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Rajputs (from the Sanskrit tatpurusha compound rājaputra, "son of a king") are a prominent social group of India, Nepal and Pakistan. They claim descent from the ancient royal dynasties of the region. Within the Hindu caste system, Rajputs constitute one of the principal groups belonging to the Kshatriya varna.

Rajput dynasties played a prominent role in the history of northern India. They developed an ethos of warlike chivalry that served as the benchmark for other Indian communities as the latter ascended to regional dominance. This martial ethos did not preclude patronage of the arts: distinctive forms of painting and architecture developed under the aegis of Rajput courts, and classical music found support. Thus, the Rajputs have contributed directly and indirectly to many facets of the Indian crasis.

Demographics

The 1931 census of British India was the last to record caste affiliation in a manner that provides reliable information on Rajput demographics. Any present-day estimates are speculative; they also vary widely. These figures are of interest as they denote the approximate spread and composition of the Rajput community.

The 1931 census reported a total of 10.7 million people self-describing as Rajput. Of this population, about 8.6 million people also self-described as being Hindu, about 2.1 million as being Muslim and about 50,000 as being Sikh by religion. The United Provinces (being approximately present-day Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal combined) reported the largest population of Rajputs, at 3,756,936. Next came the undivided province of Punjab with 2,351,650. The (then united) province of Bihar & Orissa, corrosponding to the present-day states of Bihar, Orissa and Jharkhand, reported a Rajput population of 1,412,440. Rajputana, which was almost co-terminus with the present-day state of Rajasthan, reported a figure of 669,516. The Central Provinces and Berar reported a figure of 506,087, the princely state of Gwalior of 393,076, the Central India Agency of 388,942, the Bombay Presidency of 352,016, the princely state of Jammu & Kashmir of 256,020, and the Western India States Agency of 227,137 Rajputs. The undivided province of Bengal (including present-day Bangladesh reported a figure of 156,978 Rajputs. The princely states of Baroda and Hyderabad reported figures of 94,893 and 88,434 respectively.

Rajputs typically speak whatever languages are spoken by the general population of the areas they live in. Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, and dialects of these languages are the major native languages (mother tongues) of the Rajputs.

Origins

The traditional occupations of the Rajput are war and agriculture. As many scholars have pointed out, these areas lend themselves uniquely to the ingress of groups that were not formerly affiliated with those professions. The gradual accommodation of the new entrants into the social and family circle of the traditional community is the essential quid pro quo of the Sanskritization that the aspirant community essays. This phenomenon of gradual inclusion has indubitably obtained in the case of the Rajputs, with certain Jat and Maratha dynasties being among the most recent to venture the claim of affiliation with the Rajput community. In view of this, to seek a single and common, definitive origin for every present-day Rajput is widely recognised as being an exercise in futility. We present both traditional legends and some scholarly speculations made by researchers on the origin of the Rajputs.

Legendary accounts

As Kshatriyas, the Rajputs regard themselves as being descended from the vedic warrior class. Legend ascribes to the Rajputs an origin stemming from certain Hindu deities; every Rajput must eventually belong to one of three great patrilineages, being:

• the Agnivanshi lineage, claiming descent from Agni, the Hindu Fire-god;
• the Suryavanshi lineage, claiming descent from Surya, the Hindu Sun-god;
• the Chandravanshi lineage, claiming descent from Chandra, the Hindu Moon-god.

Some scholars also count Nagavanshi, Rishivanshi and Vayuvanshi as traditional lineages. The Yaduvanshi lineage, claiming descent from the Hindu god Krishna, are in fact a major sept of the Chandravanshi lineage.

The aforementioned three patrilineages (vanshas) sub-divide into 36 main clans (kulas), which in turn divide into numerous branches (shakhas) to create the intricate clan system of the Rajputs. The principle of patrilineage is staunchly adhered to in determining one's place in the system and a strong consciousness of clan and lineage is an essential part of the Rajput character. As the 1911 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica states, this tradition of common ancestry permits an indigent Rajput yeoman to consider himself as well-born as any powerful landholder of his clan, and superior to any high official of the professional classes. Authoritative listings of the 36 Rajput clans are to be found in the Kumārpāla Charita of Jayasimha and the Prithvirāj Rāso of Chandbardai.

