Influence in Job Interviews. Business Forum. Los Angeles: Summer 1992.Vol.17, Iss. 3; pg. 14, 4 pgs
  • Sharpley C.F. “Research Findings on Neurolinguistic Programming: Nonsupportive Data or an Untestable Theory” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1, 103-107

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  • Sinclair. J. (1992) An ABC of NLP. Publisher: Self-published (ASPEN) ISBN 0951366017
  • Squires. S. (1988) The Pentagon's Twilight Zone. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. : Apr 17, 1988
  • . 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
  • . ISBN 0787967416. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Title= ignored (|title= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |Year= ignored (|year= suggested) (help)
    See Margaret Singer and Excerpts from 'Cults in Our Midst' Retrieved 25 Aug 2005
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  • Tye, M. J. C. T. (1994). Neurolinguistic programming: Magic or myth? Journal of Accelerative Learning & Teaching, 19, 309-342.
  • Winn, C.M , and Wiggins,A.W (2001) QUANTUM LEAPS..in the wrong direction: Where real science ends and pseudoscience begins. Joseph Henry Press.
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  • Vaihinger, H. (1924). The Philosophy of "As If.", Routledge, Kegan and Paul Ltd, London, England
  • Valentino, A (1999) Personality Selling : Using NLP and the Enneagram to Understand People and How They Are Influenced Vantage Point Publishing ISBN: 0966773233
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  • Walberg H.J. (2003) Improving Educational Productivity. Laboratory for Student Success. LSS.
  • Williams, W F. general editor.(2000) Encyclopedia of pseudoscience

Publisher Facts On File New York.

  • Winkin Y 1990 Eléments pour un procès de la P.N.L. , MédiAnalyses, no. 7, septembre, 1990, pp. 43-50.

See also

Developers

(*)Grinder & Bandler are considered the co-creators/co-originators of NLP.

External links

Categories: