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Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom located in southern Manchuria and the northern Korean peninsula. It is considered one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla. Both North and South Korea consider Goguryeo as an important ancestral kingdom and helped forge Korean history, culture and ethnic identity. Many Chinese scholars consider Goguryeo an important regional power which had maintained century-long tributary relationship to China and was heavily influenced by Chinese culture, thus should also be considered as part of Chinese history. However, most international scholars agree that Goguryeo was the most powerful kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . It was an active participant in the power struggle between the Three Kingdoms of Korea as well as the foreign affairs of associated polities in China and Japan.
The Samguk Sagi, a 12th century AD Goryeo text, indicate that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, although there is archaeological evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century BCE around the fall of Gojoseon . Other small states in the former Gojoseon territory included Buyeo, Okjeo and Dongye, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. It was a major regional power of East Asia until it was defeated by a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 CE. After its defeat, it was later divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla and Balhae; some of the territory might have also been taken by the Khitan, still in tribal form at this point.
The modern English name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo Dynasty (935-1392), which itself took one of the various names by which Goguryeo had used in diplomatic language with its neighbours. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo (高麗) in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.
History
Founding
According to the Samguk Sagi, a 12th century Korean history, Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong) founded the state in 37 BCE in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. However, Kim Busik, the chief compiler of the Samguk Sagi and a direct descendant of Silla nobility, is widely thought to have been justifying Silla's unification of the Three Kingdoms by retroactively claiming Goguryeo was founded later than Silla.
Many modern scholars believe Goguryeo was actually founded in the 2nd century BCE. In the Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 BCE, a local confederacy which may have included Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley.
The Goguryeo people originated from Buyeo (Fuyu) and integrated with existing chiefdoms. In the aftermath of the disintegration of Gojoseon and Buyeo, various small tribes coalesced into five chiefdoms along the banks of the Yalu River, and these five were eventually led by the king of Goguryeo.
Jumong (Dongmyeongseong)
Goguryeo was founded by Jumong, who migrated south from Buyeo. Jumong is a Korean name transcribed in hanja as 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). Although his family name is recorded as Go (meaning "high" in Hanja), this is thought to be a posthumous change from the original family name of Hae, the royal surname of Buyeo.
Jumong is said to be descended from Hae Mosu, the son of the Sun-god (hae in modern Korean means sun). According to legend, Jumong left Dongbuyeo ("Eastern Buyeo") for Jolbon Buyeo, where he married the daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a group of his followers from his native country.
Goguryeo maintained a close early relationship with Dongbuyeo until it was absorbed into Goguryeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BCE, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BCE, and North Okjeo in 28 BCE.
Centralisation
Goguryeo developed into an ancient state in the first century and expanded its power in the region. In the time of Taejo of Goguryeo in 53, five local tribes were reorganised into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Taejo successfully expanded Goguryeo by attacking Han China's commanderies of Lelang, Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies.
Continuing its expansion to the northwest, Goguryeo began large-scale, organized attacks against China, as well as conquering neighboring polities such as Okjeo and Dongye. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.
Further expansion
As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, and from that time the Three Kingdoms dominated the Korean Peninsula.
The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Chinese Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, (Some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, Gao Yun, briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state Northern Yan from 407 to 409.) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin), and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle.
Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of Manchuria and eastern inner Mongolia, as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.
Gwanggaeto the Great
The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of Goguryeo's Gwanggaeto Taewang (whose name literally means “great expander of territory”) and his son Jangsu Taewang.
Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. His accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 in southern part of Manchuria.
Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's Primorsky Krai.
During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of the Manchuria and the Russian maritime province. Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of Heaven. The title of the ruler, Taewang, while literally translated as the Greatest of the Kings, is often translated to mean Emperor.
In the late 5th century, it absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.
Internal strife
Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as feudal lords with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.
Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and manoeuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance.
Goguryeo-China wars
Main article: Goguryeo-China wars | The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Throughout its history, Goguryeo had been aggressive in northeastern China and constantly invaded Chinese settlements. The presence of Goguryeo often caused the Chinese court to apply major military actions towards Goguryeo. Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties and was also at odds with Silla and Baekje, although Goguryeo considered Baekje as an ally several times. Most of the Sui invasions ended as failures for China, and considerably weakened the Sui Dynasty. The Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states. Xueyantuo, a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when Goguryeo was attacked by a Silla-Tang alliance near the end of Goguryeo's rule.
Goguryeo-Sui Wars
Main article: Goguryeo-Sui WarsThe Sui Dynasty was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful. The 612 campaign was terminated after tremendous losses -- reported to be at a greater than 99% casualty rate. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch -- the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered peace and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), an associate of Yang Xuangan, who had fled to Goguryeo, for Emperor Yang to be able to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state at that time was never able to launch it.
One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General Eulji Mundeok, led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui, attacked three more times, all of which were repulsed by Goguryeo.
The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.
Goguryeo-Silla, Tang war
After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the new dynasty that took its place, the Tang, attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Tang Taizong, the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points.
The Tang also forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.
In 645, Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansi Fortress. the central figure of a repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun. In the end, Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army was again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo.
After numerous attacks, the Tang and Silla forces attacked Goguryeo on two fronts, totally exhausting Goguryeo's ability to fight. This subsequently brought the end of Goguryeo's rule.
Fall
Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 661; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons.
Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Goguryeo's last king Bojang was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces.
Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River.
In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually banished to Szechuan in 681, and died the following year.
Revival movements
After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several others. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.
The revival movements were suppressed until the rise of Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Dae Joyeong reconquered most of Goguryeo's northern land, establishing the kingdom of Balhae in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, while northern Korea and Manchuria were conquered by Balhae. Balhae stood as a successor state to Goguryeo. Not much is known about Balhae, although it is known that Balhae was conquered in 926 by the Liao Dynasty, after which many Goguryeo descent people migrated down to Goryeo. The time of Balhae and Unified Silla is called the North-South State period of Korea.
In the early 10th century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula.
Military
The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggetto. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left.
The Goguryeo military was powerful and it grew in strength as Goguryeo began to conquer Manchuria. The Goguryeo cavalry was probably its largest asset. The common foot infantry wore padded armor and a helmet as well, highly unlike the common foot soldier of the later Chosun Dynasty, who had almost no armor.
Captains and higher ranking soldiers wore armor made of lamellar iron armor or scale mail. A helmet was adorned with fancy designs and often had horns to intimidate the enemy. Usually, the armor was fancy and strong as the rank of the soldier.
Weapons used were swords, spears, and axes. Archery was the preferred ranged weapon and there are no records of the usage of slings or crossbows.
Culture
The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.
Lifestyle
Goguryeo clothing was usually thick to help keep the wearer warm from the cold climate of Goguryeo. Men wore loose fitting jackets and trousers while women wore skirts and dresses. Higher class Goguryeo people often had beautiful clothing and adorned jewelry. Unlike common people during the Chosun Dynasty later, Goguryeo people wore colorful clothing.
The diet of the Goguryeo people included rice and barley. Beans were supplementary. Rice was cooked by boiling, similar to how it is cooked in Korea. Bulgogi's predeccessor, the maegjeok, was seasoned meat, and a common dish while eating.
Festivals and pastimes
Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.
Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceromonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.
Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.
Religion
Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.
Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Korean phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the three-legged bird was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.
Buddhism was first introduced to Korea in 372. The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monastaries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.
Cultural impact
Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces were influenced by Chinese designs.
Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, Ondol, Goguryeo's unique floor heating system, and Hanbok, traditional clothes of Korea. A modernized version of Ondol can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea, and Koreans wear Hanbok on traditional holidays and other special occasions.
Food such as bulgogi have left a unique culture in Korea. Bulgogi is seasoned meat.
Legacy
Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an in Manchuria along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.
World Heritage Site
UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.
Language
- Main article: Goguryeo language.
The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon. The government of Goguryeo used Chinese characters (Hanzi/Hanja) for its official documents. However, no credible theory proposing that Goguryeo's language to be a Sino-Tibetan language has been made; rather, all sides agree that Chinese was only used as an official written script, not as the daily spoken language.
Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.
The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese. Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe).
Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.
See also: Korean language
Modern politics
Main article: Goguryeo controversiesGoguryeo has been conventionally viewed as a Korean state, more specifically as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. . Mark Byington, a postdoctorate from Harvard University has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy," historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined greater Chinese nation of the remote past," and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" Byington concedes though that Chinese scholars perceive the Korean nationalist sentiments of some Koreans in both the North and South as threatening. The Korean attachment to, and historical pride in, the former lands of Goguryeo and Barhae (Bohai) suggests to these Chinese a nationalistic or even irredentist sentiment that demands territorial restoration of Manchuria. In fact, some Korean ultra-nationalists in both the Korean liberal and conservative camps make claims for the “restoration of the lost former territories.”
China views Goguryeo as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean. Chinese historian Sun Jinji in 1986 suggested that Goguryeo is separate from the history of the Three Kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula. He argued that “the people of Buyeo and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the Silla lineage.” This view has since been supported by many other prominent Chinese historians. However, Chinese scholars are not all of one voice on this issue. There are also many Chinese historians who acknowledge Goguryeo history as being shared by both Korea and China within “a framework of the dual elements of a single history” (一史两用论, yishi liangyong lun). More recently, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) generated new controversy through its Northeast Project study of China's three Northeast provinces. The Chinese argument for Goguryeo’s historical heritage in the Northeast Project is based on two main points: the first is that the Goguryeo state grew out of the Han Chinese commandary of Xuantu; and also the Chinese consider Goguryeo and Barhae to be founded by the Mohe (Malgal) peoples, a purported ancestor of modern day Manchurians, who ruled China's last dynasty. Furthermore, the study found that some remains of the tombs from the ancient period in Ji’an are not Goguryeo’s but are those of the Han or Xianbei (Sonbi) ethnicities. The conclusions of the CASS study have created tensions in China-South Korea relations.
Notes
- ^ "Koguryo" (HTML). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-12. Cite error: The named reference "eb2007" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- Lee, Ki-baik (1984). A new history of Korea, tr. by Wagner & Shultz. Seoul: Ilchogak. p. 19. ISBN 89-337-0204-0.
- "History" (HTML). Goguryeo. Proud History of Korea. Mygoguryeo.com. 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
- http://www.mygoguryeo.net/culture.htm
- http://www.mygoguryeo.net/culture01.htm
- Brown, Ju (2006). China, Japan, Korea Culture and Customs. BookSurge Publishing. p. 81. ISBN 1419648934.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Beckwith, Christopher I. (August 2003). "Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean" (PDF). 13th Japanese/Korean Linguistics Conference. Michigan State University. Retrieved 2006-03-12.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help) - "Koguryo" (HTML). Encarta. MSN. 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
- "Korea" (HTML). Columbia Encyclopedia. Bartleby.com. 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
- "Korea, South" (HTML). CIA World Factbook. CIA. 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-27.
- Byington, Mark (2004-01-01). "Koguryo part of China?". Koreanstudies mailing list. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); External link in|work= - http://hcs.harvard.edu/~yisei/backissues/fall_98/mark_byington.html
- Kim, Hui-kyo 2004, “Chunggukuitongbuk kongjonkwa hanguk minjokjuuiui chilro ( China’s Northeast Project and the Course of Korean Nationalism)”, Yoksa pip’yong (History Critics) 2004, Spring, Seoul:Yoksa bip’yongsa.
- Sun, Jinji 1986, Dongbei minzu yuanliu (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Harbin: Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe.
- Sun, Jinji 2004-a, “Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26-27, 2004
- Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi (History Department of People’s Education Press), Zhongguo lishi (Chinese History) II, Beijing: Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe (People’s Education Press), 2004, p.16.
- Sun, Jinji and Sun Hong 2004, “Gongyuan 3-7 shiji Ji’an yu Pingrang diqu bihua mu de zushu yu fenqi, mingming (The Racial Affiliation and Periodisation of Graves With Murals in the Ji’an and Pingrang Area From 3-7 Century A.D.)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26-27, 2004
References
- Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed. ISBN 89-445-9101-6.
- Koguryo (Encyclopedia Britannica; paid registration required to view full article)
- Korea - The Three Kingdoms Period (U.S. Library of Congress)
- Korea, 1-500 A.D. Metropolitan Museum
- Yonson Ahn: The Korea-China Textbook War What's It All About? (History News Network)
- Austin Ramzy: Rewriting History China and the Koreas feud over the ancient kingdom of Koguryo (Time Asia, August 16th, 2004)
- Bruce Klingner: China shock for South Korea (Asia Times, September 11th, 2004)
- Lost kingdom, modern spat Antiquities spark Korea-China row of historical proportions (JoongAng Daily, April 7th, 2006)
See also
External links
Informational
- Template:En icon Encyclopaedia Britannica
- Template:En icon Encarta
- Template:En icon Columbia Encyclopedia
- Template:Ko icon Information about the ancient kingdom
- Template:En icon Goguryeo of Korea
Articles
- Template:En icon English Content and Conclusion of "History of Koguryo"(Korean) By Hyoung-Sik Shin, Ewha Womans University Press, Seoul, Korea 2003
- Template:En icon "The Forgotten Glory of Koguryo" by Lee Wha Rang