Among the legends mentioned above, the one which addresses the origin of the Agnivanshi Rajputs is particularly interesting, not least because they were the earliest to rise to political prominence. This legend begins with the puranic legend wherein the traditional kshatriyas of the land were exterminated by Parashurama, an avatara of Vishnu. Later, the legend says, sage Vasishta performed a great Yajna or fire-sacrifice, to seek from the Gods a provision for the defense of righteousness on earth. In answer to his prayer, a youth arose from the very flames of the sacrifice -- the first Agnivanshi Rajput. In some versions of the legend, all the Rajput lineages rose thus from the sacred flames.

Scientific View

Many scholars view the Agni kunda (fire-sacrifice) legend as suggesting, in an allegorical manner, the possibility that people who were not hitherto regarded as kshatriyas/Rajputs could come to be regarded as such after the customary fire-sacrifice based purificatory rituals. Many scholarly speculations on the origin of the Rajputs have been based on this legend. James Tod uses it as a basis for speculating upon a Scythian origin for the Rajputs. He suggests that Scythian (Saka, Huna) tribes which invaded India in the 6th century AD and disappeared into the population soon afterwards were the forbears of present-day Rajputs. Many modern historians tend to agree with this assessment, which according to some scholars, finds evidence in anthropological research.

Political history

Rajput history, being a part of broader north Indian history, can be classified easily into several distinct periods.

Early history

The Rai Dynasty, who ruled Sindh in the 6th and 7th centuries and were displaced by an Arab army led by Bin Qasim, are sometimes held to have been Rajputs. According to some sources, Bin Qasim, an Arab who invaded Sindh in the 8th century, also attacked Chittorgarh, and was defeated by Bappa Rawal. Certain other invasions by murauding "Yavvanas" are also recorded in this era. By this time, the appelation "Yavvana" (literally: "Ionian/Greek") was used in connection to any tribe that emerged from the west and north-west of present-day Pakistan. These invasions may therefore have been a continuation of the usual invasions into India by warlike but less civilized tribes from the north-west, and not a reference to the Greeks or Indo-Greeks. Lalitaditya of Kashmir defeated one such Yavvana invasion in the 8th century and the Pratiharas rebuffed another in the 9th century.

The Rajput period (7th-11th centuries AD)

The first Rajput kingdoms are attested to in the 7th century and it was in the 9th and 10th centuries that the Rajputs rose to prominence in Indian history. The four Agnivanshi clans, namely, the Pratiharas (Pariharas), Solankis (Chaulukyas), Paramaras (Parmars) and Chauhans (Chahamanas), rose to prominence first.

Major kingdoms

The Pratiharas established their rule over Malwa and ruled from Ujjaini in the 8th century. One branch of the clan established a state in nearby Marwar, where they held sway until they were supplanted by the Rathores in the 14th century. Around 816 AD, the Pratiharas of Ujjaini conquered Kannauj, from which city they ruled much of northern India for a century. They went into decline after Rashtrakuta invasions in the early 10th century. The Kachwahas, Chandelas and Tomaras all originate as vassals of the Pratihara kingdom.

The Solankis were descended from the Chalukyas who ruled much of peninsular India between the 6th and 12th centuries. In the 10th century, a local branch of the clan established control over Gujarat and ruled a state centered around the town of Patan. They went into decline in the 13th century and were displaced by the Vaghela and Jadeja clans.

The Paramaras were near neighbours of the Solankis. They originated as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas and rose to power in the 10th century. They ruled Malwa and the area at the border between present-day Gujarat and Rajasthan. Bhoja, celebrated king of Malwa, belonged to this dynasty. In the 12th century, the Paramaras declined in power due to conflict with the Solankis and succumbed to attack from the Delhi sultanate in 1305.

The Chauhans originated as feudatories of the Pratiharas and rose to power in the wake of the decline of that power. Their state was initially centered around Sambhar in present-day Rajasthan. In the 11th century, they founded the city of Ajmer which became their capital. In the 12th century, they captured Delhi from the Tomaras. Their most famous ruler was Prithviraj Chauhan, who won the First Battle of Tarain against an invading muslim army but lost the second battle of Tarain the following year. This loss heralded a prolonged period of muslim rule over northern India.

Other early states: The Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi Rajputs later established independent states. The Guhilots (later known as the Sisodias) established the state of Mewar in the 8th century. This state was founded by Bappa Rawal, who ruled from Chittorgarh. The Tomara clan established a state in present-day Haryana. They are credited with having founded (c.736) the city of Dhiliki, later known as Delhi. The Chandela clan ruled Bundelkhand after the 10th century, occupying the fortress of Kalinjar; they later built the famous temples at Khajuraho.

Legacy

The organization of Rajput clan finally crystallized in this period. Intermarriage among the Rajput clans interlinked the various regions of India, facilitating the flow of trade and scholarship. Archaeological evidence and contemporary texts suggest that Indian society achieved significant prosperity during this era.

The literature composed in this period, both in Sanskrit and in the Apabhramshas, constitutes a substantial segment of classical Indian literature. The early 11th century saw the reign of the polymath king Bhoja, Paramara ruler of Malwa. He was not only a patron of literature and the arts but was himself a distinguished writer. His Samarangana-sutradhara deals with architecture and his Raja-Martanda is a famous commentary on the Yoga-sutras. Many major monuments of northern and central India, including those at Khajuraho, date from this period.

Islamic invasions (c.11th-16th centuries)

The fertile and prosperous plains of northern India had always been the destination of choice for streams of invaders coming from the north-west. The last of these waves of invasions were of tribes who had previously converted to Islam. Due to geographic reasons, Rajput-ruled states suffered the brunt of aggression from various Mongol-Turkic-Afghan warlords who repeatedly invaded the subcontinent. In his New History of India, Stanley Wolpert wrote "The Rajputs were the vanguard of Hindu India in the face of the Islamic onslaught."

Within 15 years of the death of the Muhammad, the caliph Usman sent a sea expedition to raid Thana and Broach on the Bombay coast. Other unsuccessful raiding expeditions to Sindh took place in 662 and 664 AD. Indeed, within a hundred years after Muhammad's death, Muslim armies had overrun much of Asia as far as the Hindu Kush. However, it was not until c.1000 AD that they could establish any foothold in India.

In the early 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the Hindu Shahi kingdom in the Punjab. His raids into northern India weakened the Pratihara kingdom, which was drastically reduced in size and came under the control of the Chandelas. In 1018 AD, Mahmud sacked the city of Kannauj, seat of the Pratihara kingdom, but withdrew immediately to Ghazni, being interested in booty rather than empire. In the ensuing chaos, the Gahadvala dynasty established a modest state centered around Kannauj, ruling for about a hundred years. They were defeated by Muhammad of Ghor in 1194 AD, when the city was sacked by the latter.

Meanwhile, a nearby state centered around present-day Delhi was ruled successively by the Tomara and Chauhan clans. Prithiviraj III, ruler of Delhi, defeated Muhammad of Ghor at the First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD). Muhammad returned the following year and defeated Prithviraj at the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD). In this battle, as in many others of this era, rampant internecine conflict among Rajput kingdoms facilitated the victory of the invaders.

Later Rajput states

Prithviraj Chauhan proved to be the last Rajput ruler of Delhi. The Chauhans, led by Govinda, grandson of Prithviraj, later established a small state centered around Ranthambore in present-day Rajasthan. The Songara sept of the Chauhan clan later ruled Jalore, while and Hada sept of the same clan established their rule over the Hadoti region in the mid-13th century. The Tomaras later established themselves at Gwalior, and the ruler Man Singh built the fortress which still stands there. As we have seen, Muhammad's armies brought down the Gahadvala kingdom of Kannauj in 1194 AD. Some surviving members of the Gahadvala dynasty are said to have refugeed to the western desert, formed the Rathore clan, and later founded the state of Marwar. The Kachwaha clan came to rule Dhundhar (later Jaipur) with their capital at Amber.

Other relocations surmised to have occurred in this period include the emigration of Rajput clans to the Himalayas. The Katoch clan, the Chauhans of Chamba and certain Rajput clans of Nepal are counted among this number.

Conflict with the Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was founded by Qutb ud din Aybak, Muhammad of Ghor's successor, in the early 13th century. Sultan Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316) conquered Gujarat (1297), Malwa (1305), Ranthambore (1301), Chittorgarh (1303) and Jalore (1311), all after long sieges and fierce resistance from their Rajput defenders.

First Jauhar: In particular, the siege of Chittor (1303), its brave defence by the Guhilas, the saga of Rani Padmini and the Jauhar she led are the stuff of immortal legend. This incident has had a defining impact upon the Rajput character and is detailed in a succeeding section.

Ala-ud-din Khilji delegated the administration of the newly conquered areas to his principal Rajput collaborator, Maldeo Songara, ruler of Jalore; the latter was soon displaced by his son-in-law Hammir, a scion of the lately displaced Guhila clan, who re-established the state of Mewar c.1326 AD. Mewar was to emerge as a leading Rajput state, after Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.

Mughal era (16th-18th c.)

The Delhi sultanate was extinguished when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Rana Sanga, ruler of Mewar, rallied an army to challenge Babur. He was betrayed by one of his Rajput generals, and was defeated by Babur at the Battle of Khanua on March 16, 1527. However, it was not until the reign of Akbar that the structure of relations between the Mughal imperium and the Rajput states took definitive shape.

Second Jauhar: Rana Sanga died soon after the battle of Khanua; shortly afterwards, Mewar came under the regency of his widow, Rani Karmavati. The kingdom was menaced by Bahadur Shah, ruler of Gujarat. According to one romantic legend of dubious veracity, Karmavati importuned the assistance of Humayun, son of her late husband's foe. The help arrived, but too late; Chittor as reduced by Bahadur Shah. This is the occasion for the second of the three Jauhars performed at Chittor. Karmavati led the ladies of the citadel into death by fire, while the menfolk sallied out to meet the besieging Muslim army in a hopeless fight to the death.

Mughal-Rajput alliance

Babur's son Humayun was an ineffectual ruler who perforce spend long periods in exile. His son was made of a different mettle; Akbar consolidated his inheritence and expanded what had been the "Delhi sultanate" into a wide empire. A main factor in this success was indubitably his co-option of native Rajput chiefs into his empire-building project; his reign countenanced, for the first time, the involvement of Hindus in the affairs of the empire. The Rajput chiefs collaborated with alacrity, an alliance cemented by marriage, with numerous Rajput noblewomen being wed to mughal grandees. The Kachwahas were the first to give a daughter to Akbar; they pioneered a trend that soon turned pervasive and played no small role in extending Rajput influence across the Indian sub-continent, from Bengal to Afghanistan to the Deccan. Indeed, two successive mughal emperors, Jehangir and Shah Jehan, were born to Rajput mothers.

Rajput chiefs served as mughal officers and administrators across the mughal empire and enjoyed much influence in the government. In this period, the aristocratic image of the Rajputs can be said to have finally crystallized; consequently, caste-divisions became rigid. The trend of political relations between Rajput states and the central power was the precursor for similar relations between them and the British.

Rana Pratap

Third Jauhar: However, these relations were not universally approbated. Mewar, which justly enjoys a unique position in the Rajput mind, held out and valiantly gave battle to Akbar. After a brave struggle, Mewar's chief citadel of Chittor finally fell to Akbar in 1568. The third (and last) Jauhar of Chittor transpired on this occasion. When the fall of the citadel became imminent, the ladies of the fort committed collective self-immolation and the men sallied out of the fort to meet the invading muslim army in a hopeless fight to an honourable death.

Prior to this event, Mewar's ruler, Udai Singh, had retired to the nearby hills; he was succeeded while in exile by his son Rana Pratap as head of the Sisodia clan. Even in exile, the Sisodias did not rest; they harassed the mughal administrators of the land enough to cause them to make accommodatory overtures. Rana Pratap, a present-day Rajput icon, rebuffed every such overtures of friendship from Akbar, and rallied an army to meet the mughal forces. He was defeated at the battle of Haldighati on June 21, 1576 and was forced to withdraw to the Aravalli ranges. However, he carried out a relentless guerilla struggle from his hideout in those hills, and never gave in to the mughal power. After Pratap's death, his son Amar Singh continued the struggle for some time, but finally entered into alliance with the mughals. He thus regained control of his state as a vassal of the mughals.

The Sisodias rulers of Mewar were famously the last Rajput dynasty to enter into alliance with the Mughals. The Rajput states thereafter remained loyal to the mughal empire for over two centuries, until it was supplanted by the British Raj. Indeed, even as late as in the early 19th century, Rajput courts rarely failed to formally affirm their loyalty to the (by now entirely powerless) mughal emperor in all their official communiques and documents.

