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Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the stories it teaches about the life, and actions, of Jesus of Nazareth as recounted in the New Testament.

Overview

With an estimated 2.3 billion adherents, Christianity is arguably the world's largest religion. Its origins are intertwined with Judaism, with which it shares much sacred text and early history; specifically, it shares the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament.Template:Fn Christianity is considered an Abrahamic religion, along with Judaism and Islam (see Judeo-Christo-Islamic).

In the Christian scriptures, the names "Christian" and hence "Christianity" are first attested in Acts 11:26: "For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch Jesus' disciples were first called Christians" (Gr. χριστιανους, from Christ Gr. Χριστός, which means "the anointed").

History and Origins

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Main article: History of Christianity See also: Timeline of Christianity
A chart showing the development of various churches from their roots in early Christianity.

While initially Christianity grew out of Judaism, heavily relying on the Koine Greek Alexandrine text of the Hebrew Bible commonly refered to in the west as the Septuagint, Christian doctrines also emerged, in part, out of the various mystery teachings that existed in Greece and the Middle East in antiquity. Also, early Christian fathers such as Origen helped to create a synthesis between Greek philosophy, especially Plato, and Christianity. Other scholars such as Humanities Professor Camille Paglia assert that Christianity was itself a development of the Dionysian mystery religion. Although many scholars believe that the incorporation and influences of several pre-Christian ideas, especially from Gnosticism and from various amalgamations of Jewish ideas in combination with Stoicism, Orpheism and Dionyseanism Gnosticism explains the many similarities eventually comprising the orthodoxy of the Church, this remains disputed by reglious scholars.

It's important to note that in its early years, there was not one Christianity but many, emerging along side a vareity of mystery cults, many of whose members converted into Christitan teachers and leaders themselves and thus were an influence on the Christian developing ideas and practices. Most scholarship believes these to included the Nasseni, Essenes,Therapeutae, Gnostics, Dionysus, and there is much speculation regarding Mithraism may also have been partly assimilated by state-sponsored Christianity before being diposed of in name. According to Martin A. Larson, in The Story of Christian Origins (1977), Mithraism and Christianity derived from the same sources, originally from the savior cult of Osiris. Many followers of developing Gnosticism for example (Valentinius being one of the most well-known) were also Christians, and taught a synthesis of the two belief systems.

In the 1st century CE there were at least three well known and distinct divisions within the Christian movement: the Jewish Christians (led by Jesus' brother James, with Jesus' disciples, and their followers), Pauline Christians (followers of St. Paul) and Gnostic Christians (people who believed that salvation came through secret knowledge). Each believed themselves to be the true church, and were highly critical each other. A single basic church hierarchy did not establish itself until as late as the 4th century with its ascendancy as the state enforced religion under Constantine the Great who established it as the official religion of the Roman Empire under Theodosius I. The state issued a series of decrees to "suppress all rival religions, order the closing of the temples, and impose fines, confiscation, imprisonment or death upon any who cling to the older religions." The church used the power of the state to oppress, exile or exterminate both Pagans and Gnostic Christians. Church authority had became concentrated in the five bishops or patriarchs located in Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem and Rome. The losing groups, exiled and persecuted, with their property taken, their sacred literature banned and destroyed, were condemned as heretics. A sample of that scripture was preserved in a cave at Nag Hammadi. Such a veritable potpourri of religious ideas combined from Judaic monotheism, Persian dualism, eastern otherworldliness and asceticism, and the various mystery teachings makes the origins of Christian doctrine one whose complexity continues to shroud it in mystery.

The resulting orthodoxy emphasised blind faith, which "renders the impossible possible "(Mark ix. 23, 24), produced a thnking that deprecated learning, as was shown by Draper ("History of the Conflict between Science and Religion") and by White ("History of the Warfare of Science with Theology") a craving for the miraculous and supernatural created ever new superstitions, under the form of relic-worship from old pagan forms of belief. As American religious scholar Kaufmann Kohler writes, "in the name of the Christian faith reason and research were condemned, Greek philosophy and literature were exterminated, and free thinking was suppressed."

The precise history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from that of the European West (and several other culture-regions) in general. After its legalization, further refinenment in doctrinal disputes continued, leading to the ecumenical councils. Other peoples adopted Christianity, such as Armenia or Ethiopia, while among other peoples independent Christian groups developed, e.g. in Persia, India. From the 4th century onwards, various forms of monasticism developed.

After the Western Roman Empire had been shattered during the Migration Period, the Germanic peoples and Ireland converted to Roman Christianity, while the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe adopted the Byzantine form of Christianity, e.g. Russia in 988). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes divided East and West and resulted in the Great Schism (conventionally dated in 1054). This formally divided Christendom into two main groups: Roman Catholicism in western Europe, and the Eastern Orthodox churches in the east.

From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by the religion of Islam, which quickly conquered the Middle East and Northern Africa. Numerous military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and the eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire and south-eastern Europe by the Turks.

Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the church under the Pope and the development of scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society, but only after Martin Luther had published his 95 theses in 1517 and started the Protestant Reformation, did the Roman Catholic Church manage to renew itself at the Council of Trent. During the following centuries, Catholicism and Protestantism — the latter increasingly divided into denominations — competed with each other, while Christianity also spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Protestantism fragmented into more than a dozen families of denominations, and thousands of individual faith groups -- over 1,000 in North America alone. Christianity was also confronted with the discoveries of science (notably heliocentricism, evolution), Enlightenment thinking, biblical criticism, social issues, and modern ideologies. In the 20th century, the Ecumenical movement came to importance.

For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and world culture, see Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian literature, Christian music, Christian architecture.

Denominations

Within Christianity, numerous distinct groups have developed, with diverse beliefs that vary widely by culture and place. Since the Reformation, Christianity is usually represented as being divided into three main branches:

Other denominations and churches which self-identify as Christian but which distance themselves from the above classifications together claim around 275 million members. These include African indigenous churches with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely), Jehovah's Witnesses with approximately 6.6 million membersTemplate:Fn, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also called Mormons) with more than 12 million membersTemplate:Fn, and other groups.Template:Fn The early leaders of most of these groups were originally Protestant adherents.

These broad divisions do not themselves encompass unanimity. On the contrary, some branches encompass vast disagreements, while in other cases the divisions overlook strong sympathies between/among the groups. Nevertheless, this tends to be the standard overview of distinctions, especially as viewed in the Western world.

Beliefs

File:Cristo Velázquez lou2.jpg
Jesus' crucifixion as portrayed by Diego Velázquez. Jesus' life, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the basis of Christianity.

Enormous diversity of belief exists among Christians. Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology.

The Trinity

Main article: Trinity

The belief that God is a single eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons: Father, Son (Divine Logos, incarnated as Jesus Christ), and Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).

Jesus Christ as God

Jesus Christ is both fully God (divine) and fully human: two natures in one person.

Jesus Christ as Salvation

The belief that salvation from "sin and death" is available through the person and work of Jesus Christ. Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how this salvation occurs. (See soteriology.)

Many Christians interpret salvation to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency. The question of "who is saved" has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though some Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether one has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior.

Crucifixion and Resurrection

The belief that Jesus Christ died on the Cross, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven after appearing to his disciples, most notably the Apostles.

The Second Coming

Main article: Second Coming

The belief in the "General Resurrection," in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the end of time, to be judged by the returned Christ.

The Afterlife

Christian views of the afterlife generally involve heaven and (somewhat less frequently) hell, with Catholicism adding an intermediate realm of purgatory. Except for purgatory (whose denizens will ultimately enter heaven, after "purification"), these realms are usually assumed to be eternal. There is, however, some debate on this point, for example among the Orthodox.

It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection--i.e. whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the soul, survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that those who practiced good things will be resurrected to life and those who practiced vile things to a resurrection of judgement.

Differences in Beliefs

Nicene Creed

One statement describing the beliefs of a majority of Christians is the Nicene Creed, ratified as the universal creed of Orthodox and Catholic Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431, and generally adhered to by Protestants as well.

Central Christian beliefs which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed include, but are not limited to:

Some groups, however, deviate from tenets which most others hold as absolutely basic to Christianity. On account of these deviations they are considered heretical or even "non-Christian" by many of the mainstream Christian groups. Most such disputes center on the divinity of Jesus, the Trinity, or both.

However, not all Christians have accepted all of the Nicene articles of faith, or else such a creed would never have been written. The Creed's lines frequently target certain opposing beliefs of other early Christians, which the council regarded as heretical. Examples would include Ebionite groups which denied Jesus's divinity, a well as Docetist groups which denied that Christ was a human being, or Arians, who disputed that the Father and the Son were "of one being". Other early heresies included Simonianism, Marcionism, Gnosticism and Montanism. Again, while some churches take exception to some of these articles, to the extent that they do so, this usually represents a conscious departure from the Christian mainstream. Some Christian traditions, such as those of the Baptists and the Churches of Christ, would accept these beliefs, but not the creed itself, since all creeds are regarded as unnecessary and even counter-productive in these circles.

Scriptures

Authority and Different Parts of the Bible

Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the Bible, including the Old Testament and the New Testament. Differences exist in the canons of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the Deuterocanonical books used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but rejected by Protestants as Apocrypha. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly. More theologically significant is the Swedenborgian churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.

Whereas Jews see the Torah as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by Gideons International.

Interpretation

If Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. "Biblical literalism" or "Christian fundamentalism" describe well-known conservative hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism.

Catholics, the Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as having been produced by one phase (albeit formative) of the development of church tradition, or "Holy Tradition". This Holy Tradition has been established and perpetuated through the decisions of the ecumenical councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, the lives and teachings of the saints, liturgical practice, sacred art, papal statements (Roman Catholics), and is in fact alive today. Indeed, one Orthodox theologian has characterized the (Orthodox) tradition as "the voice of the Holy Spirit in the Church."

Protestants, meanwhile, tend to strongly reject portions of "Holy Tradition" while readily accepting other portions. Most Protestants tend to accept Martin Luther's dictum of sola scriptura, which sees the Bible as the ultimate, or only, source of faith and doctrine. It also assumes that any Christian believer is capable of rightly interpreting it. Even Protestants concede that this view raises difficulties, especially given the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some arguable claim to biblical warrant and, based on these divergencies, because Protestantism has spawned such a large variety of denominations and traditions.

Other Works in Addition to the Scriptures

Some Christian groups have also elevated additional writings to the status of inspired scripture. Well-known examples would include the Book of Mormon, considered to be "another Testament of Jesus Christ" by the Latter Day Saints; several works of Ellen G. White, considered sacred by many Seventh-day Adventists; and Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures by Christian Science founder Mary Baker Eddy. Others, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, have produced translations of the Bible which they hold to be wholly reliable. This elevation of other writings to the same level as accepted scriptures is a major cause for disputes between these groups and mainstream Christians. One might expect Lutherans and Calvinists to regard the interpretations of Luther and Calvin, respectively, with similar reverence, but most theologians agree that their writings are a mixture of good and bad, and are in no way "inspired."

Worship and practices

Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven sacraments or "mysteries." These include baptism, the Eucharist (communion), matrimony, Holy Orders, confirmation or Chrismation, penance and reconciliation, and the Anointing of the Sick.

Many Protestant groups, following Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not usually the other five in the same way. Anabaptist and Brethren groups would add feet washing. Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Holiness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such as spiritual healing, prophecy, exorcism, speaking in tongues, or (very occasionally) snake handling. These emphasis are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.

In general, Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.

Virtually all Christians traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as prayer, Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle, to include not only obedience to the Ten Commandments, as interpreted by Christ (as in the Sermon on the Mount), but also love for one's neighbor, whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian, in both attitude and action. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love of God and includes obedience to such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless," both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the Holy Spirit, who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection they die with him to sin and can be resurrected with him to new life.

Weekly worship services

Justin Martyr (First Apology, chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus:

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.

Justin's description, which would apply equally well to most church services today, alludes to the following components:

  • Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
  • A sermon. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this may occur later in the service, although in liturgical churches, the sermon still often follows the readings.
  • Congregational prayer and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of hymns. The Lord's Prayer is especially likely to be recited.
  • The Eucharist (also called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) — a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are eaten and drunk. Most Protestants say these represent the body and blood of Christ; Orthodox, Catholics, and most Anglicans say that they become the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the Real Presence). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restriction on who may partake, which visitors should apprise themselves of. For example, only Catholics may receive communion at a Catholic church (and not even all of them would be permitted).
  • A "collection" or "offering" in which the people are asked to contribute money. One common method is to pass around a collection plate. Christians traditionally use these monies not only for upkeep for the church, but also for charitable work of various types.

A number of variations or exceptions exist. Sometimes these are due to special events, such as baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend Sunday school. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the Seventh-Day Adventists meet on Saturday (the biblical Sabbath), not Sunday, the day of Christ's resurrection. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may be spontaneously moved by the Holy Spirit, rather than follow a formal order of service. At a Quaker meeting, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.

In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones), the service is led by a priest. In others (mainly among Protestants), there is a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. In addition, there are "high" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "low" services at which a more casual atmosphere prevails, even if the service in question is liturgical in nature.

In Orthodox churches, the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for human weakness). Roman Catholics and many Protestant churches follow a custom in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (e.g., to the sermon). Others are less programmed, and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated, and often involves a choir and/or organ. Some churches use only a capella music, either on principle (many Churches of Christ object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).

In many non-denominational Christian churches, as well as some Protestant denominations, there is usually a worship music portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of hymns, praise and worship music or psalms. Many churches believe that worship is important to usher in the Presence of God for the rest of the service.

A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship" which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of charismatic renewal within Churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the Charismatic Episcopal Church.

Holidays

Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a liturgical calendar with various holidays. These include feasts (this means special worship services, not only eating) as well as fasts. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast of several weeks' duration. The best-known fasting period is Lent.

Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating Christmas and Easter, despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays, or object to the pagan origins of Christmas and Easter.

Symbols

The best-known Christian symbol is surely the cross, of which many varieties exist. For convenience of recognition, several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the crucifix for Catholics, the crux orthodoxa for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the ichthys ("fish") symbol, or in ancient times, an anchor.


Persecution

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Main articles: Persecution of Christians, Historical persecution by Christians

Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and frequently persecuted in the Roman Empire. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal and especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects, the Jews only excepted, sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity, a practice that Christianity, along with Judaism, rejected. Persecution in the Roman Empire ended with the Edict of Milan, but it persisted or even intensified in other parts, such as Sassanid Persia or under Islam. In Europe it resurfaced during the French Revolution and its attempted Dechristianisation.

Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, often directed against members of other religions and even against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with the government support, have destroyed pagan temples and molested adherents of paganism, e.g. the philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by Christians. Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into Religious wars. Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.

In discussing persecution, we should be careful to distinguish between:

  • official persecution by the state;
  • acts of popular violence (which may be tacitly permitted by the state), and
  • the side-effects of war and other social upheaval.

Today, state oppression of Christians today is generally associated with Muslim or Communist countries. For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches, and regularly cracks down on house churches or underground Catholics. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity are examples. Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States, and the ongoing "troubles" in Northern Ireland as examples of 'persecution by Christians', despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of discrimination have also been made of and by Christians in various contexts.

See also

History and denominations

Notes

Template:FnbWhile sharing the Hebrew Scriptures or "Old Testament", Christianity nonetheless disagrees with many points of the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice, based on the understanding found in the "New Testament" and predominantly understandings found within the Pauline epistles.
Template:FnbWitness Membership 2005.
Template:FnbChristianity (2005). Adherents.com.
Template:FnbMany Christians identify themselves as such not by the adherance to a set of religious rules or rites but instead by their personal relationship to Jesus Christ.

References and select bibliography

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  • Oden, Thomas. Systematic Theology (an ecumenical trilogy)
    • Volume 1: The Living God (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
    • Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
    • Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
  • Pelikan, Jaroslav (5 Volumes published between 1971-1989).The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine.
  • Tolstoy, Leo (1894). The Kingdom of God is Within You. ISBN 0803294042.
  • Tomkins, Stephen (2005). A Short History of Christianity (Lion).
  • Francis Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
  • Thomas William Doane, 1882, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, is a bit outdated but a classic revelation of pagan antecedents of biblical myths and miracles.
  • Edwin Johnson, 1887, Antiqua mater. A Study of Christian Origins. English radical theologian identified the early Christians as the Chrestiani, followers of a good (Chrestus) God who had expropriating the myth of Dionysos Eleutherios ("Dionysos the Emancipator"), to produce a self-sacrificing Jesus.
  • Gerardus Bolland, 1907, De Evangelische Jozua. Philosopher at Leiden identified the origin of Christianity in an earlier Jewish Gnosticism. In 1907 Pope Pius X took action and condemned the Modernists who were "working within the framework of the Church". An anti-Modernist oath was introduced in 1910.
  • Arthur Drews, 1910, Die Christusmythe (The Christ Myth); 1910, Die Petruslegende (The Legend of St Peter); 1924, Die Entstehung des Christentums aus dem Gnostizismus (The Emergence of Christianity from Gnosticism).
  • Alexander Hislop, 1916, The Two Babylons. Exhaustive exposure of the pagan rituals and paraphernalia of Roman Catholicism.
  • Edward Carpenter, 1920, Pagan and Christian Creeds. Elaborated the pagan origins of Christianity.
  • John J. Jackson, 1938, Christianity Before Christ, Drew attention to the Egyptian precedents of Christian belief.
  • Herbert Cutner, 1950, Jesus: God, Man, or Myth? Mythical nature of Jesus and a summary of the ongoing debate between mythicists and historicizers. Pagan origins of Christ discussed.
  • Georges Ory, 1961, An Analysis of Christian Origins.
  • Guy Fau, 1967, Le Fable de Jesus Christ.
  • John Allegro, 1970, The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. 1979, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth.
  • Max Rieser, 1979, The True Founder of Christianity and the Hellenistic Philosophy. Christianity started by Jews of the Diaspora and then retroactively set in pre-70 Palestine. Christianity arrived last, not first, in Palestine – that's why Christian archeological finds appear in Rome but not in Judea until the 4th century.
  • Gerd Lüdemann, 1998, The Great Deception: And What Jesus Really Said and Did. 2002, Paul: The Founder of Christianity. 2004, The Resurrection Of Christ: A Historical Inquiry. After 25 years of study German professor concluded Paul, not Jesus, started Christianity.
  • Alvar Ellegard, 1999, Jesus One Hundred Years Before Christ. Christianity seen as emerging from the Essene Church of God with the Jesus prototype the Teacher of Righteousness.
  • Timothy Freke, Peter Gandy, 1999, The Jesus Mysteries. 2001, Jesus and the Lost Goddess: The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Examines the close relationship between the Jesus Story and that of Osiris-Dionysus. Jesus and Mary Magdalene mythic figures based on the Pagan Godman and Goddess.
  • Burton Mack, 2001,The Christian Myth: Origins, Logic, and Legacy. Social formation of myth making.
  • Tom Harpur, 2005, The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Canadian New Testament scholar and ex-Anglican priest re-states the Christianity, it was clear, had not fallen from heaven but was a man-made production.
  • Vermes, Geza and Martin D. Goodman, eds. The Essenes according to the Classical Sources. Sheffield: Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies and JSOT Press, 1989.

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