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The infinite monkey theorem and its associated imagery is considered a popular, proverbial and axiomatic illustration of the mathematics of probability, widely known to the general public because of its transmission through popular culture rather than because of its transmission via the classroom.

The enduring, widespread and popular nature of the knowledge of the theorem was noted in a 2001 paper, "Monkeys, Typewriters and Networks - the Internet in the Light of the Theory of Accidental Excellence". In their introduction to that paper, Hoffmann and Hofmann stated: "The Internet is home to a vast assortment of quotations and experimental designs concerning monkeys and typewriters. They all expand on the theory that if an infinite number of monkeys were left to bang on an infinite number of typewriters, sooner or later they would accidentally reproduce the complete works of William Shakespeare (or even just one of his sonnets)" In 2002, a Washington Post article said: "Plenty of people have had fun with the famous notion that an infinite number of monkeys with an infinite number of typewriters and an infinite amount of time could eventually write the works of Shakespeare." In 2003, an Arts Council funded experiment involving real monkeys and a computer keyboard received widespread press coverage. In 2007, the theorem was listed by Wired magazine in a list of eight classic thought experiments.

The history of the image of 'typing monkeys' dates back at least as far as Borel's use of the metaphor in his essay in 1913, and this imagery has recurred many times since in a variety of media. Today, popular interest in the typing monkeys is sustained by numerous appearances in literature, television and radio, music, and the Internet, as well as graphic novels and stand-up comedy routines. The following thematic timelines are not comprehensive - instead, they document notable examples of references to the theorem appearing in various media. The initial timeline starts with some of the early history following Borel, and the later timelines record examples of the history from the stories by Maloney and Borges in the 1940s, up to the present day.

Early history

• 1913 - Émile Borel's essay - "Mécanique Statistique et Irréversibilité"
• 1928 - Arthur Eddington's book - The Nature of the Physical World
• 1931 - James Jean's book - The Mysterious Universe
• 1939 - Jorge Luis Borges's essay - "The Total Library"

Literature

• 1940 - In "Inflexible Logic" by Russell Maloney, a short story that appeared in The New Yorker in 1940, the protagonist felt that his wealth put him under an obligation to support the sciences, and so he tested the theory. His monkeys immediately set to work typing, without error, classics of fiction and nonfiction. The rich man was amused to see unexpurgated versions of Samuel Pepys's diaries, of which he owned only a copy of a bowdlerised edition.
• 1941 - Jorge Luis Borges' "The Library of Babel" (1941) depicts a library which contains books consisting of every single possible permutation of characters. The narrator notes that every great work of literature is contained in the library; but these are outnumbered by the flawed works (which are themselves vastly outnumbered by works of pure gibberish). No monkeys are involved, though the monkey analogy is mentioned by Borges in his earlier 1939 essay 'The Total Library', and a scene from the story does involve constructing books at random:

  "...all men should juggle letters and symbols until they constructed, by an improbable gift of chance, these canonical books".

• 1966 - Tom Stoppard's play Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead deals with themes of existentialism and probability, including a coin-flipping scene. During this scene, one of Guildenstern's lines refers to monkeys and includes a stage direction that the character stops in surprise:

  "The law of probability, it has been oddly asserted, is something to do with the proposition that if six monkeys... (he has surprised himself) ...if six monkeys were...".

  Guildenstern later goes on to talk about flipping monkeys, rather than coins, but the reference to monkeys, the overarching theme of Shakespeare, and the surprised pause in conjunction with the play's theme of the characters being on the verge of self-awareness, has led some commentators, including academics, theatre critics, and philosophy teachers, to interpret this as an indirect reference to the infinite monkey theorem.
• 1970 - A humorous short story by R. A. Lafferty, "Been a Long, Long Time" (Fantastic, December 1970), tells the story of an angel who is punished by having to supervise (for trillions of years) randomly-typing monkeys who are attempting to produce a perfect copy of the collected works of Shakespeare.
• 1979 - In The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio broadcast in 1978), Arthur, while under the effects of the Infinite Improbability Drive, discovers an infinite number of monkeys and tells Ford of their intentions:

  ""Ford!" he said, "there's an infinite number of monkeys outside who want to talk to us about this script for Hamlet they've worked out.""

• 1979 - Michael Ende's The Neverending Story included a chapter in which some persons play a game with some dice with alphabetic characters carved on the faces. Rules are not clear but supposedly the dice are thrown and the results of them are the words, which are then collected. Sometimes, a coherent word or sentence will be formed and eventually all the stories of the world will appear in this game.
• 1987 - In the one-act play Words, Words, Words by David Ives, three monkeys named Milton, Swift, and Kafka have been confined to a cage by a Dr Rosenbaum, who has the hypothesis:

  "Three monkeys hitting keys at random on typewriters for an infinite amount of time will almost surely produce Hamlet ".

  The play's humour mainly involves literary references, including moments when the random typing produces passages from great works of literature. The play premiered in January 1987, and is still being performed over 20 years later.
• 1996 - In Jim Cowan's short story "The Spade of Reason" (published in Century 4, 1996), the main character seeks to find meaning in the universe through text randomly generated through various means; the original program he uses to do so is something he dubs the "Motorola Monkey".
• 2003 - In J.M. Coetzee's novel Elizabeth Costello (2003) Elizabeth Costello's son John thinks:

  "Sleep, he thinks, that knits up the ravelled sleeve of care. What an extraordinary way of putting it! Not all the monkeys in the world picking away at typewriters all their lives would come up with those words in that arrangement."

Television and radio

• 1993 - In The Simpsons episode "Last Exit to Springfield", Montgomery Burns has his own room with 1000 monkeys at typewriters, one of which he chastises for mistyping a word in the opening sentence of A Tale of Two Cities — "It was the best of times, it was the blurst of times? You stupid monkey!"
• 1999 - "A Troo Storee", an episode of I Am Weasel, features a large room filled with several types of monkeys with typewriters who are working on a novel. When Weasel tries to pay them in bananas, they consider it an insult and quit their job, all except for Baboon.
• 2000 - In the Family Guy episode "The King is Dead", Lois questions Peter's creativity, to which he replies:

  "Oh, art-schmart. Put enough monkeys in a room with a typewriter they'll produce Shakespeare."

  The scene then cuts to several monkeys in a room, arguing over which flower is most appropriate in the famous line from Romeo and Juliet.
• 2001 - In the sixth episode of the first season of The Ricky Gervais Show, comedian Ricky Gervais tries to explain this theorem to Karl Pilkington, who refuses to believe it possible. In attempting to explain the mathematics behind the theorem, Gervais eventually gives up and storms out of the room when, after a long explication by Gervais and Steve Merchant, Karl says, "If they haven't even read Shakespeare, how do they know what they're doin?"
• 2006 - In June of 2006, The Colbert Report featured a humorous segment on how many monkeys it would take for various works. This was in response to comments made in the news on monkeys typing out the Bible or the Qur'an. According to Colbert, one million monkeys typing for eternity would produce a Shakespeare, ten thousand (drinking) monkeys typing for ten thousand years would produce Hemingway, and ten monkeys typing for three days would produce a work of Dan Brown.
• 2007 - In an episode of the daytime soap opera The Young and the Restless (broadcast January and February 2007 in Canada and the USA), when Colleen Carlton copies scrambled letters obtained from the Grugeon Reliquary onto a dry board, Professor Adrian Korbel jokingly asks if she's testing the Infinite Monkey Theorem. When asked what this is, he replies:

  "Thomas Henry Huxley said if you gave keyboards to an infinite amount of monkeys, and gave said monkeys an infinite amount of time... Well it is safe to say…you are not the magic monkey."

Comics and graphic novels

• 1989 - In the comic strip Dilbert, Dogbert tells Dilbert that his poem would take "three monkeys, ten minutes".
• 1990 - The Animal Man comic by Grant Morrison (a revival of the Animal Man DC character) contained an issue (Monkey Puzzles) including a monkey who typed not only the works of Shakespeare, but comic books as well. The TPB this issue is collected in (Deus ex Machina - 2003) featured an "infinite" number of Grant Morrisons typing on the cover.

Internet culture

• 1996 - Robert Wilensky once jocularly remarked, "We've all heard that a million monkeys banging on a million typewriters will eventually reproduce the entire works of Shakespeare. Now, thanks to the Internet, we know this is not true." This version of the internet analogy "began appearing as a very frequent email and web-page epigraph starting in 1997".
• 2000 - The IETF Internet standards committee's April Fools' Day RFC proposed an "Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)", a method of directing a farm of infinitely many monkeys over the Internet.
• 2005 - Goats, a webcomic illustrated by Jonathan Rosenberg, started in August 2005 an ongoing story line named infinite typewriters where several characters accidentally teleport to an alternate dimension. There they find that this dimension is populated by monkeys with typewriters, presumably typing the scripts of many other dimensions.
• 2005 - Uncyclopedia has parodied the theorem at An infinite number of monkeys with typewriters (current version). This dynamic user-edited parody was first created in March 2005. The text first referred to monkeys in April 2005.
• 2006 - The Infinite Monkey Project was launched by predictive text company T9. The Europe-wide project sees users, unknown to each other, text a word of their choosing to the Website. The text message is free and as it continues the words are combined to form lyrics. The lyrics are then made into a song by the Hip Hop artist Sparo which will be released as an album. If any of the tracks becomes a hit the people who texted in the words for the lyrics will receive royalties from the project.

Stand-up comedy

• 1960 onwards - Comedian Bob Newhart had a stand-up routine in which a lab technician monitoring an "infinitely many monkeys" experiment discovered that one of the monkeys has typed something of interest. A typical punchline would be: "Hey, Harry! This one looks a little famous:'To be or not to be -- that is thegrrdnm zsplkt.'"

Music

• 1979 - The debut album by Leeds punk rock band the Mekons is called The Quality of Mercy is Not Strnen (1979). Originally released on Virgin Records in the United Kingdom, its cover features a photo, not of a monkey, but of a typing chimpanzee. The title refers to a Shakespeare quote from The Merchant of Venice: "The quality of mercy is not strain'd".
• 1989 - The band Negativland sampled Estus Pirkle on their album Helter Stupid (1989) saying, "If you get enough monkeys, enough typewriters, and enough bread, one of them will eventually come up with the King James Version of the Bible!!!" while to chants of "We don't have enough data. We just don't have enough data" said by a Japanese secretary.
• 2007 - Robot Goes Here, an electronic rock band on Infidel Records, recorded The Infinite Monkey Theorem (2007) featuring a chorus with the lyrics, "Got a pet monkey down in the basement, chained to a typewriter pounding away, churning out copies of the works of Shakespeare; halfway through Hamlet he wrote me this song."