Maratha and British suzerainty (18th-20th c.)

The Marathas of the Deccan rose to power in the 18th century. They conquered the major portion of India during this period, including the Rajput states of central and western India. Jodhpur was conquered by Sindhia, who annexed the fort and town of Ajmer and levied a tribute of 60,000 rupees. James Tod, whose personal observation pertains to this period, records that internecine disputes, succession wars and the relentless exaction of levies by the Marathas left the Rajput states immiserated, and that the Rajput states repeatedly petitioned the British administration for protection. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818), 18 states in the Rajputana region, of which 15 were ruled by Rajputs, entered into "subsidiary alliance" with the HEIC and became princely states under the British Raj. The British took direct control of Ajmer, which became the province of Ajmer-Merwara. A vast number of other Rajput states in central and western India made a similar transition. Most od them were placed under the authority of the Central India Agency and the various states' agencies of Kathiawar.

The British colonial officials in general were very impressed by the military qualities of the Rajputs. In his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan James Tod writes:

"What nation on earth could have maintained the semblance of civilization, the spirit or the customs of their forefathers, during so many centuries of overwhelming depression, but one of such singular character as the Rajpoot? . . . Rajast’han exhibits the sole example in the history of mankind, of a people withstanding every outrage barbarity could inflict, or human nature sustain, from a foe whose religion commands annihilation; and bent to the earth, yet rising buoyant from the pressure, and making calamity a whetstone to courage. . . . Not an iota of their religion or customs have they lost. . . ".

When India gained its independence in 1947, the Rajput states acceded unto the dominion of India. They were all merged into the union of India before 1950.

Culture and ethos

The Rajput ethos is martial in spirit, fiercely proud and independent, and emphasizes lineage and tradition. Rajput patriotism is legendary, an ideal they embodied with a sometimes fanatical zeal, often choosing death before dishonour. Rajput warriors were often known to fight until the last man.

All recorded instances of jauhar have featured Rajput defenders of a fort, resisting the invasion of a muslim force. On several occasions when defeat in such an engagement became certain, the Rajput defenders of the fort scripted a final act of heroism that rendered the incident an immortal inspiration and afforded the invaders only an exceedingly hollow, inglorious victory. In such incidents, the ladies of the fort would commit collective self-immolation. Wearing their wedding dresses, and holding their young children by the hand, the ladies would commit their chastity to the flames of a massive, collective pyre, thereby escaping molestation and dishonour at the hands of the invading army. As the memorial of their herioc act, the ladies would leave only the imprint of the palm of their right hands on wet clay, which have become objects of veneration. This immolation would occur during the night, to the accompaniment of Vedic chants. Early the next morning, after taking a bath, the men would wear saffron-coloured garments, apply the ash from the pyres of their wives and children on their foreheads and put a tulsi leaf in their mouth. Then the gates would be opened and men would ride out for one final, heroic, hopeless battle, dying gloriously on the field of honour. The historic fort of Chittor, seat of the Sisodia kingdom of Mewar, was the site of the three most famous Jauhars recorded in history.

The Rajput lifestyle was designed to foster a martial spirit. Tod (1829) describes at length the bond between the Rajputs and their swords. The double-edged scimitar known as the khanda was a popular weapon among the Rajputs of that era. On special occasions, a primary chief would break up a meeting of his vassal chiefs with khanda nariyal, the distribution of daggars and coconuts (page-453). The Karga Shapna ritual, performed during the annual Navaratri festival, was another affirmation of the Rajput's reverence for his sword.

By the late 19th century, there was a shift from an emphasis on questions regarding the political relations amongst the Rajputs to a concern with kinship (Kasturi 2002:2). According to Harlan (1992:27), many Rajputs of Rajasthan are nostalgic about their past and keenly conscious of their genealogy, emphasizing a Rajput ethos that is martial in spirit, with a fierce pride in lineage and tradition. These are indeed the timeless values of the Rajput community, as the Encyclopedia Britannica (1911 edition) affirms in its resume of the contemporary social values of the community:

The tradition of common ancestry permits a poor Rajput yeoman to consider himself as well born as any powerful landholder of his clan, and superior to any high official of the professional classes. No race in India can boast of finer feats of arms or brighter deeds of chivalry, and they form one of the main recruiting fields for the Indian army of the day. They consider any occupation other than that of arms or government derogatory to their dignity, and consequently during the long period of peace which has followed the establishment of the British rule in India, they have been content to stay idle at home instead of taking up any of the other professions in which they might have come to the front.