References and notes

1. Examples of the theorem being referred to as proverbial include: Why Creativity Is Not like the Proverbial Typing Monkey Jonathan W. Schooler, Sonya Dougal, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1999); and The Case of the Midwife Toad (Arthur Koestler, New York, 1972, page 30): "Neo-Darwinism does indeed carry the nineteenth-century brand of materialism to its extreme limits--to the proverbial monkey at the typewriter, hitting by pure chance on the proper keys to produce a Shakespeare sonnet." The latter is sourced from Parable of the Monkeys, a collection of historical references to the theorem in various formats.
2. Monkeys, Typewriters and Networks, Ute Hoffmann & Jeanette Hofmann, Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung gGmbH (WZB), 2001.
3. "Hello? This is Bob", Ken Ringle, Washington Post, 28 October 2002, page C01.
4. Notes Towards the Complete Works of Shakespeare - some press clippings.
5. The Best Thought Experiments: Schrödinger's Cat, Borel's Monkeys, Greta Lorge, Wired Magazine: Issue 15.06, May 2007.
6. The examples included invariably refer directly to a variation on the theme of a large number of typing monkeys producing a work of literature, usually, but not always, a work by Shakespeare. Infinite libraries, and random text generation (instead of monkeys) are also included. Trivial or incomplete references are excluded.
7. Inflexible Logic, synopsis at the Mathematical Fiction database.
8. The story was reprinted in the classic four-volume The World of Mathematics by James R. Newman, published in 1956.
9. The Library of Babel, Jorge Luis Borges, 1941 (translated 1962).
10. Stoppard – Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead. R&Gnotes.htm ENGL 363: Study Questions and Notes. Lloyd Edward Kermode, Associate Professor, Department of English, California State University, Long Beach. "The characters often attempt to but can't complete common sayings, concepts, and clichés. The one that Guildenstern cannot complete on this page is that if six monkeys were placed in a room with six typewriters, eventually they would write the works of Shakespeare."
11. The Rest Is Violence, Trey Graham, Washington City Paper, 25 August 2006. This review of a revivial of the play refers to the theorem ("An infinite number of critics as with the monkeys-typing-Shakespeare theorem..."), but points out that the use of six monkeys refers to "the play’s debt to Pirandello's Six Characters in Search of an Author".
12. We act on scraps of information, John David Stone, Lecturer in Computer Science and Philosophy, Grinnell College. "The monkeys in this passage are carelessly taken from a thought-experiment: Six extremely long-lived monkeys, seated at extremely durable typewriters, are allowed to press the keys at random. It is asserted that sooner or later they would, by sheer chance, type out the complete text of Shakespeare's Hamlet."
13. Been a long, long time, synopsis by Fred Galvin, at the Mathematical Fiction database.
14. Douglas Adams. The Hitchhikers' Guide to the Galaxy, London: Pan, 1979.
15. The Stage: One-acts at Punchline, Mel Gussow, The New York Times, 15 January 1987.
16. It's All in the Laughing, All in the Timing will have you in stitches, review by Melissa Bearns for Eugene Weekly, 4 June 2006.
17. Last Exit To Springfield script, Simpson Crazy wesbite.
18. Woo-hoo! A look at the 10 best 'Simpsons' episodes ever, Press & Sun-Bulletin, 27 July 2007. "The genius of this joke is a child can laugh at it, but those who understand the allusion to Charles Dickens and the infinite monkey theorem can laugh on another level."
19. A Troo Storee, TV.com episode guide: "Weasel tries to test the "monkeys typing Shakespeare" theorem".
20. Family Guy official website - script of the "Monkeys Writing Shakespeare" scene.
21. XFM archives "Season 1 Vol. 6", "Do you know what he said to me? I explained it to him, I said 'You've got an infinite number of monkeys, an infinite number of typewriters, they will type the complete works of Shakespeare.' He said, 'Have they read Shakespeare?'"
22. Episode transcript, at tvmegasite.net
23. Grant Morrison's Animal Man #8-26, Jonathan Woodward, "Issue #25, July '90: "Monkey Puzzles" The text in the typewriter is Morrison's script for this issue. The monkey, of course, is the famous one who, given an infinite amount of time, will eventually write out the complete Shakespeare, completely at random."
24. Animal Man, Book 3 - Deus Ex Machina (Paperback), Amazon.com scan of the book cover.
25. S. Christey (1 April 2000). "RFC 2795: The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)". Retrieved 2006-06-13.
26. "The articulate monkeys". Computer Music. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
27. "Infinite Monkey Project wants your texts". Pocket-lint. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
28. "The Infinite Monkey Project". Crossfire. Retrieved 2006-11-09.
29. "Hello? This is Bob", Ken Ringle, Washington Post, 28 October 2002, page C01.
30. Flashback: Computer poetry from 1985, Al Fasoldt, The Syracuse Newspapers, 1985.
31. The date of 1960 is given in Monkeying Around with Text, Terry Butler, University of Alberta, Computing in the Humanities Working Papers, January 2007.
32. Mekons fansite - picture and commentary on the album and cover: "This unusual title was drawn from the axiom that, if you give a monkey a typewriter and an infinite amount of time, it would eventually produce the complete works of Shakespeare, a wry comment on the group's own musical ability. The rest of the Shakespeare quote appears on the Mekons Story". The last sentence refers to the later collection The Mekons Story, which included the song 'It Falleth Like Gentle Rain from Heaven'.

External links

• The Parable of the Monkeys, a bibliography with quotations

• In popular culture
• Mathematics and culture