Cognate communities

The mainstream Rajput community comprises of Hindus belonging to the Kshatriya caste and to a specific set of 36 clans. Several other communities identify themselves as being Rajput, typically claiming to be of partial Rajput descent. They are found both in the Hindu community and in other religious groups.

Cognate Hindu communities: Certain Hindu communities claim partial descent from the Rajput community while holding social identities that set them apart from the main communion. The Garasia Scheduled tribe of the Aravalli hills are among these. Many Rajputs perforce fled to the hills at various points in history, where they are said to have occasionally intermarried with the Bhils; the Garasia community claim to be descended from such intermarriage. Some sections of the Gaddi scheduled tribe of Himachal Pradesh ascribe to themselves a similar heritage, as do the Gadia Lohar community of nomadic blacksmiths. Certain specific sections of the Jain and Marwari communities also hold themselves to be of part-Rajput descent.

Sikh Rajputs: The census of 1931 recorded the existence of 50,000 people who claimed to be both Rajput and Sikh. Occasional instances of inter-marriage between them and Hindu Rajputs are recorded.

Muslim Rajputs: The census of 1931 recorded a population of 2.1 million Muslim Rajputs in British India, concentrated primarily in Panjab and the United Provinces with smaller numbers in other places. In Panjab, Sindh, and Kashmir, they made up the majority of those claiming to be Rajput. The great majority of Muslim Rajputs today live in Pakistan. Detailed information on the community is available at the Muslim Rajputs page.

The Muslim Rajputs trace their lineages back to Hindu Rajputs who converted to Islam. Kasturi (2002:2) affirms that one or more branches in a stratified clan lineage could indeed be Muslim. However, there is no inter-marriage or other clan relations between Muslim and Non-Muslim Rajputs; however, Muslim Rajputs may intermarry with Muslims of other communities. Nevertheless, Muslim Rajputs usually marry amongst themselves, and only seldom depart from the custom of endogamy. The Thukrai community of East Champaran district in Bihar, India are among those noted for maintaining a strict tradition of Muslim Rajput endogamy. Prominent Muslim Rajput personalities include General Asif Nawaz Khan Janjua, former Chief of Staff, Pakistan; General Iftikhar Janjua, Pakistani military commander; Amir Khan, British Olympic silver medalist for boxing and Rana Sehar Ali-Noor.

Famous Rajput people

The Rajputs have contributed to many facets of Indian life, both historically and in the modern age. A few prominent Rajputs are mentioned below:

Historical heroes

• Bappa Rawal
• Prithviraj Chauhan
• Rani Padmini
• Rana Sanga
• Rana Pratap
• Mirabai

Modern age

• Vishwanath Pratap Singh, Prime Minister of India (Dec.2, 1989-Nov.10, 1990)
• Chandra Shekhar, Prime Minister of India (Nov.10, 1990-June 21, 1991)
• Jaswant Singh, sometime leader of opposition, Rajya Sabha
• Bhairon Singh Shekhawat, Vice-president of India.
• Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore, olympic silver medalist

See also

• Muslim Rajputs
• Rajput painting

External links

• Rajputs Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition; 2005
• Rajput Encyclopedia Britannica; 1911
• British Association of Rajputs

Notes

1. Rajputs: A Scythian people?
2. Review of the book "Marginal Muslim Communities In India", edited by M.K.A.Siddiqui (2004)

References

• Template:Harvard reference .
• Kasturi, Malavika, Embattled Identities Rajput Lineages, Oxford University Press (2002) ISBN 01956-5787-x
• M K A Siddiqui (ed.), Marginal Muslim Communities In India, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004)
• Template:Harvard reference.
• W.W. Hunter, The Indian empire, its people, history and products. First published: London, Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill, 1886. ISBN 81-206-1581-6.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

• Rajputs
• Military history of India
• Demographic history of India